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LA METTRIE , JULIEN OFFRAY DE
TITLE:
MAN A MACHINE . .
PLACE: CHICAGO DATE: 1912 Master Negative #
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t Philosophy L'hornr.c-rrachine. Eng.
|. D194L18
La Mettrie, Julien Oflfray de, 1709-1751. Man a inaclnnc, by .hilien OJrniy do La MclLrie. Frencli- Kn^riish. Including Fitideiick tlie Great's "Eulogy" on La ]!kIettrio and extracts from La Mettrie's "The natural history of the soul"; pliilosoi)hical and historical notes by Gertrude Carman Busscy ... Chicnfro, Tlie Open court pubhshinir co., 1912.
5 p. I.. i3|, 210 p.'incl. facslm. front, (port.) 22J cm.
"The KrcMicli frxt prosentod In tills vohiiuo Is tnkc?n from timt of a eiiltlon Lpyden of 1748 ... The title pn^e of this edltiim Is reproduced in the piestMit volunio."— Pref.
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Philosophy L'hoifune-machinG, Eng, L*horrime machine. Eng.t; D194L18 ' T La Mettrie, Jullen Offray de, 1709-1751. Man a machine ... r.a Vettrie, Jnlien Offray de, 1709-1751. tlan 1912. (Card 2) a manhin'^ ... 1912, (Card 3) The translation is founded on a version made by Miss Gertrude C. Bussey (from the French text In the edition of J. Assezat) and has been revised by Professor M. W. Calkins, who is responsible for it in D194L18 Cory in %rnard. 1943. its present form. cf. Pref. T "Works consulted and cited In the notes" : p. i205i-207.
1 Pliyslology—Early works to 1800. 2. Materialism. 3. Mind and boilp. I. Bussey, Gertrude Carman, ffeS- vl CalTcins, Mary Writon, 1SG3-1930, tr. in. Frledrlch ii, der GrosseTlclng of Prussia, 1712 1786. IV. Title. 13—4432 Liorary of Congress B20 c50nlj ^i ••••VPIBMHal Kestrictions on Use: TECHNICAL MICROFORM DATA FILM SIZE: ^l_6jiiToQi_ REDUCTION RATIO: H^ IMAGE PLACEMENT: lA, (^ IB IIB DATE FILMED: _liiXil3 INITIALS g_6_£ FILMED BY: RESEARCHTUBLlCATIONS. INC WOODBRIDGE. cf D ,%. Association for information and Image Management 1100 Wayne Avenue, Suite 1100 Silver Spring, Maryland 20910 301/587-8202 \ Centimeter 12 3 4 6 7 8 10 11 12 13 14 15 mm mi iiiilniiliiiilniiliiiiliiiilmilini lllillllMlllilllMllllilllMllllilllimilillliliiiiliiiiliiiiliiiil iiiiliiiiliiiiliiiiliiiiliiiiliiiiliiiiliiiiliiii LIU Ml TTT TTT I I I I I I TTT TTT 1 Inches Urn 2.8 2.5 1.0 2.2 2.0 I.I 1.8 1.25 1.4 1.6 MPNUFPCTURED TO fillM STflNDflRDS BY APPLIED IMAGE, INC. » \ HIMMSMMMMSM I THE LIBRARIES 1 it 1 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 Philosophy Library 1 1 1 1 1 i I ( 9 1 •/'. MAN A MACHINE 1 1 BY JULIEN OFFRAY DE LA METTRIE rRENCH-BNGLISH INCLUDING FREDERICK THE GREATS "EULOGY" ON LA METTRIE AND EX- TRACTS FROM LA METTRIE'S "THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SOUL" PHILOSOPHICAL AND HISTORICAL NOTES BT GERTRUDE CARMAN BUSSEY M. A., WBLLS8LBT COI.LBGB JULIEN OFFRAY DE LA METTRIE (1709-1751) CHICAGO THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO. 1912 ' f MAN A MACHINE BT ' t JULIEN OFFRAY DE LA METTRIE FRENCH-ENGLISH «* INCLUDING FREDERICK THE GREAT'S "EULOGY" ON LA METTRIE AND EX- "•^kW6- TRACTS FROM LA METTRIE'S '*THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SOUL" PHILOSOPHICAL AND HISTORICAL NOTES BY GERTRUDE CARMAN BUSSEY M. A., WSLLI8LBT COLLEGE JULIEN OFFRAY DE LA METTRIE (1709-1751) CHICAGO THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO. 1912 i \ .J v TABLE OF CONTENTS. \ PAGB Preface v Frederic the Great's Eulogy on Julien Offray De La Mettrie i UHomme Machine . . ii Man a Machine 83 The Natural History of the Soul : Extracts 151 COmUGRTBT 163 THE OPEN COURT PUBUSHING Ca Appendix La Mettrie's Relation to His Predecessors and to His Successors 165 Outline of La Mettrie's Metaphysical Doctrine . . .175 Notes 176 Works Consulted and Cited in the Notes .... 205 Index 209 J 1 -am \ / PREFACE. is taken from French text presented in this volume THE words, from that that of a Leyden edition of I748» in other the place of issue of an edition pubHshed in the year and in this edition is reproduced of the first edition. The title page of evidently the work of in the present volume. The original was language, and a Dutch compositor unschooled in the French grammatical blun- is full of imperfections, inconsistencies, and 1 I' obviously typo- ders. By the direction of the publishers these Arreat graphical blunders have been corrected by M. Lucien of Paris. founded The translation is the work of several hands. It is the on a version made by Miss Gertrude C. Bussey (from been revised French text in the edition of J. Assezat) and has by Professor M. W. Calkins who is responsible for it in its Col- present form. Mademoiselle M. Carret, of the Wellesley Santayana, of lege department of French, and Professor George Harvard University, have given valued assistance; and this in solving opportunity is taken to acknowledge their kindness submitted to the problems of interpretation which have been sometimes sub- them. It should be added that the translation effort ordinates the claims of English structure and style in the paragraphing of to render La Mettrie's meaning exactly. The the capitals the French is usually followed, but the italics and re- are not reproduced. The page-headings of the translation in- fer back to the pages of the French text; and a few words serted by the translators are enclosed in brackets. and The philosophical and historical Notes are condensed adapted from a master's thesis on La Mettrie presented by Miss Bussey to the faculty of Wellesley College. ) t tl 1 FREDERIC THE GREAT'S EULOGY ON JULIEN OFFRAY DE LA METTRIE. ' ^' * ; t-u FREDERIC THE GREAT'S EULOGY ON JULIEN OFFRAY DE LA METTRIE. JULIEN Offray de la Mettrie was born in Saint Malo, on the twenty-fifth of December, 1709, to Julien Offray de la Mettrie and Marie Gaudron, who were living by a trade large enough to provide a good education for their son. They sent him to the college of Coutance to study the humanities ; he went from there to Paris, to the college of Plessis he studied his rhetoric at Caen, and since he had much genius and imagination, he won all the prizes for eloquence. He was a born orator, and was pas- sionately fond of poetry and belles-lettres, but his father thought that he would earn more as an ec- clesiastic than as a poet, and destined him for the church. He sent him, the following year, to the college of Plessis where he studied logic under M. Cordier, who was more a Jansenist than a logician. It is characteristic of an ardent imagination to seize forcefully the objects presented to it, as it is characteristic of youth to be prejudiced in favor of the first opinions that are inculcated. Any other scholar would have adopted the opinions of his teacher but that was not enough for young La Mettrie; he became a Jansenist, and wrote a work which had great vogue in that party. / MAN A MACHINE. FREDERIC THE CREATES EULOGY. 5 progress In 1725, he studied natural philosophy at the those who have reputations, to oppose the on college of Harcourt, and made great progress there. of budding geniuses. This blight often fastens sometimes On his return to Brittany, M. Hunault, a doctor of talents without destroying them, but it Saint Malo, had advised him to adopt the medical injures them. M. La Mettrie, who was advancing suffered profession. They had persuaded his father, assuring in the career of science at a giant's pace, him him that a mediocre physician would be better paid from this jealousy, and his quick temper made for his remedies than a good priest for absolutions. too susceptible to it. of At first young La Mettrie had applied himself to In Saint Malo, he translated the "Aphorisms" "Chemical the study of anatomy : for two years he had worked Boerhaave, the "Materia Medica," the "In- at the dissecting-table. After this, in 1725, he took Proceedings," the "Chemical Theory," and the same the degree of doctor at Rheims, and was there re- stitutions," by this same author. About the ceived as a physician. abstract of Sydenham. The time, he published an ^ In 1733, he went to Leyden to study under the fa- young doctor had learned by premature experience, better to mous Boerhaave. The master was worthy of the that if he wished to live in peace, it was scholar and the scholar soon made himself worthy translate than to compose; but it is characteristic of the master. M. La Mettrie devoted all the acute- of genius to escape from reflection. Counting on with ness of his mind to the knowledge and to the heal- himself alone, if I may speak thus, and filled ing of human infirmities; and he soon became a the knowledge he had gained from his infinitely skil- great physician. ful researches into nature, he wished to communicate In the year 1734, during his leisure moments, he to the public the useful discoveries he had made. He translated a treatise of the late M. Boerhaave, his published his treatise on smallpox, his "Practical Aphrodisiacus, and joined to it a dissertation on Medicine," and six volumes of commentary on the venereal maladies, of which he himself was the physiology of Boerhaave. All these works appeared at author. The old physicians in France rose up at Paris, although the author had written them against a scholar who affronted them by knowing Saint Malo. He joined to the theory of his art an as much as they. One of the most celebrated doc- always successful practice, which is no small recom- tors of Paris did him the honor of criticizing his mendation for a physician. work (a sure proof that it was good). La Mettrie In 1 742, La Mettrie came to Paris, led there by replied; and, to confound his adversary still more, the death of M. Hunault, his old teacher. Morand he composed in 1736 a treatise on vertigo, esteemed and Sidobre introduced him to the Duke of Gra- by all impartial physicians. mont, who, a few days after, obtained for him the By an unfortunate effect of human imperfection commission of physician of the guards. He accom- a certain base jealousy has come to be one of the panied the Duke to war, and was with him at the characteristics of men of letters. This feeling incites battle of Dettingen, at the siege of Freiburg, and at / >j|^ K'i f O MAN A MACHINE. FREDERIC THE GREAT S EULOGY. 7 the battle of Fontenoy, where he lost his patron, physicist; nature, the truth, is its sole judge, and who was killed by a cannon shot. should absolve or condemn it. A book of astron- La Mettrie felt this loss all the more keenly, be- omy should be read in the same manner. If a cause it was at the same time the reef on which poor physician proves that the blow of a stick his fortune was wrecked. This is what happened. smartly rapped on the skull disturbs the mind, or During the campaign of Freiburg, La Mettrie had that at a certain degree of heat reason wanders, an attack of violent fever. Q^r a philosopher an one must either prove the contrary or keep quiet. illness is a school of physiology; he believed that If a skilful astronomer proves, in spite of Joshua, he could clearly see that thought is but a conse- that the earth and all the celestial globes revolve quence of the organization of the machine, and that around the sun, one must either calculate better the disturbance oi tne springs has considerable in- than he, or admit that the earth revolves. fluence on that part of us which the metaphysicians But the theologians, who, by their continual ap- call soul. Filled with these ideas during his con- prehension, might make the weak believe that their valescence, he boldly bore the torch of experience cause is bad, are not troubled by such a small matter. into the night of metaphysics ; he tried to explain They insisted on finding seeds of heresy in a work /by the aid of anatomy the thin texture of under- dealing with physics. The author underwent a fright- standing, and he found only mechanism where ful persecution, and the priests claimed that a doctor others had supposed an essence superior to matter. accused of heresy could not cure the French guards. He his had philosophic conjectures printed under the To the hatred of the devotees was joined that *5tle of **Ihe Natural History of the Soul.^' The of his rivals for glory. This was rekindled by a chaplain of the regiment Sounded the toc"sin against work of La Mettrie*s entitled "The Politics of him, and at first sight all the devotees cried out Physicians." A man full of cunning, and carried against him. away by ambition, aspired to the place, then vacant, The common ecclesiastic is like Don Quixote, of first physician to the king of France. He thought who found marvelous adventures in commonplace that he could gain it by heaping ridicule upon those events, or like the famous soldier, so engrossed of his contemporaries who might lay claim to this with his system that he found columns in all the position. He wrote a libel against them, and abu- books he read. The majority of priests examine sing the easy friendship of La Mettrie, he enticed all works of literature as if they were treatises on him to lend to it the volubility of his pen, and the theology, and filled with this one aim, they discover richness of his imagination. Nothing more was heresies everywhere. To this fact are due very needed to complete the downfall of a man little many false judgments and very many accusations, known, against whom were all appearances, and for the most part unfair, against the authors. A whose only protection was his merit. book of physics should be read in the spirit of a For having been too sincere as a philosopher and \\\ A MACHINE. 8 MAN FREDERIC THE GREAX'S EULOGY. 9 I too obliging as a friend, La Mettrie was compelled of Feb- the king. He came to Berlin in the month to leave his country. The Duke of Duras and the as a ruary in the year 1748; he was there received Viscount of Chaila advised him to flee from the Medi- member of the Royal Academy of Science. hatred of the priests and the revenge of the physi- wrote cine reclaimed him from metaphysics, and he of cians. Therefore, in 1746, he left the hospitals the best a treatise on dysentery, another on asthma, Sechelles, the army where he had been placed by M. diseases. that had then been written on these cruel and came to Leyden to philosophize in peace. He He sketched works on certain philosophical subjects there composed his "Penelope,'* a polemical work which he had proposed to look into. By a sequence against the physicians in which, after the fashion of accidents which befell him these works were of Democritus, he made fun of the vanity of his soon stolen, but he demanded their suppression as profession. The curious result was that the doctors as they appeared. themselves, though their quackery was painted in La Mettrie died in the house of Milord Tirconnel, true colors, could not help laughing when they read minister plenipotentiary of France, whose life he it, and that is a sure sign that they had found more had saved. It seems that the disease, knowing with malice in it. wit than to attack whom it had to deal, was clever enough M. La Mettrie after losing sight of his hospitals his brain first, so that it would more surely confound and his patients, gave himself up completely to specu- him. He had a burning fever and was violently lative philosophy; he wrote his "Man a Machine" delirious. The invalid was obliged to depend upon or rather he put on paper some vigorous thoughts the science of his colleagues, and he did not find bout materialism, which he doubtless planned to there the resources which he had so often found in rewrite. This work, which was bound to displease his own, both for himself and for the public. men who by their position are declared enemies of He died on the eleventh of November, 1751, at the progress of human reason, roused all the priests the age of forty-three years. He had married Louise of Leyden against its author. Ca^¥tfMsU, Catholics Charlotte Dreano, by whom he left only a daughter, and Lutherans forgot for the time that consubstan- \ ''I five years and a few months old. tiation, free will, mass for the dead, and the infalli- La Mettrie was born with a fund of natural and the pope divided them : they all united again bilityLof mind, and such inexhaustible gaiety ; he had a quick to persecute a philosopher who had the additional imagination that it made fiowers grow in time when that a fertile misfortune of being French, at a an the field of medicine. Nature had made him monarchy was waging a successful war against their orator and a philosopher; but a yet more precious High Powers. gift which he received from her, was a pure soul and The title of philosopher and the reputation of an obliging heart. All those who are not imposed being unfortunate were enough to procure for La upon by the pious insults of the theologians mourn Mettrie a refuge in Prussia with a pension from in La Mettrie a good man and a wise physician. m \ L' H M M E MACHINE. J^^e lace Mm it VEjfenafttprhnet. lumineuxf Que Von nous feint fi l^'ce la cetEfpritfurvivant a nous mhne^ II natt avec nos fens^ croitt iaffo'iblit comnte eux> Helas! il phira de mkne. VOLTAIRS. A L £ ro E, Db t'lMP, D'ELIE LUZAC, Fits. MDCCXLVllI. Facsimile of title page of the Leyden 1748 editiOD / , "» UHOMME MACHINE. d'etudier la nature et la IL ne suffit pas a un sage faveur du petit nom- verite ; il doit oser la dire en penser car pour bre de ceux qui veulent et peuvent ; esclaves des pre- les autres, qui sont volontairement possible d'atteindre la juges, il ne leur est pas plus verite, qu'aux grenouilles de voler. philosophes Je reduis a deux les systemes des sur Tame de rhomme. Le premier, et le plus an- le second est cien, est le systeme du materialisme ; celui du spiritualisme. Les metaphysiciens qui ont insinue que la ma- n'ont tiere pourrait bien avoir la faculte de penser, pas deshonore leur raison. Pourquoi ? C'est qu'ils ont cet avantage (car ici e'en est un) de s'etre mal exprimes. En effet, demander si la matiere pent penser, sans la considerer autrement qu'en elle- meme, c*est demander si la matiere peut marquer les heures. On voit d'avance que nous eviterons cet ecueil, ou Mr. Locke a eu le malheur d'echouer. Les Leibniziens, avec leurs monades, ont eleve une hypothese inintelligible. lis ont plutot spiri- tualise la matiere, que materialise Tame. Comment peut-on definir un etre dont la nature nous est ab- solument inconnue? Descartes, et tous les Cartesiens, parmi lesquels les Malebranchistes, il y a longtemps qu'on a compte L^HOMME MACHINE. 15 14 MAN A MACHINE. "des mysteres de la Foi ; car, ajoute-t-il, quelle idee ont fait la meme faute. lis ont admis deux sub- "etonnante aurait-on du Christianisme, si Ton vou- stances distinctes dans rhomme, comme s'ils les "lait suivre la Raison?" avaient vues et bien comptees. Outre que ces reflexions n*eclaircissent rien par Les plus sages ont dit que Tame ne pouvait se \ rapport a la Foi, elles forment de si frivoles ob- connaitre que par les seules lumieres de la Foi: jections contre la methode de ceux qui croient pou- cependant, en qualite d'etres raisonnables, ils ont cru voir interpreter les Livres Saints, que j'ai presque pouvoir se reserver le droit d'examiner ce que I'Ecri- honte de perdre le temps a les refuter. ture a voulu dire par le mot Esprit, dont elle se sert lo. L'excellence de la Raison ne depend pas d*an en parlant de Tame humaine; et dans leurs re- grand mot vide de sens (I'immaterialite) ; mais de cherches, s'ils ne sont pas d'accord sur ce point avec sa force, de son etendue, ou de sa clairvoyance. les theologiens, ceux-ci le sont-ils davantage en- Ainsi une ame de bone, qui decouvrirait, comme tr'eux sur tous les autres? d'un coup d'ceil, les rapports et les suites d'une in- Voici en peu de mots le resultat de toutes leurs finite d'idees difficiles a saisir, serait evidemment reflexions. preferable a une ame sotte et stupide qui serait S'il y a un Dieu, il est auteur de la Nature, faite des elements les plus precieux. Ce n'est pas comme de la Revelation; il nous a donne Tune, etre philosophe, que de rougir avec Pline de la pour expliquer I'autre ; et la Raison, pour les accor- misere de notre origine. Ce qui parait vil, est ici la der ensemble. chose la plus precieuse, et pour laquelle la nature Se defier des connaissances qu'on peut puiser dans semble avoir mis le plus d'art et le plus d'appareil. les corps animes, c'est regarder la Nature et la Mais comme Thomme, quand meme il viendrait Revelation comme deux contraires qui se detrui- d'une source encore plus vile en apparence, n'en - sent; et par consequent, c'est oser soutenir cette ab- serait pas moins le plus parfait de tous les etres, surdite: que Dieu se contredit dans ses divers ou- quelle que soit Torigine de son ame, si elle est pure, vrages, et nous trompe. .^ noble, sublime, c'est une belle ame, qui rend respec- S'il y a une Revelation, elle ne peut done dementir table quiconque en est doue. la Nature. Par la Nature seule, on peut decouvrir La seconde maniere de raisonner de Mr. Pluche le sens des paroles de TEvangile, dont I'experience me parait vicieuse, meme dans son systeme, qui tient seule est la veritable interprete. En effet, les autres un peu du fanatisme; car si nous avons une idee commentateurs jusqu'ici n'ont fait qu'embrouiller de la Foi, qui soit contraire aux principes les plus la verite. Nous allons en juger par I'auteur du clairs, aux verites les plus incontestables, il faut Spectacle de la Nature. "II est etonnant, dit-il (au croire, pour I'honneur de la Revelation et de son "sujet de Mr. Locke), qu'un homme qui degrade it Auteur, que cette idee est fausse, et que nous ne notre ame jusqu'a la croire une ame de boue, ose tijii etablir la Raison pour juge et souverain arbitre 16 MAN A MACHINE. L HOMME MACHINE. 17 connaissons point encore les sens des paroles de qui aient droit de parler ici. Que nous diraient les TEvangile. autres, et surtout les theologiens? N'est-il pas De deux choses Tune; ou tout est illusion, tant ridicule de les entendre decider sans pudeur, sur un la Nature meme, que la Revelation ; ou Texperience sujet qu'ils n'ont point ete a portee de connaitre, seule pent rendre raison de la Foi. Mais quel plus dont ils ont ete au contraire entierement detournes grand ridicule que celui de notre auteur ? Je m*ima- par des etudes obscures, qui les ont conduits a gine entendre un peripateticien, qui dirait : "II ne faut mille prejuges, et pour tout dire en un mot, au "pas croire Texperience de Toricelli: car si nous la fanatisme, qui ajoute encore a leur ignorance dans "croyions, si nous allions bannir Thorreur du vide, le mecanisme des corps. ?" "quelle etonnante philosophic aurions-nous Mais, quoique nous ayons choisi les meilleurs J'ai fait voir combien le raisonnement de Mr. guides, nous trouverons encore beaucoup d'epines Pluche est vicieux,* afin de prouver premierement et d'obstacles dans cette carriere. que s*il y a une Revelation, elle n'est point suffi- L'homme est une machine si composee, qu'il est samment demontree par la seule autorite de TEglise impossible de s'en faire d'abord une idee claire, et et sans aucun examen de la Raison, comme le pre- consequemment de la definir. C'est pourquoi toutes tendent tons ceux qui la craignent. Secondement, les recherches que les plus grands philosophes ont pour mettre a Tabri de toute attaque la methode faites a priori, c'est a dire, en voulant se servir en de ceux qui voudraient suivre la voie que je leur quelque sorte des ailes de I'esprit, ont ete vaines. ouvre, d'interpreter les choses surnaturelles, incom- Ainsi ce n'est qu'a posteriori, ou en cherchant a prehensibles en soi» par les lumieres que chacun a demeler Tame comme au t ravers les organes du recues de la nature.J corps, qu'on pent, je ne dis pas decouvrir avec evi- V L'experience et {'observation doivent done seules dence la nature meme de Thomme, mais atteindre nous guider ici. Elles se trouvent sans nombre dans le plus grand degre de probabilite possible sur ce les Pastes des medecins, qui ont ete philosophes, et sujet. non dans les philosophes, qui n'ont pas ete mede- Prenons done le baton de Texperience, et laissons cins. * Ceux-ci ont parcouru, ont eclaire le laby- la Thistoire de toutes les vaines opinions des philo- rinthe de Thomme; ils nous ont seuls devoile ces sophes. Etre aveugle, et croire pouvoir se passer ressorts caches sous des enveloppes qui derobent a de ce baton, c'est le comble de I'aveuglement. Qu'un nos yeux tant de merveilles. Eux seuls, contemplant moderne a bien raison de dire qu'il n'y a que la tranquillement notre ame, I'ont mille fois surprise, vanite seule qui ne tire pas des causes secondes le et dans sa misere, et dans sa grandeur, sans plus la meme parti que des premieres ! On peut et on doit mepriser dans Tun de ces etats, que Tadmirer dans meme admirer tons ces beaux genies dans leurs Tautre. Encore une fois, voila les seuls physiciens travaux les plus inutiles, les Descartes, les Male- * II peche evidemment par une petition de principe. branche, les Leibnitz, les Wolf, etc. ; mais quel fruit, A. 18 MAN A MACHINE. L^HOMME MACHINE. 19 je vous prie, a-t-on retire de leurs profondes medi- leur intrepidite en pusillanimite ou en poltronnerie? tations et de tous leurs ouvrages? CommenQons Une obstruction dans la rate, dans le foie, un em- done et voyons, non ce qu*on a pense, mais ce qu'il barras dans la veine porte. Pourquoi? Parceque et de la faut penser pour le repos de la vie. rimagination se bouche avec les visceres; Autant de temperaments, autant d'esprits, de ca- naissent tous ces singuliers phenomenes de I'affec- racteres et de moeurs differentes. Galien meme a tion hysterique et hypocondriaque. connu cette verite, que Descartes, et non Hippocrate, Que dirais-je de nouveau sur ceux qui s'imaginent comme le dit Tauteur de Thistoire de TAme,^ a pous- etre transformes en loups-garous, en coqs, en vam- see loin, jusqu'a dire que la medecine seule pouvait pires, qui croient que les morts les sucent? Pour- ^ ' changer les esprits et les moeurs avec le corps. II quoi m'arreterais-je a ceux qui voient leur nez, ou est vrai, la melancolie, la bile, le phlegme, le sang autres membres, de verre, et a qui il faut conseiller etc., suivant la nature, Tabondance et la diverse com- de coucher sur la paille, de peur qu'ils ne se cassent, binaison de ces humeurs, de chaque homme font un afin qu'ils en retrouvent Tusage et la veritable chair, homme different. lorsque mettant le feu a la paille on leur fait craindre Dans les maladies, tantot Tame s'eclipse et ne d'etre brules: frayeur qui a quelquefois gueri la montre aucun signe d*elle-meme; tantot on dirait paralysie ? Je dois legerement passer sur des choses qu'elle est double, tant la fureur la transporte ; tan- connues de tout le monde. tot rimbecilite se dissipe: et la convalescence d'un Je ne serai pas plus long sur le detail des effets dans sot fait un homme d'esprit. Tantot le plus beau du sommeil. Voyez ce soldat fatigue ! il ronfle Son genie devenu stupide, ne se reconnait plus. Adieu la tranchee, au bruit de cent pieces de canons ! toutes ces belles connaissances acquises a si grands ame n'entend rien, son sommeil est une parfaite ^ peut- frais, et avec tant de peine! apoplexie. Une bombe va I'ecraser ; il sentira Ici c'est un paralytique, qui demande si sa jambe etre moins ce coup qu un insecte qui se trouve sous est dans son lit : la c*est un soldat qui croit avoir le le pied. bras qu*on lui a coupe. La memoire de ses an- D*un autre cote, cet homme que la jalousie, la ciennes sensations, et du lieu ou son ame les rap- haine, I'avarice ou Tambition devore, ne peut portait, fait son illusion et son espece de delire. trouver aucun repos. Le lieu le plus tranquille, les II suffit de lui parler de cette partie qui lui manque, boissons les plus fraiches et les plus calmantes, tout pour lui en rappeller et faire sentir tous les mouve- est inutile a qui n'a pas delivre son cceur du tour- ments; ce qui se fait avec je ne sais quel deplaisir ment des passions. d'imagination qu'on ne peut exprimer. L'ame et le corps s'endorment ensemble. A Celui-ci pleure, comme un enfant, aux approches mesure que le mouvement du sang se calme, un de la mort, que celui-la badine. Que fallait-il a doux sentiment de paix et de tranquillite se repand Caius Julius, a Seneque, a Petrone pour changer dans toute la machine; Tame se sent moUement Li f 20 MAN A MACHINE. L HOMME MACHINE. 21 douleurs; elle ne sent plus que le seul plaisir de ne s'appesantir avec les paupieres et s'affaisser avec les plus suffrir et de jouir de la plus charmante tran- fibres du cerveau : elle devient ainsi peu a peu comme quillite. change jusqu'a la volonte; il paralytique, avec tous les muscles du corps. Ceux- L'opium force Tame qui voulait veiller et se divertir, d'aller ci ne peuvent plus porter le poids de la tete; celle se mettre au lit malgre elle. Je passe sous silence la ne peut plus soutenir le fardeau de la pensee ; elle rhistoire des poisons. est dans le sommeil, comme n'etant point. en fouettant I'imagination, que le cafe, cet La circulation se fait-elle avec trop de Vitesse? C'est tete et nos Tame ne peut dormir. L'ame est-elle trop agitee, antidote du vin, dissipe nos maux de chagrins, sans nous en menager, comme cette li- le sang ne peut se calmer ; il galope dans les veines avec un bruit qu*on entend: telles sont les deux queur, pour le lendemain. besoins. ) causes reciproques de Tinsomnie. Une seule frayeur Contemplons Tame dans ses autres est qui elle- dans les songes fait battre le coeur a coups redou- Le corps humain une machine monte bles, et nous arrache a la necessite, ou a la douceur A/ meme ses ressorts; vivante image du mouvement du repos, comme feraient une vive douleur ou des perpetuel. Les aliments entretiennent ce que la fie- besoins urgents. Enfin, comme la seule cessation vre excite. Sans eux Tame languit, entre en fureur et abattue. C'est une bougie dont la lumiere des fonctions de Tame procure le sommeil, il est, meurt nourris- meme pendant la veille (qui n'est alors qu'une demi- se ranime, au moment de s^eteindre. Mais veille), des sortes de petits sommeils d'ame tres sez le corps, versez dans ses tuyaux des sues vigou- frequents, des rives a la Suisse, qui prouvent que reux, des liqueurs fortes; alors Tame genereuse fier le soldat Tame n'attend pas toujours le corps pour dormir; comme elles s'arme d'un courage et car si elle ne dort pas tout-a-fait, combien peu s*en que Teau eut fait fuir, devenu feroce, court gaie- faut-il! puisqu'il lui est impossible d'assigner un ment a la mort au bruit des tambours. C'est ainsi seul objet auquel elle ait prete quelque attention, que Teau chaude agite un sang que Teau froide eut parmi cette foule innombrable d*idees confuses, qui calme. comme autant de nuages remplissent, pour ainsi dire, Quelle puissance d'un repas! La joie renait \ J'atmosphere de notre cerveau. dans un cceur triste; elle passe dans Tame des ^L'opium a trop de rapport avec le sommeil qu'il convives qui Texpriment par d'aimables chansons, excellent. melancolique seul est t)f:ocure, pour ne pas le placer ici. Ce remede eni- ou les Frangais Le vre, ainsi que le vin, le cafe, et chacun a sa ma- accable, et Thomme d'etude n'y est plus propre. niere, et suivant sa dose. II rend Thomme heureux La viande crue rend les animaux feroces; les dans un etat qui semblerait devoir etre le tombeau hbmmes le deviendraient par la meme nourriture; cela vrai, la nation anglaise, qui ne mange du sentiment, comme il est Timage de la mort esb^ que Quelle douce lethargic! L'ame n'en voudrait ja- pas la chMr si cuite que nous, mais rouge et san- mais sortir. Elle etait en proie aux plus grandes glante, parait participer de cette ferocite plus ou ; ; L HOMME MACHINE. 23 22 MAN A MACHINE. Plus de respect pour les entrailles auxquelles on moins grande, qui vient en partie de tels aliments, doit ou on a donne la vie; on les dechire a belles seule rendre et d'autres causes, que Teducation pent dents, on s'en fait d'horribles festins; et dans la impuissantes. Cette ferocite produit dans Tame Tor- fureur dont on est transporte, le plus faible est nations, Tin- gueil, la haine, le mepris des autres toujours la proie du plus fort. le carac- docilite et autres sentiments, qui depravent La grossesse, cette emule desiree des pales cou- font un esprit tere, comme des aliments grossiers leurs, ne se contente pas d'amener le plus souvent sont les lourd, epais, dont la paresse et I'indolence a sa suite les gouts depraves qui accompagnent ces attributs favoris. deux etats : elle a quelquefois fait executer a Tame Mr. Pope a bien connu tout Tempire de la gour- les plus affreux complots ; effets d'une manie subite, Catius park tou- mandise, lorsqu'il dit : "Le grave qui etouffe jusqu'a la loi naturelle. C*est ainsi que "jours de vertu, et croit que, qui souffre les vicieux le cerveau, Tesprit, pervertit a durent cette matrice de se "est vicieux lui-meme. Ces beaux sentiments sa maniere, avec celle du corps. il prefere un scele- "jusqu'a I'heure du diner ; alors Quelle autre fureur d'homme ou de femme, dans frugal. "rat, qui a une table delicate, a un saint ceux que la continence et la sante poursuivent ! C^est "Considerez, dit-il ailleurs, le meme homme en peu pour cette fille timide et modeste d'avoir perdu "sante, ou en maladie; possedant une belle charge, toute honte et toute pudeur; elle ne regarde plus t( verrez cherir la vie, ou on Tayant perdue ; vous le rinceste, que comme une femme galante regarde ti as- la detester, fou a la chasse, ivrogne dans une Tadultere. Si ses besoins ne trouvent pas de prompts i€semblee de province, poli au bal, bon ami en ville, soulagements, ils ne se borneront point aux simples ' "sans foi a la cour." accidents d'une passion uterine, a la manie, etc. ; cette Nous avons eu en Suisse un bailli, nomme Stei- malheureuse mourra d'un mal, dont il a tant de in- y de Wittighofen; il etait a jeun le plus guer medecins. tegre et meme le plus indulgent des juges; mais II ne faut que des yeux pour voir Tinfluence ne- malheur au miserable qui se trouvait sur la sellette, cessaire de I'age sur la raison. L'ame suit les II etait homme lorsquMl avait fait un grand diner ! progres du corps, comme ceux de Teducation. Dans a faire pendre Tinnocent, comme le coupable. le beau sexe, l'ame suit encore la delicatesse du Nous pensons, et meme nous ne sommes hon- temperament: de la cette tendresse, cette affection, netes gens, que comme nous sommes gais, ou braves ces sentiments vifs, plutot fondes sur la passion que tout depend de la maniere dont notre machine est sur la raison, ces prejuges, ces superstitions, dont montee. On dirait en certains moments que Tame la forte empreinte pent a peine s'effacer, etc. habite dans Testomac, et que Van Helmont, en met- L'homme, au contraire, dont le cerveau et les nerfs tant son siege dans le pylore, ne se serait trompe participent de la fermete de tons les solides, a qu'en prenant la partie pour le tout. Tesprit, ainsi que les traits du visage, plus nerveux A quels exces la faim cruelle pent nous porter! I k L^HOMME MACHINE. 25 24 MAN A MACHINE. Lorsque sa fatale prediction fut justifiee par Teve- manquent les femmes, ajoute en- reducation, dont nement, on lui en demanda la raison. II y a vingt degres de force a son ame. Avec core de nouveaux ans, dit-il, que je connais le Roi; il est naturellement Tart, comment ne de tels secours de la nature et de bon et mime faible; mais fai observe qu'un rien plus genereux, plus serait-il pas plus reconnaissant, Vimpatiente et le met en fureur, lorsqu'il fait froid.' Tadversite? etc. constant en amitie, plus ferme dans Tel peuple a I'esprit lourd et stupide; tel autre la pensee Tauteur des Mais, suivant a peu pres de Ta vif, leger, penetrant. D'ou cela vient-il, si ce Lettres sur les Physionomies,' qui joint les graces n'est en partie, et de la nourriture qu'il prend, et sentiments de Tesprit et du corps a presque tous les de la semence de ses peres,* et de ce chaos de divers du coeur les plus tendres et les plus delicats ne doit elements qui nagent dans Timmensite de I'air? L*es- force, semble point nous envier une double qui ne prit a, comme le corps, ses maladies epidemiques et avoir ete donnee a Thomme, Tune, que pour se son scorbut. mieux penetrer des attraits de la beaute, Tautre, Tel est Tempire du climat, qu'un homme qui en que pour mieux servir a ses plaisirs. change se ressent malgre lui de ce changement. C'est II n*est pas plus necessaire d'etre aussi grand une plante ambulante, qui s'est elle-meme trans- la physionomiste que cet auteur pour deviner qua- plantee; si le climat n'est plus le meme, il est juste lite de Tesprit par la figure ou la forme des traits, qu'elle degenere, ou s'ameliore. lorsqu'ils sont marques jusqu'a un certain point, On prend tout encore de ceux avec qui Ton vit, qu'il ne Test d'etre grand medecin pour connaitre leurs gestes, leurs accents, etc., comme la paupiere se un mal accompagne de tous ses symptomes evidents. baisse a la menace du coup dont on est prevenu, ou Examinez les portraits de Locke, de Steele, de Boer- par la meme raison que le corps du spectateur imite haave, de Maupertuis, etc. vous ne serez point sur- machinalement, et malgre lui, tous les mouvements pris de leur trouver des physionomies fortes, des d'un bon pantomime. yeux d'aigle. Parcourez-en une infinite d'autres, Ce que je viens de dire prouve que la meilleure vous distinguerez toujours le beau du grand genie, compagnie pour un homme d'esprit, est la sienne, et meme souvent Thonnete homme du fripon. On s'il n'en trouve une semblable. L'esprit se rouille a remarque, par exemple, qu'un poete celebre re- avec ceux qui n'en ont point, faute d'etre exerce: unit (dans son portrait) Tair d'un filou, avec le a la paume, on renvoie mal la balle a qui la sert mal. feu de Promethee. J'aimerais mieux un homme intelligent, qui n'au- L'histoire nous offre un memorable exemple de rait eu aucune education, que s'il en eut eu une la puissance de Tair. Le fameux Due de Guise etait mauvaise, pourvu qu'il fut encore assez jeune. Un si fort convaincu que Henri IIL qui Tavait eu tant L'histoire des animaux et des hommes prouve Tempire de de fois en son pouvoir, n'oserait jamais Tassassiner, la semence des peres sur I'esprit et le corps des enfants. qu'il partit pour Blois. Le chancelier Chyverni ap- prenant son depart, s'ecria: voild un homme perdu! i L'hOMME MACHINE. 27 26 MAN A MACHINE. peut juger en lisant les seuls traites de Willis, De esprit mal conduit est un acteur que la province Cerebro, et De Anima Brutorum. a gate. Je conclurai seulement ce qui s'en suit claire- Les divers etats de Tame sont done toujours cor- ment de ces incontestables observations: lo que relatifs a ceux du corps. Mais, pour mieux demon- plus les animaux sont farouches, moins ils ont de trer toute cette dependance et ses causes, servons- cerveau; 2o que ce viscere semble s'agrandir, en nous ici de Tanatomie comparee; ouvrons les en- quelque sorte, a proportion de leur docilite; 3° qu*il trailles de rhomme et des animaux. Le moyen de y a ici une singuliere condition imposee eternelle- connaitre la nature humaine, si Ton n'est eclaire ment par la nature, qui est que plus on gagnera du par un juste parallele de la structure des uns et cote de Tesprit, plus on perdra du cote de I'instinct. des autres \J Lequel Temporte, de la perte ou du gain ? En general, la forme et la composition du cerveau 47 Ne croyez pas, au reste, que je veuille pretendre des quadrupedes est a peu pres la meme que dans par la que le seul volume du cerveau suffise pour rhomme. Meme figure, meme disposition partout; faire juger du degre de docilite des animaux; il avec cette difference essentielle, que Thomme est faut que la qualite reponde encore a la quantite, et de tous les animaux celui qui a le plus de cerveau, que les solides et les fluides^oient dans cet equilibre et le cerveau le plus tortueux, en raison de la convenable qui fait la s^nte. masse de son corps. Ensuite le singe, castor, le Si rimbecile ne manque pas de cerveau, comme relephant, le chien, le renard, le chat, etc., voila on le remarque ordinairement, ce viscere pechera les animaux qui le ressemblent plus a I'homme; par une mauvaise consistance, par trop de mollesse, car on remarque aussi chez eux la meme analogic par exemple. II en est de meme des fous ; les vices graduee, par rapport corps au calleux, dans lequel de leur cerveau ne se derobent pas toujours a nos Lancisi avait etabli le siege de Tame, avant feu recherches; mais si les causes de I'imbecilite, de la Mr. de la Peyronnie, qui cependant a illustre cette folic, etc. ne sont pas sensibles, oil aller chercher opinion par une foule d'experiences. '. celles de la variete de tous les esprits ? Elles echap- Apres tous les quadrupedes, ce sont les oiseaux peraient aux yeux des lynx et des argus. Un Hen, qui ont le plus de cerveau. Les poissons ont la une petite fibre, quelque chose que la plus subtile tete grosse; mais elle est vide de sens, comme celle anatomie ne peut decouvrir, eut fait deux sots de bien des hommes. lis n'ont point de corps cal- .i d'Erasme et de Fontenelle, qui le remarque lui leux et fort peu de cerveau, lequel manque aux ses meilleurs Dialogues. I V—•ipeme dans un de insectes. cerveau, , Outre la mollesse de la moelle du dans ne repandrai Je me point en un plus long detail Ifes^nfants, dans les petits chiens et dans les oi- arietes la de nature, ni en conjectures, car seaux, Willis a remarque que les corps canneles sont les unes et les autres sont infinies, comme on en effaces et comme decolores dans tous ces animaux, l'hOMME MACHINE. 29 28 MAN A MACHINE. qu'on n'y puisse apporter aucun remede? en un mot et que leurs stries sont aussi imparfaitement formees serait-il absolument impossible d'apprendre une que dans les paralytiques. II ajoute, ce qui est langue a cet animal? Je ne le crois pas. vrai, que rhomme a la protuberance annulaire fort prendrais le grand singe preferablement a grosse; et ensuite toujours diminutivement par de- Je tout autre, jusqu*a ce que le hasard nous eut fait gres, le singe et les autres animaux nommes ci- decouvrir quelque autre espece plus semblable a la devant, tandis que le veau, le boeuf, le loup, la notre, car rien ne repugne qu'il y en ait dans des brebis, le cochon, etc. qui ont cette partie d'un tres regions qui nous sont inconnues. Cet animal nous petit volume, ont les nattes et testes fort gros. ressemble si fort, que les naturalistes Tout appele On a beau etre discret et reserve sur les conse- sauvage, ou homme des hois. Je le pren- quences qu'on pent tirer de ces observations et de \.. homme drais aux memes conditions des ecoliers d' Amman; tant d'autres sur Tespece d'inconstance des vais- c'est-a-dire, que je voudrais qu'il ne fut ni trop seaux et des nerfs, etc. : tant de varietes ne peuvent jeune ni trop vieux ; car ceux qu'on nous apporte en etre des jeux gratuits de la nature. Elles prouvent Europe sont communement trop ages. Je choisirais du moins la necessite d'une bonne et abondante or- celui qui aurait la physionomie la plus spirituelle, et ganisation, puisque dans tout le regne animal Tame, qui tiendrait le mieux dans mille petites operations se raffermissant avec le corps, acquiert de la saga- qu'elle m'aurait promis. Enfin, ne me trouvant cite, a mesure qu'il prend des forces. ce pas digne d'etre son gouverneur, je le mettrais a Arretons-nous a contempler la differente docilite I'ecole de I'excellent maitre que je viens de nommer, des animaux. Sans doute Tanalogie la mieux en- ou d'un autre aussi habile, s'il en est. tendue conduit Tesprit a croire que les causes dont Vous savez par le livre d'Amman, et par tous nous avons fait mention produisent toute la diver- qui ont traduit sa methode, tous les prodiges site qui se trouve entr'eux et nous, quoiqu'il faille ceux* les sourds de naissance, dans avouer que notre faible entendement, borne aux qu'il a su operer sur les desquels il a, comme il le fait entendre observations les plus grossieres, ne puisse voir les yeux lui-meme, trouve des oreilles ; et en combien peu de liens qui regnent entre la cause et les effets. C*est enfin il leur appris a entendre, parler, lire, une espece d'harmonie que les philosophes ne con- temps a naitront jamais^ et ecrire. Je veux que les yeux d'un sourd voient soient plus intelligents s'il ne I'etait Parmi les animaux, les uns apprennent a parler plus clair et que pas, par la raison que la perte d'un membre ou d'un et a chanter ; ils retiennent des airs et prennent tous les tons aussi exactement qu'un musicien. Les au- sens pent augmenter la force ou la penetration d'un : mais le singe voit et entend ; il comprend ce tres, qui montrent cependant plus d'esprit, tels que autre qu'il voit; il congoit si parfaite- le singe, n'en peuvent venir a bout. Pourquoi cela, qu'il entend et ce si ce n'est par un vice des organes de la parole? ment les signes qu'on lui fait, qu'a tout autre jeu, Mais ce vice est-il tellement de conformation. Uauteur de I'Histoire naturelle de Tame etc. l'homme machine. 31 30 MAN A MACHINE. vait pas, doit etre mis au-dessus d'un faiseur oisif ou tout autre exercice, je ne doute point qu'il ne de systemes frivoles, ou d'un auteur laborieux de remportat sur les disciples d' Amman. Pourquoi steriles decouvertes. Celles d' Amman sont bien d'un done Teducation des singes serait-elle impossible? autre prix; il a tire les hommes de I'instinct auquel Pourquoi ne pourrait-il enfin, a force de soins, imi- ils semblaient condamnes ; il leur a donne les idees, ter, a Texemple des sourds, les mouvemens neces- de I'esprit, une ame en un mot, qu'ils n'eussent saires pour prononcer? Je n'ose decider si les or- jamais eue. Quel plus grand pouvoirl ganes de la parole du singe ne peuvent, quoiqu*on Ne bornons point les ressources de ia^ nature; fasse, rien articuler ; mais cette impossibilite absolue elles sont infinies, surtout aidees d'un gran^tg-t^ me surprendrait, a cause de la grande analogic du mecanique, qui ouvre le canal d'Eu- singe et de I'homme, et qu'il n'est point d'animal La meme V stachi dans les sourds, ne pourrait-il le deboucher connu jusqu'a present, dont le dedans et le dehors dans les singes? Une heureuse envie d'imiter la lui ressemblent d\me maniere si frappante. Mr. prononciation maitre, ne pourrait-elle mettre en Locke, qui certainement n*a jamais ete suspect de du liberte les organes de la parole, dans les animaux credulite, n'a pas fait difficulte de croire I'histoire qui imitent tant d'autres signes, avec tant d'adresse que le Chevalier Temple fait dans ses Memoires, et d'intelligence ? Non seulement je defie qu'on me d*un perroquet qui repondait a propos et avait experience vraiment concluante, qui de- appris, comme nous, a avoir une espece de conver- cite aucune cide mon projet impossible et ridicule ; mais la simi- sation suivie. Je sais qu*on s'est moque* de ce grand | litude de la structure et des operations du singe est metaphysicien ; mais qui aurait annonce a I'univers telle, que je ne doute presque point, si on exerqait qu'il y a des generations qui se font sans oeufs et cet animal, qu'on ne vint enfin a bout sans femmes, aurait-il trouve beaucoup de parti- parfaitement lui prononcer, et par consequent sans? Cependant Mr. Trembley en a decouvert, de apprendre a a savoir une langue. Alors ce ne serait plus ni un qui se font sans accouplement, et par la seule sec- sauvage, ni un homme manque: ce serait tion. Amman n*eiit-il pas aussi passe pour un fou, homme un homme par fait, un petit homme de ville, avec s'il se fut vante, avant que d'en faire Theureuse ex- autant d'etoffe ou de muscles que nous-memes, pour perience, d'instruire, et en aussi peu de temps, des penser et profiter de son education. ecoliers tels que les siens? Cependant ses succes Des animaux a I'homme, la transition n'est pas ont etonne Tunivers, et comme Tauteur de I'His- violente; les vrais philosophes en conviendront. toire des Polypes, il a passe de plein vol a Timmor- Qu'etait I'homme, avant I'invention des mots et talite. Qui doit a son genie les miracles qu'il opere, la connaissance des langues? animal de son Temporte a mon gre sur qui doit les siens au ha- Un espece, qui avec beaucoup moins d'instinct naturel sard. Qui a trouve Tart d'embellir le plus beau des que les autres, dont alors il ne se croyait pas roi, regnes, et de lui donner des perfections qu'il n'a- n'etait distingue du singe et des autres animaux Uauteur de THist. de Tame. 32 HAN A MACHINE. l'homme machine. 33 On doit croire que les hommes les mieux orga- que comme le singe Test lui-meme ; je veux dire par bien- une physionomie qui annongait plus de discerne- nises, ceux pour qui la nature aura epuise ses lis n'auront pu ment. Reduit a la seule connaissance intuitive des faits, auront instruit les autres. entendre bruit nouveau, par exemple, eprouver de Leibniziens, il ne voyait que des figures et des cou- un nouvelles sensations, etre frappe de tous ces beaux leurs, sans pouvoir rien distinguer entr'elles ; vieux, objets divers qui forment le ravissant spectacle de comme jeune, enfant a tout age, il begayait ses sen- le cas de ce sourd sations et ses besoins, comme un chien affame, ou la nature, sans se trouver dans ennuye de repos, demande a manger ou a se pro- de Chartres dont le grand Fontenelle nous a le mener. premier donne Thistoire, lorsqu'il entendit pour la le bruit etonnant des Les mots, les langues, les lois, les sciences, les premiere fois a quarante ans beaux-arts sont venus; et par eux enfin le diamant cloches. la serait-il de croire que ces premiers brut de notre esprit a ete poli. On a dresse un De absurde ce sourd, ou a homme, comme un animal; on est devenu auteur, mortels essayerent a la maniere de comme portefaix. Un geometre a appris a faire celle des animaux et des muets (autre espece sentiments les demonstrations et les calculs les plus difficiles, d'animaux), d'exprimer leurs nouveaux de comme un singe a oter ou mettre son petit chapeau, par des mouvements dependants de Teconomie et a monter sur son chien docile. Tout s'est fait leur imagination, et consequemment ensuite par des par les signes; chaque espece a compris ce qu'elle sons spontanes propres a chaque animal, expression naturelle de leur surprise, de leur joie, de leurs a pu comprendre : et c'est de cette maniere que les hommes ont acquis la connaissance symbolique, ainsi transports, ou de leurs besoins? Car sans doute t nommee encore par nos philosophes d'Allemagne. ceux que la nature a doues d'un sentiment plus facilite Texprimer. Rien de si simple, comme on voit, que la meca- exquis, ont eu aussi plus de pour ue de notre education! Tout se reduit a des Voila comme je congois que les hommes ont em- son^, ou a des mots, qui de la bouche de Tun passent ploye leur sentiment, ou leur instinct, pour avoir de par Toreille de Tautre dans le cerveau, qui regoit Tesprit, et enfin leur esprit, pour avoir des connais- en meme temps par les yeux la figure des corps, dont sances. Voila par quels moyens, autant que je puis ces mots sont les signes arbitraires. les saisir, on s'est rempli le cerveau des idees, pour Mais qui a parle le premier? Qui a ete le pre- le reception desquelles la nature Tavait forme. On mier precepteur du genre human? Qui a invente s*est aide Tun par Tautre; et les plus petits com- les moyens de mettre a profit la docilite de notre mencements s'agrandissant peu a peu, toutes les choses de Tunivers ont ete aussi facilement dis- organisation ? Je n'en sais rien ; le nom de ces heu- reux et premiers genies a ete perdu dans la nuit tinguees qu'un cercle. des temps. Mais Tart est le fils de la nature; elle Comme une corde de violon ou une touche de a du longtemps le preceder. clavecin fremit et rend un son, les cordes du cer- 34 MAN A MACHINE. L HOMME MACHINE. 35 veau, frappees par les rayons sonores, ont ete ex- figures, qui est la base fondamentale de toutes les citees a rendre ou a redire les mots qui les tou- verites et de toutes nos connaissances, parmi les- chaient. Mais comme telle est la construction de quelles il est evident que celles dont les signes sont ce viscere, que des qu'une fois les yeux bien formes moins simples et moins sensibles sont plus difficiles pour Toptique ont requ la peinture des objets, le a apprendre que les autres, en ce qu'elles demandent cerveau ne pent pas ne pas voir leurs images et leurs plus de genie pour embrasser et combiner cette differences: de meme, lorsque les signes de ces immense quantite de mots par lesquels les sciences differences ont ete marques, ou graves dans le cer- dont je park expriment les verites de leur ressort: veau, Tame en a necessairement examine les rap- tandis que les sciences qui s'annoncent par des ports; examen qui lui etait impossible sans la de- chiffres, ou autres petits signes, s'apprennent fa- couverte des signes, ou Tinvention des langues. cilement ; et c'est sans doute cette facilite qui a fait Dans ces temps, ofi Tunivers etait presque muet, la fortune des calculs algebriques, plus encore que Tame etait a I'egard de tous les objets, comme un leur evidence. / homme qui, sans avoir aucune idee des propor- Tout ce^-sa^oir dont le vent enfle le ballon du cer- tions, regarderait un tableau, ou une piece de sculp- V veau de nos pedants orgueilleux, n'est done qu'un ture: il n'y pourrait rien distinguer; ou comme un vaste amas de mots et de figures, qui forment petit enfant (car alors I'ame etait dans son en- dans la tete toutes les traces par lesquelles nous fance) qui, tenant dans sa main un certain nombre distinguons et nous nous rappellons les objets. Toutes de petits brins de paille ou de bois, les voit en gene- nos idees se reveillent, comme un jardinier qui ral d'une vue vague et superficielle, sans pouvoir connait les plantes se souvient de toutes leurs les compter ni les distinguer. Mais qu'on mette phases a leur aspect. Ces mots et ces figures qui une espece de pavilion, ou d'etendard, a cette piece sont designes par eux, sont tellements lies en- de bois, par exemple, qu'on appelle mat, qu*on en semble dans le cerveau, qu'il est assez rare qu*on mette un autre a un autre pareil corps; que le pre- imagine une chose sans le nom ou le signe qui lui mier venu se nombre par le signe 1 et le second est attache. par le signe ou chiffre 2; alors cet enfant pourra les Je me sers toujours du mot imaginer, parceque compter, et ainsi de suite il apprendra toute Tarith- je crois que tout s'imagine, et que toutes les parties metique. Des qu'une figure lui paraitra egale a de Tame peuvent etre justement reduites a la seule une autre par son signe numeratify il concliara sans imagination, qui les forme toutes; et qu'ainsi le peine que ce sont deux corps differents; que 1 et 1 jugement, le raisonnement, la memoire ne sont que font deux, que 2 et 2 font 4,* etc. des parties de Tame nullement absolues, mais de C'est cette similitude reelle, ou apparente, des veritables modifications de cette espece de toile me- dullaire, sur laquelle les objets peints dans Toeil *I1 y a encore aujourdTiui des peuples, qui, faute d'un plus sont renvoyes, d'une lanterne magique. grand nombre de signes, ne peuvent compter que jusqu'a 20. comme ;: 36 MAN A MACHINE. L^HOMME MACHINE. 37 et incomprehensible Mais si tel est ce merveilleux mer dans le cabinet du philosophe, et du pedant cerveau si tout se resultat de Torganisation du ; poudreux; elle forme enfin les savants comme les s'explique par elle; i congoit par Timagination, si tout orateurs et les poetes. Sottement decriee par les qui pense dans pourquoi diviser le principe sensitif uns, vainement distinguee par les autres, qui tous contradiction mani- rhomme? N'est-ce pas une Tout mal connue, elle ne marche pas seulement a la simplicite de Tesprit? feste dans les partisans de la suite des Graces et des beaux-art, elle ne peint pas pent plus etre, sans Car une chose qu'on divise ne seulement la nature, elle pent aussi la mesurer. Voila ou absurdite, regardee comme indivisible. Elle raisonne, juge, penetre, compare, approfondit. et Tusage de ces grands conduit rabus des langues, Pourrait-elle si bien sentir les beautees des tableaux etc., places a tout mots, spiritualite, immaterialite, qui lui sont traces, sans en decouvrir les rapports? meme par des gens hasard, sans etre entendus, Non; comme elle ne pent se replier sur les plaisirs d'esprit. des sens, sans en gouter toute la perfection ou la prouver un systeme, Rien de plus facile que de volupte, elle ne pent reflechir sur ce qu'elle a meca- intime et Tex- fonde comme celui-ci sur le sentiment niquement congu, sans etre alors le jugement meme. Uimagination, perience propre de chaque individu. Plus on exerce Timagination, ou le plus maigre cerveau, dont la nature ou cette partie fantastique du genie, plus il prend, pour ainsi dire, d'embonpoint que sa maniere d'agir, est- nous est aussi inconnue plus il s'agrandit, devient nerveux, robuste, vaste faible? elle aura a peine elle naturellement petite, ou et capable de penser. La meilleure organisation a ou la ressemblance la force de comparer I'analogie, besoin de cet exercice. voir que ce qui sera de ses idees; elle ne pourra L'organisation est le premier merite de Thomme; Taffectera le plus yive- vis-a-vis d'elle, ou ce qui c'est en vain que tous les auteurs de morale ne Mais toujours ment; et encore de quelle maniere! mettent point au rang des qualites estimables celles c'est seule apergoit ; que est-il Vrai que Timagination qu'on tient de la nature, mais seulement les talents objets, avec les mots elle qui se represente tous les qui s'acquierent a force de reflexions et d'industrie et qu'ainsi c'est et les figures qui les caracterisent ; car d'ou nous vient, je vous prie, Thabilete, la sci- est Tame, puisqu'elle en elle encore une fois qui ence et la vertu, si ce n'est d'une disposition qui par son pinceau flat- fait tous les roles. Par elle, nous rend propres a devenir habiles, savants et ver- la raison prend des chairs teur, le froid squelette de tueux ? Et d'ou nous vient encore cette disposition, par elle les sciences fleurissent, vives et vermeilles ; si ce n'est de la nature? Nous n'avons de qualites s'embellissent, les bois parlent, les echos les arts estimables que par elle ; nous lui devons tout ce que /^ le marbre^espire, soupirent, les rochers pleurent, nous sommes. Pourquoi done n'estimerais-je pas inanimes. C'est elle tout prend vie parmi les corps autant ceux qui ont des qualites naturelles, que tendresse d'un coeur amoureux encore qui ajoute a la ceux qui brillent par des vertus acquises, et comme de la volupte; elle la fait ger- le piquant attrait d*emprunt ? Quel que soit le merite, de quelque en- 38 MAN A MACHINE. L^HOMME MACHINE. 39 d'estime il ne s'agit sent et droit qu'il naisse, il est digne ; cessaire, pour mieux exprimer ce qu'on beaute, les que de savoir le mesurer. L'esprit, la donner des graces a la Verite meme), I'imagination hasard, richesses, la noblesse, quoiqu'enfants du elevee par I'art a la belle et rare dignite de genie, savoir, la ont tous leur prix, comme Tadresse, le saisit exactement tous les rapports des idees qu'elle de ses dons vertu, etc. Ceux que la nature a combles a conQues, embrasse avec facilite une foule eton- ceux a qui ils les plus precieux, doivent plaindre nante d^objets, pour en tirer enfin une longue chaine leur supe- ont ete refuses; mais ils peuvent sentir de consequences, lesquelles ne sont encore que de Une belle riorite sans orgueil, et en connaisseurs. nouveaux rapports, enfantes par la comparaison trouver laide, femme serait aussi ridicule de se des premiers, auxquels Tame trouve une parfaite Une qu'un homme d'esprit de se croire un sot ressemblance. Telle est, selon moi, la generation une modestie outree (defaut rare a la verite) est de Tesprit. Je dis trouve, comme j'ai donne ci- honnete sorte d'ingratitude envers la nature. Une devant Tepithete d'apparente a la similitude des d'une ame belle fierte, au contraire, est la marque objets: non que je pense que nos sens soient tou- males monies et grande, que decelent des traits jours trompeurs, comme Ta pretendu le Pere Male- comme par le sentiment. branche, ou que nos yeux naturellement un peu premier me- Si rorganisation est un merite, et le ivres ne voient pas les objets tels qu'ils sont en eux I'instruction est rite, et la source de tous les autres, memes, quoique les microscopes nous le prouvent construit, sans elle, le second. Le cerveau le mieux tous les jours, mais pour n'avoir aucune dispute sans I'usage du le serait en pure perte; comme avec les Pyrrhoniens, parmi lesquels Bayle s'est pay- monde, Thomme le mieux fait ne serait qu'un distingue. de la san grossier. Mais aussi quel serait le fruit ^\7 Je dis^e la verite en general ce que Mr. de Fon- parfaitement plus excellente ecole, sans une matrice W tenelle dit de certaines en particulier, qu'il faut la ouverte a Tentree ou a la conception des idees ? II sacrifier au^agrements de la societe. II est de la idee a un est aussi impossible de donner une seule douceur de mon caractere d'obvier a toute dispute, homme prive de tous les sens, que de faire un lorsqu'il ne s'agit pas d*aiguiser la conversation. aurait enfant a une femme a laquelle la nature Les Cartesiens viendraient ici vainement a la charge faire une pousse la distraction jusqu'a oublier de avec leur idees innees; je ne me donnerais certaine- ni vulve, comme je Tai vu dans une, qui n'avait ment pas le quart de la peine qu*a prise Mr. Locke raison fente, ni vagin, ni matrice, et qui pour cette pour attaquer de telles chimeres. Quelle utilite, en fut demariee apres dix ans de mariage. eflfet, de faire un gros livre, pour prouver une doc- organise et Mais si le cerveau est a la fois bien trine qui etait erigee en axiome il y a trois mille parfaitement bien instruit, c'est une terre feconde ans? ensemencee, qui produit le centuple de ce qu'elle a Suivant les principes que nous avons poses, et vent ne- rcQu: ou (pour quitter le style figure sou que nous croyons vrais, celui qui a le plus d'imagina- 40 MAN A MACHINE. L HOMME MACHINE. 41 plus d'esprit, tion doit etre regarde comme ayant le qu'elle s'attende a regretter ce qu'elle n'a pas assez mots sont synonymes et ou de genie, car tous ces ;^ vite saisi et fixe: et c'est ainsi que rimagination, qu'on encore une fois c'est par un abus honteux veritable image du temps, se detruit et se renouvelle ne dit que croit dire des choses differentes, lorsqu'on sans cesse. on n'a differents mots ou differents sons, auxquels Tel est le chaos et la succession continuelle et distinction reelle. attache aucune idee ou rapide de nos idees ; elles se chassent, comme un flot plus forte La plus belle, la plus grande, ou la pousse rautre; de sorte que si rimagination n*em- sciences, imagination, est done la plus propre aux ploie, pour ainsi dire, une partie de ses muscles s'il faut plus comme aux arts. Je ne decide point pour etre comme en equilibre sur les cordes du cer- Aristotes, ou d'esprit pour exceller dans I'art des veau, pour se soutenir quelque temps sur un objet ou des des Descartes, que dans celui des Euripides qui va fuir et s'empecher de tomber sur un autre, s'est mise en plus grands Sophocles ; et si la nature qu'il n*est pas encore temps de contempler, jamais Corneille frais pour faire Newton que pour former elle ne sera digne du beau nom de jugement. Elle certain que (ce dont je doute fort), mais il est exprimera vivement ce qu'elle aura senti de meme; appliquee c'est la seule imagination diversement elle formera des orateurs, des musiciens, des pein- gloire im- qui a fait leur different triomphe et leur tres, des poetes, et jamais un seul philosophe. Au con- mortelle. traire si, des renfance, on accoutume rimagination jugement, '^i quelqu'un passe pour avoir peu de a se brider elle-meme, a ne point se laisser emporter veut dire que av^ beaucoup d'imagination ; cela a sa propre impetuosite, qui ne fait que de brillants presque rimagination trop abandonnee a elle meme, enthousiastes, a arreter, contenir ses idees, a les mi- toujours comme occupee a se regarder dans le retourner dans tous les sens, pour voir toutes les I'habi- roir de ses sensations, n'a pas assez contracte faces d*un objet, alors I'imagination prompte a attention plus tude de les examiner elles-memes avec ; juger embrassera par le raisonnement la plus images, profondement penetree des traces, ou des grande sphere d 'objets, et sa vivacite, toujours de que de leur verite ou de leur ressemblance. si bon augure dans les enfants, et qu'il ne s'agit que ressorts de II est vrai que telle est la vivacite des de regler par retude et rexercice, ne sera plus qu'une mere des rimagination, que si Inattention, cette cle ou penetration clairvoyante, sans laquelle on fait peu permis sciences, ne s'en mele, il ne lui est gueres de progres dans les sciences. que de parcourir et d^effleurer les objets. Tels sont les simples fondements sur lesquels a tou- Voyez cet oiseau sur la branche, il semble ete bati redifice de la logique. La nature les avait de meme. jours pret a s'envoler; rimagination est jetes pour tout le genre humain; mais les uns en des Toujours emportee par le tourbillon du sang et ^^^j3nt profite, les autres en ont almseT^ une trace, effacee par celle esprits, une onde fait a . "HMalgre toutes ces prerogatives'^ I'homme sur il souvent en vain : faut qui suit ; I'ame court apres, ^ les animaux, c'est lui faire honneur que de le ran- L HOMME MACHINE. 43 42 MAN A MACHINE. tinction aux sourds, aux aveugles-nes, aux im- ger dans la meme classe. II est vrai que, jusqu'a un beciles, qui parce qu'il aux fous, aux hommes sauvages, ou certain age, il est plus animal qu'eux, ont ete eleves dans les bois avec les betes, a ceux apporte moins d'instinct en naissant. milieu dont I'affection hypocondriaque a perdu I'imagina- Quel est Tanimal qui mourrait de faim au tion, enfin a toutes ces betes a figure humaine, qui d'une riviere de lait? L'homme seul. Semblable d'apres ne montrent que I'instinct le plus grossier? Non, a ce vieux enfant dont un moderne parle tous ces hommes de corps, et jion d'esprit, ne me- qui lui sont Arnobe, il ne connait ni les aliments ,_ritent pas une classe partictJiereT/' propres, ni I'eau qui peut le noyer, ni le feu qui la ' Nous n'avons pas dessein de nous dissimuler les peut le reduire en poudre. Faites briller pour objections qu'on peut faire en faveur de la distinc- premiere fois la lumiere d'une bougie aux yeux d'un tion primitive de I'homme et des animaux, contre machinalement le doigt, comme enfant, il y portera notre sentiment. II y a, dit-on, dans I'homme une pour savoir quel est le nouveau phenomene qu'il loi naturelle, une connaissance du bien et du mal, aperqoit; c'est a ses depens qu'il en connaitra le qui n'a pas ete gravee dans le coeur des animaux. danger, mais il n'y sera pas repris. Mais cette objection, ou plutot cette assertion Mettez-le encore avec un animal sur le bord d'un est-elle fondee sur I'experience, sans laquelle un precipice! lui seul y tombera; il se noie, ou Tautre philosophe peut tout rejeter? En avons-nous quel- se sauve a la nage. A quatorze ou quinze ans, il qu'une qui nous convainque que I'homme seul a entrevoit a peine les grands plaisirs qui I'attendent ete eclaire d'un rayon refuse a tous les autres ani- dans la reproduction de son espece; deja adolescent, maux? S'il n'y en point, prendre dans un jeu a nous ne pouvons pas il ne sait pas trop comment s'y plus connaitre par elle ce qui se passe dans eux, et il se que la nature apprend si vite aux animaux: meme dans les plaisir et hommes, que ne pas sentir ce qui cache, comme s'il etait honteux d'avoir du affecte I'interieur de notre etre. Nous savons que d'etre fait pour etre heureux, tandis que les animaux nous pensons et que nous avons des remords: un se font gloire d'etre cyniques. Sans education, ils sentiment intime ne nous force que trop d'en con- sont sans prejuges. Mais voyons encore ce chien et venir; mais pour juger des remords d'autrui, ce cet enfant qui ont tous deux perdu leur maitre dans sentiment qui est dans nous est insufiisant: c'est il ne sait a quel un grand chemin : I'enfant pleure, pourquoi il en faut croire les autres hommes sur servi par son odorat saint se vouer ; le chien, mieux leur parole, ou sur les signes sensibles et exterieurs _ I'autre par sa raison, I'aura bientot trouve. /^ que nous avons remarques en nous-memes, lorsque La nature nous avait done faits pour etre au nous eprouvions la meme conscience et les memes ^ous des animaux, ou du moins pour faire par lents. I'education, la meme mieux eclater les prodiges de Mais pour decider si les animaux qui ne parlent qui seule nous tire du niveau et nous eleye enfin point ont regu la loi naturelle, il faut s'en rapporter au-dessus d'eux. Mais accordera-t-on la meme dis- 44 MAN A MACHINE. L HOMME MACHINE. 45 consequemment a ces signes dont je viens de parler, refuse aux animaux ; car puisqu'ils nous offrent des suppose qu'ils existent. Les faits semblent le prou- signes evidents de leur repentir, comme de leur in- ver. Le chien qui a mordu son maitre qui Tagagait, telligence, qu'y a-t-il d'absurde a penser que des a paru s'en repentir le moment suivant; on I'a vu .X etres, des machines presque aussi parfaites que nous, soient, triste, fache, n'osant se montrer, et s'avouer coupable comme nous, faites pour penser et pour par un air rampant et humilie. L'histoire nous \__^sentir la nature? offre un exemple celebre d'un lion qui ne voulut \ Qu'on ne m'objecte point que les animaux sont pas dechirer un homme abandonne a sa fureur, pomNla plupart des etres feroces, qui ne sont pas parce qu'il le reconnut pour son bienfaiteur. Qu'il capables de sentir les maux qu'ils font; car tons les serait a souhaiter que Thomme meme montrat tou- hommes distinguent-ils mieux les vices et les ver- jours la meme reconnaissance pour les bienfaits et tus ? II est dans notre espece de la ferocite, comme plus dans la leur. Les hommes qui sont dans la bar- le meme respect pour I'humanite ! On n'aurait a craindre les ingrats, ni ces guerres qui sont le fleau bare habitude d'enfreindre la loi naturelle, n'en du genre humain et les vrais bourreaux de la loi sont pas si tourmentes que ceux qui la transgressent naturelle. 7 pour la premiere fois, et que la force de I'exemple Mais Un etre a qui la nature a donne un instinct n'a point endurcis. II en est de meme des animaux, si precoce, si eclaire, qui juge, combine, raisonne et comme des hommes. Les uns et les autres peuvent delibere, autant que s'etend et le lui permet la sphere etre plus ou moins feroces par temperament, et ils le de son activite; un etre qui s'attache par les bien- deviennent encore plus avec ceux qui le sont. Mais faits, qui se detache par les mauvais traitements et un animal doux, pacifique, qui vit avec d'autres animaux semblables, et d'aliments va essayer un meilleur maitre ; un etre d*une struc- doux, sera en- ture semblable a la notre, qui fait les memes ope- nemi du sang et du carnage, il rougira interieure- rations, qui a les memes passions, les memes dou- ment de I'avoir verse ; avec cette difference peut-etre leurs, les memes plaisirs, plus ou moins vifs sui- que, comme chez eux tout est immole aux besoins, vant Tempire de I'imagination et la delicatesse des aux plaisirs et aux commodites de la vie, dont ils jouissent plus que nous, leurs remords ne semblent nerfs ; un tel etre enfin ne montre-t-il pas clairement qu'il sent ses torts et les notres, qu'il connait le pas devoir etre si vifs que les notres, parceque nous ne bien et le mal et, en un mot, a conscience de ce qu'il sommes pas dans la meme necessite qu'eux. La fait? Son ame qui marque comme la notre les coutume emousse et peut-etre etouffe les remords, memes joies, les memes mortifications, les memes comme les plaisirs. deconcertements, serait-elle sans aucune repugnance Mais je veux pour un moment supposer que je a la vue de son semblable dechire, ou apres I'avoir me trompe, et qu'il n'est pas juste que presque tout I'univers ait lui-meme impitoyablement mis en pieces ? Cela pose, tort a ce sujet, tandis que j'aurais seul raison; j'accorde que les le don precieux dont il s'agit n'aurait point ete animaux, meme les plus L HOMME MACHINE. 47 46 MAN A MACHINE, hommes en tout, doivent participer aux memes excellents, ne connaissent pas la 4istinction du bien prerogatives de I'animalite, et qu'ainsi il n'est point et du mal moral, qu'ils n'ont aucune memoire des d'ame, ou de substance sensitive, sans remords. La attentions qu*on a cues pour eux, du bien qu'on leur reflexion suivante va fortifier celles-ci. a fait, aucun sentiment de leurs propres vertus; On ne pent detruire la loi naturelle. L'em- que ce lion, par exemple, dont j'ai parle apres tant preinte en est si forte dans tous les animaux, que d'autres, ne se souvienne pas de n^avoir pas voulu je ne doute nullement que les plus sauvages et les ravir la vie a cet homme qui fut livre a sa furie, plus feroces n'aient quelques moments de repentir. dans un spectacle plus inhumain que tous les lions, Je crois que la fille sauvage de Chalons en Cham- les tigres et les ours; tandis que nos compatriotes pagne aura porte la peine de^spn crime, s'il est vrai se battent, Suisses contre Suisses, freres contre qu'elle ait mange sa soeur.\Je pense la meme chose freres, se reconnaissent, s'enchainent, ou se tuent de tous ceux qui commett seulement que ceux dont la ment punis ; je pretends commis dans ce qu'elles avaient de plus cher ! quelle depravee, et la conscience eteinte, le punition d'un mal involontaire, auquel elles n'ont volonte est sont assez par leurs remords, quand ils reviennent pu resister, dont elles n'ont eu aucune conscience! a eux-memes; remords, j'ose encore le dire, dont Cependant ce n'est point ass^z^pparemment pour la nature aurait du en ce cas, ce me semble, de- les juges. Parmi les femmes dbnt^e p^le, Tune livrer des malheureux entraines par une fatale ne- fut rouee, et brialee, I'autre enterree vlvO Je sens cessite. ''""iiiii tout ce que demande Tinteret de la societe. Mais Les criminels, les mechants, les ingrats, ceux il serait sans doute a souhaiter qu'il n'y eut pour enfin que ne sentent pas la nature, tyrans mal- juges que d'excellents medecins. Eux seuls pour- heureux et indignes du jour, ont beau se faire un raient distinguer le criminel innocent, du coupable. cruel plaisir de leur barbaric, il est des moments Si la raison est esclave d*un sens deprave, ou en calmes et de reflexion, oil la conscience vengeresse fureur, comment peut-elle le gouverner? s'eleve, depose contr'eux, et les condamne a etre Mais si le crime porte avec soi sa propre punition presque sans cesse dechires de ses propres mains. plus ou moins cruelle; si la plus longue et la plus Qui tourmente les hommes, est tourmente par lui- barbare habitude ne pent tout-a-fait arracher le la juste me- meme ; et les maux qu'il sentira seront repentir des cceurs les plus inhumains; s'ils sont sure de ceux qu'il aura faits. dechires par la memoire meme de leurs actions ; pour D'un autre cote, il a tant de plaisir a faire du quoi effrayer I'imagination des esprits faibles par-^ y bien, a sentir, a reconnaitre celui qu'on regoit, tant un enfer, par des spectres, et des precipices de feu, de contentement a pratiquer la vertu, a etre doux, moins reels encore que ceux de Pascal* ?^u'est-il humain, tendre, charitable, compatissant et gene- besoin de recourir a des fables, comme un pape de reux (ce seul mot renferme toutes les vertus), que bonne foi Ta dit lui-meme, pour tourmenter les mal- je tiens pour a^ss^ pum quiconque a le malheur de heureux memes qu'on fait perir, parce qu'on ne les n'etre pas ne vertu^ru^ trouve pas assez punis par leur propre conscience, Tous n'avons pas originairement ete faits pour etre qui est leur premier bourreau? Ce n'est pas que je nos savants ; c'est peut-etre par une espece d'abus de veuille les criminels soient injuste- dire que tous "Ji facultes organiques, que nous le sommes devenus; * Dans un cercle, ou a table, il lui fallait tqujours un rem- et cela a la charge de I'Etat, qui nourrit une multi- part de chaises, ou quelqu'un dans son voisinage du cote vanite decores du nom gauche, pour I'empecher de voir des abimes epouvantables tude de faineants, que la a dans lesquels il craignait quelquefois de tomber, quelque con- de philosophes. La nature nous a tous crees uni- naissance qu'il eut de ces illusions. Quel effrayant effet de depuis le ver rimagination, ou d'une singuliere circulation dans un lobe du quement pour etre heureux'; oui, tous, cerveau! Grand homme d'un cote, il etait a moitie fou de qui rampe, jusqu'a I'aigle qui se perd dans la nue. I'autre. La folie et la sagesse avaient chacun leur departe- tous les animaux ment, ou leur lobe, separe par la faux. De quel cote tenait-il C'est pourquoi elle a donne a si fort a Mrs. de Port-Royal? J'ai lu ce fait dans un extrait quelque portion de la loi naturelle, portion plus du traite du vertige de Mr. de la Mettrie. : 50 MAN A MACHINE. l'homme machine. 51 exquise selon que le comportent les or- ou moins raisons autorisent a penser que probite, les memes I ganes bien conditionnes de chaque animal. I'atheisme ne I'exclut pas.* A present, comment definirons-nous la loi natu- de Qui sait d'ailleurs si la raison de rexistence relle ? C'est un sentiment qui nous apprend ce que nous rhomme ne serait pas dans son existence meme? ne devons pas faire, parce que nous ne voudrions pas point de Peut-etre a-t-il ete jete au hasard sur un qu'on nous le fit. Oserais-je aj outer a cette idee savoir ni la surface de la terre, sans qu'on puisse commune, qu'il me semble que ce sentiment n'est comment, ni pourquoi, mais seulement qu'il doit qu'une espece de crainte, ou de frayeur, aussi salu- qui vivre et mourir, semblable a ces champignons, taire a I'espece qu'a I'individu; car peut-etre ne paraissent d'un jour a I'autre, ou a ces fleurs qui respectons-nous la bourse et la vie des autres, que bordent les fosses et couvrent les murailles. pour nous conserver nos biens, notre honneur et Ne nous perdons point dans I'infini, nou3 ne nous-memes; semblables a ces Ixions du Christia- sommes pas faits pour en avoir la moindre idee; nisme qui n*aiment Dieu et n'embrassent tant de remonter a il nous est absolument impossible de chimeriques vertus, que parce qu'ils craignent I'en- I'origine des choses. II est egal d'ailleurs pour fer. notre repos, que la matiere soit eternelle, ou qu'elle Vous voyez que la loi naturelle n'est qu*un senti- en ait ait ete creee, qu'il y ait un Dieu, ou qu'il n'y encore I'imagination, ment intime, qui appartient a folic de tant se tourmenter pour ce , pas. Quelle comme tous les autres, parmi lesquels on compte connaitre, et ce qui ne nous /] qu'il est impossible de la Par consequent elle ne suppose evidem- pensee. rendrait pas plus heureux, quand nous en viendrions ni ni revelation, ni legislateur, a ment education, -^ ;^ -bout moins qu*on ne veuille la confondre avec les lois Mais, dit-on, lisez tous les ouvrages des Fene- civiles, ridicule des theologiens. a la maniere des Nieuventit, des Abadie, des Derham, des Les armes du fanatisme peuvent detruire ceux Rai,'e!CK. Eh bien! que m'apprendront-ils ? ou plutot qui soutiennent ces verites; mais elles ne detruiront que m'ont-ils appris ? Ce ne sont que d'ennuyeuses jamais ces verites memes. repetitions d'ecrivains zeles, dont I'un n'ajoute a Ce n'est pas que je revoque en doute Texistence I'autre qu'un verbiage, plus propres a fortifier qu'a d'un Etre supreme; il me semble au contraire que saper les fondements de I'atheisme. Le volume des le plus grand degre de probabilite est pour elle: preuves qu'on tire du spectacle de la nature, ne cette existence pas plus la mais comme ne prouve leur donne pas plus de force. La structure seule necessite d'un culte, que toute autre, c'est une verite d'un doigt, d'une oreille, d'un ceil, une observation theorique, qui n'est guere d'usage dans la pratique de Malpighi prouve tout, et sans doute beaucoup de sorte que, comme on peut dire, d'apres tant d'ex- mieux que Descartes et Malebranche; ou tout le periences, la religion suppose pas I'exacte que ne teste ne prouve rien. Les deistes, et les Chretiens memes devraient done se contenter de faire observer l'homme machine. 53 52 MAN A MACHINE. nini, les Desbarreaux. les Boindin, apotres qui que, dans tout le regne animal, les memes vues sont font plus d'honneur que de tort au deisme ! La du- executees par une infinite de divers moyens, tous ree de la sante de ces derniers a ete la mesure de cependant exactement geometriques. Car de quelles leur incredulite : et il est rare en effet, ajoutent-ils, plus fortes armes pourrait-on terrasser les athees? qu'on n'abjure pas Tatheisme, des que les passions II est vrai que si ma raison ne me trompe pas, se sont affaiblies avec le corps qui en est I'instru- Thomme et tout Tunivers semblent avoir ete des- ment. tines a cette unite de vues. Le soleil, I'air, Teau, Voila certainement tout ce qu'on peut dire de plus Torganisation, la forme des corps, tout est arrange favorable a I'existence d*un Dieu, quoique le der- dans I'oeil, comme dans un miroir qui presente fidele- nier argument soit frivole, en ce que ces conver- ment a Timagination les objets qui y sont peints, sions sont courtes, Tesprit reprenant presque tou- suivant les lois qu*exige cette infinie variete de jours ses anciennes opinions et se conduisant en corps qui servent a la vision. Dans I'oreille, nous consequence, des qu*il a recouvre ou plutot retrouve trouvons partout une diversite frappante, sans que ses forces dans celles du corps. En voila du moins cette diverse fabrique de I'homme, des animaux, beaucoup plus que n'en dit le medecin Diderot dans des oiseaux, des poissons, produise differents usages. ses Pensees philosophiques, sublime ouvrage qui Toutes les oreilles sont si mathematiquement faites, ne convaincra pas un athee. Que repondre en effet qu'elles tendent egalement au seul et meme but, qui a un homme qui dit? "Nous ne connaissons point est d*entendre. Le hasard, le deiste, demande << la nature: des causes cachees dans son sein pour- serait-il done assez grand geometre, pour varier « raient avoir tout produit. Voyez a votre tour le ainsi a son gre les ouvrages dont on le suppose "polype de Trembley! ne contient-il pas en soi les auteur, sans que tant de diversite put Tempecher "causes qui donnent lieu a sa regeneration? quelle d'atteindre la meme fin ? II objecte encore ces par- "absurdite y aurait-il done a penser qu'il est des ties evidemment contenues dans Tanimal pour de "causes physiques pour lesquelles tout a ete fait, et futurs usages, le papillon dans la chenille, Thomme "auxquelles toute la chaine de ce vaste univers est dans le ver spermatique, un polype entier dans "si necessairement liee et assujettie, que rien de ce chacune de ses parties, la valvule du trou ovale, "qui arrive ne pouvait pas ne pas arriver ; des causes le poumon dans le foetus, les dents dans leurs alve- "dont rignorance absolument invincible nous a fait oles, les OS dans les fluides, qui s'en detachent et se "recourir a un Dieu, qui n'est pas meme un etre de durcissent d'une maniere incomprehensible. Et ''raison, suivant certains? Ainsi, detruire le ha- comme les partisans de ce systeme, loin de rien "sard, ce n*est pas prouver Texistence d'un Etre su- negliger pour le faire valoir, ne se lassent jamais "preme, puisqu'il peut y avoir autre chose qui ne d'accumuler preuves sur preuves, ils veulent pro- "serait ni hasard, ni Dieu, je veux dire la Nature, fiter de tout, et de la faiblesse meme de Tesprit en "dont Tetude par consequent ne peut faire que des certain cas. Voyez, disent-ils, les Spinoza, les Va- w 54 MAN A MACHINE. l'homme machine. 55 "incredules, comme le prouve la fagon de penser de plation, ni expres place dans Torbite; qu'enfin il se "tous ses plus heureux scrutateurs." pourrait bien faire que Lucrece, le medecin Lamy Le poids de Vunivers n*ebranle done pas un veri- et tous les Epicuriens anciens et modernes eussent table athee, loin de rScraser; et tons ces indices raison, lorsqu'ils avancent que Toeil ne voit que par mille et mille fois rebattus d'un Createur, indices ce qu'il se trouve organise, et place comme il Test, qu'on met fort au-dessus de la faqon de penser dans que posees une fois les memes regies de mouvement nos semblables, ne sont evidents, quelque loin qu'on que suit la nature dans la generation et le developpe- pousse cet argument, que pour les Antipyrrhoniens, ment des corps, il n'etait pas possible que ce mer- ou pour ceux qui ont assez de confiance dans leur veilleux organe fut organise et place autrement. raison pour croire pouvoir juger sur certaines ap- Tel est le pour et le contre, et I'abrege des grandes parences, auxquelles, comme vous voyez, les athees raisons qui partageront eternellement les philo- peuvent en opposer d'autres peut-etre aussi fortes sophes. Je ne prends aucun parti. et absolument contraires. Car si nous ecoutons en- "Non nostrum inter vos tantas componere lites." core les naturalistes, ils nous diront que les memes causes qui dans les mains d*un chimiste et par le C'est ce que je disais a un Franqais de mes amis, hasard de divers melanges ont fait le premier mi- aussi franc Pyrrhonien que moi, homme de beau- roir, dans celles de la nature ont fait Teau pure, qui coup de merite, et digne d'un meilleur sort. II me en sert a la simple bergere: que le mouvement qui fit a ce sujet une reponse fort singuliere. II est conserve le monde, a pu le creer; que chaque corps vrai, me dit-il, que le pour et le contre ne doit a pris la place que sa nature lui a assignee; que point inquieter I'ame d'un philosophe, qui voit que Fair a dii entourer la terre, par la meme raison que rien n'est demontre avec assez de clarte pour forcer le fer et les autres metaux sont I'ouvrage de ses son consentement, et meme que les idees indicatives entrailles; que le soleil est une production aussi qui s'offrent d'un cote, sont ausitot detruites par I'autre. Cependant, re- naturelle, que celle de Telectricite ; qu'il n'a pas plus celles qui se montrent de ete fait pour echauffer la terre et tous ses habitants, prit-il, I'univers ne sera jamais heureux, a moins qu'il brule quelquefois, que la pluie pour faire pous- qu'il ne soit athee. Voici quelles etaient les raisons ser les grains, qu'elle gate souvent; que le miroir et de cet abominable homme. Si I'atheisme, disait- reau n'ont pas plus ete faits pour qu'on put s*y re- il, etait generalement repandu, toutes les branches garder, que tous les corps polis qui ont la meme de la religion seraient alors detruites et coupees plus propriete: que Toeil est a la verite une espece de par la racine. Plus de guerres theologiques ; trumeau dans lequel Tame pent contempler I'image de soldats de religion; soldats terribles! la nature des objets, tels qu'ils lui sont representes par ces infectee d'un poison sacre, reprendrait ses droits et les mortels corps : mais qu'il n'est pas demontre que cet organe sa purete. Sourds a toute autre voix, ait ete reellement fait expres pour cette contem- ,) tranquilles ne suivraient que les conseils spontanes 56 MAN A MACHINE. L HOMME MACHINE. 57 de leur propre individu, les seuls qu'on ne meprise a tout? oui, encore une fois. Puisque la pensee se point impunement et qui peuvent seuls nous conduire developpe visiblement avec les organes, pourquoi la au bonheur par les agreables sentiers de la vertu. matiere dont ils sont faits ne serait-elle pas aussi Telle est la loi naturelle; quiconque en est rigide susceptible de remords, quand une fois elle a acquis observateur, est honnete homme, et merite la con- avec le temps la faculte de sentir? fiance de tout le genre humain. Quiconque ne la L'ame n'est done qu'un vain terme dont on n'a suit pas scrupuleusement, a beau affecter les specieux point d'idee, et dont un bon esprit ne doit se servir dehors d'une autre religion, est un fourbe, ou un que pour nommer la partie qui pense en nous. Pose hypocrite dont je me defie. le moindre principe de mouvement, les corps animes Apres cela, qu'un vain peuple pense differem- auront tout ce qu'il leur faut pour se mouvoir, sentir, ment; qu'il ose affirmer qu'il y va de la probite penser, se repentir, et se conduire en un mot dans le meme, a ne pas croire la Revelation; qu*il faut en hysique, et dans le moral qui en depend. un mot un autre religion que celle de la nature, C Nous ne supposons rien; ceux qui croiraient que quelle qu*elle soit! quelle misere! quelle pitie! et la toutes les difficultes ne seraient pas encore levees, bonne opinion que chacun nous donne de celle qu'il vont trouver des experiences, qui acheveront de les a embrassee ! Nous ne briguons point ici le suffrage satisfaire. du vulgaire. Qui dresse dans son coeur des autels 1. Toutes les chairs des animaux palpitent apres a la superstition, est ne pour adorer des idoles, et la mort, d'autant plus longtemps que Tanimal est non pour sentir la ve^tuX plus f roid et transpire moins : les tortues, les lezards, V Mais puisque toutesTes facultes de Tame de- les serpents, etc. en font foi. pendent tellement de la propre organisation du cer- 2. Les muscles separes du corps, se retirent, lors- veau et de tout le corps, qu'elles ne sont visiblement qu'on les pique. que cette organisation meme: voila une machine 3. Les entrailles conservent longtemps leur mouve- bien eclairee! car enfin quand I'homme seul aurait ment peristaltique, ou vermiculaire. regu en partage la loi naturelle, en serait-il moins 4. Une simple injection d'eau chaude ranime le une machine ? Des roues, quelques ressorts de plus coeur et les muscles, suivant Cowper. que dans les animaux les plus parfaits, le cerveau 5. Le coeur de la grenouille, surtout expose au proportionnellement plus proche du coeur, et rece- soleil, encore mieux sur une table ou une assiette vant aussi plus de sang, la meme raison donnee; chaude, se remue pendant une heure et plus, apres que sais-je enfin ? des causes inconnues produiraient avoir ete arrache du corps. Le mouvement semble- toujours cette conscience delicate, si facile a blesser, t-il perdu sans ressource? il n'y a qu'a piquer le ces remords qui ne sont pas plus etrangers a la ma- coeur, et ce muscle creux bat encore. Harvey a tiere que la pensee, et en un mot toute la difference fait la meme observation sur les erapauds. qu'on suppose ici. L'organisation suffirait-elle done 6. Bacon de Verulam, dans son Traite Sylvch 58 MAN A MACHINE. L HOMME MACHINE. 59 Sylvarum, parle d'un homme convaincu de trahi- conclure de general, meme de toutes les experiences son, qu*on ouvrit vivant, et dont le cceur jete dans connues, et les plus decisives! Feau chaude sauta a plusieurs reprises, toujours Voila beaucoup plus de faits qu'il n'en faut, pour moins haut, a la distance perpendiculaire de 2 pieds. prouver d*une maniere incontestable que chaque pe- 7. Prenez un petit poulet encore dans Toeuf ; ar- tite fibre, ou partie des corps organises, se meut par rachez lui le coeur; vous observerez les memes phe- un principe qui lui est propre, et dont Taction ne nomenes, avec a peu pres les memes circonstances. depend point des nerfs, comme les mouvements vo- La seule chaleur de I'haleine ranime un animal pret lontaires, puisque les mouvements en question s'ex- a perir dans la machine pneumatique. ercent sans que les parties qui les manifestent aient Les memes experiences que nous devons a Boyle aucun commerce avec la circulation. Or, si cette et a Stenon, se font dans les pigeons, dans les force se fait remarquer jusques dans des morceaux chiens, dans les lapins, dont les morceaux de coeur de fibres, le cceur, qui est un compose de fibres sin- se remuent, comme les cceurs entiers. On voit le gulierement entrelacees, doit avoir la meme pro- meme mouvement dans les pattes de taupe arrachees. priete. L'histoire de Bacon n'etait pas necessaire 8. La chenille, les vers, Taraignee, la mouche, pour me le persuader. II m*etait facile d'en juger, Tanguille offrent les memes choses a considerer; et et par la parfaite analogic de la structure du coeur le mouvement des parties coupees augmente dans de I'homme et des animaux ; et par la masse meme Teau chaude, a cause du feu qu'elle contient. du premier, dans laquelle ce mouvement ne se cache 9. Un soldat ivre emporta d'un coup de sabre aux yeux, que parce qu'il y est etouffe; et enfin la tete d'un coq d'Inde. Cet animal resta debout, parce que tout est froid et affaisse dans les cadavres. ensuite il marcha, courut; venant a rencontrer une Si les dissections se faisaient sur des criminels sup- muraille, il se tourna, battit des ailes, en continuant plicies, dont les corps sont encore chauds, on ver- de courir, et tomba enfin. Etendu par terre, tous rait dans leur coeur les memes mouvements qu*on les muscles de ce coq se remuaient encore. Voila observe dans les muscles du visage des gens de- ce que j*ai vu, et il est facile de voir a peu pres capites. ces phenomenes dans les petits chats, ou chiens, Tel est ce principe moteur des corps entiers, ou dont on a coupe la tete. des parties coupees en morceaux, qu*il produit des 10. Les polypes font plus que de se mouvoir, mouvements non deregles, comme on Ta cru, mais apres la section ; ils se reproduisent dans huit jours tres reguliers, et cela, tant dans les animaux chauds en autant d'animaux qu'il y a de parties coupees. et parfaits, que dans ceux qui sont froids et impar- J*en suis fache pour le systeme des naturalistes sur faits. II ne reste done aucune ressource a nos ad- la generation, ou plutot j*en suis bien aise; car que versaires, si ce n*est que de nier mille et mille faits cctte decouverte nous apprend bien a ne jamais rien que chacun pent facilement verifier. Si on me demande a present quel est le siege de 61 60 MAN A MACHINE. L^HOMME MACHINE. encore bien expHques, mal- cette force innee dans nos corps, je reponds qu'elle des effets qu'on n'a point Tanatomie. reside tres clairement dans ce que les anciens ont gre toutes les lumieres de sur tous ces petits appelle parenchyme; c'est a dire dans la substance Je ne m'etendrai pas davantage tout le monde. Mais propre des parties, abstraction faite des veines, des ressorts subalternes connus de plus subtil, et plus merveilleux arteres, des nerfs, en un mot de I'organisation de il en est un autre il est la source de tous nos tout le corps; et que par consequent chaque partie qui les anime tous; plaisirs, de toutes nos pas- contient en soi des ressorts plus ou moins vifs, selon sentiments, de tous nos pensees; car le cerveau a ses le besoin qu'elles en avaient. sions, de toutes nos jambes pour mar- Entrons dans quelque detail de ces ressorts de la muscles pour penser, comme les ce principe incitant, et machine humaine. Tous les mouvements vitaux, ani- cher. Je veux parler de appelle evop/iwv (rame). maux, naturels et automatiques se font par leur impetueux, qu'Hippocrate il son siege dans le cerveau action. N'est-ce pas machinalement que le corps Ce principe existe, et a par lesquels il exerce son em- se retire, frappe de terreur a Taspect d'un precipice a Torigine des nerfs, le reste du corps. Par la s*explique inattendu ? que les paupieres se baissent a la menace pire sur tout s'expliquer, jusqu'aux effets sur- d'un coup, comme on Ta dit? que la pupille s*etrecit tout ce qui peut de I'imagination. au grand jour pour conserver la retine, et s'elargit prenants des maladies languir dans une richesse et pour voir les objets dans Tobscurite? n'est-ce pas Mais, pour ne pas entendue, il faut se borner a un machinalement que les pores de la peau se ferment une fecondite mal questions et de reflexions. en hiver, pour que le froid ne penetre pas Tinte- petit nombre de la simple idee d'une belle rieur des vaisseaux? que Testomac se souleve, irrite Pourquoi la vue ou des mouvements et des desirs par le poison, par une certaine quantite d*opium, femme nous cause-t-elle qui se passe alors dans certains or- par tous les emetiques, etc. ? que le cceur, les arteres, singuliers? Ce la nature meme de ces organes? les muscles se contractent pendant le sommeil, ganes, vient-il de Tespece de ; mais du commerce et de comme pendant la veille? que le poumon fait Tof- Point du tout ces muscles avec I'imagination, II n'y fice d*un souflet continuellement exerce ? n'est-ce pas sympathie de ressort excite par le bene placi- machinalement qu'agissent tous les sphincters de a ici qu'un premier par I'image de la beaute, qui la vessie, du rectum, etc.? que le coeur a une con- tum des anciens, ou autre, lequel etait fort assoupi, quand traction plus forte que tout autre muscle? que les en excite un si n'est eveille : et comment cela, ce muscles erecteurs font dresser la verge dans rimagination Ta tumulte du sang et des esprits, rhomme, comme dans les animaux qui s'en battent par le desordre et le avec une promptitude extraordinaire, le ventre, et meme dans I'enfant, capable d'erection, qui galopent gonfler les corps caverneux? pour peu que cette partie soit irritee ? Ce qui prouve, et vont communications evidentes entre pour le dire en passant, qu'il est un ressort singulier Puisqu'il est des dans ce membre, encore peu connu, et qui produit 62 MAN A MACHINE. L^HOMME MACHINE. 63 la mere et I'enfant*, et qu'il est dur de nier des passe-t-elle dans mes veines? Demandez-le aux faits rapportes par Tulpius et par d^autres ecrivains hommes d'imagination, aux grandes poetes, a ceux aussi dignes de foi (il n'y en a point qui le soient qu'un sentiment bien rendu ravit, qu*un gout exquis. plus), nous croirons que c*est par la meme voie que le que les charmes de la nature, de la verite ou de la fcetus ressent Timpetuosite par ce de Timagination mater- vertu transportent ! Par leur enthousiasme, nelle, comme une cire molle regoit toutes sortes qu'ils vous diront avoir eprouve, vous jugerez de la d*impressions ; et que les traces, envies que Borelli, memes ou de cause par les effets : par cette harmonie la mere, peuvent s'imprimer sur le foetus, sans que qu'un seul anatomiste a mieux connue que tous les cela puisse se comprendre, quoiqu*en disent Blondel Leibniziens, vous connaitrez Tunite materielle de et tous ses adherents. Ainsi nous faisons reparation rhomme. Car enfin si la tension des nerfs qui fait d'honneur au P. Malebranche, beaucoup trop raille la douleur, cause la fievre, par laquelle Tesprit est sa de credulite par les auteurs qui n'ont point ob- trouble et n'a plus de volonte ; et que reciproquement serve d'assez pres la nature et ont voulu Tassujettir Tesprit trop exerce trouble le corps, et allume ce a leur idees. feu de consomption qui a enleve Bayle dans un age Voyez le portrait vouloir, de ce fameux Pope, au moins si peu avance ; si telle titillation me fait me le Voltaire des Anglais. Les efforts, les nerfs de force de desirer ardemment ce dont je ne me sou- son genie sont peints sur sa physionomie; elle est ciais nullement le moment d'auparavant ; si a leur toute en convulsion; ses yeux sortent de Torbite, tour certaines traces du cerveau excitent le meme ses sourcils s*elevent avec les muscles du front. prurit et les memes desirs, pourquoi faire double Pourquoi? C*est que Torigine des nerfs est en tra- ce qui n'est evidemment qu'un ? C*est en vain qu'on vail et que tout le corps doit se ressentir d*une espece se recrie sur Tempire de la volonte. Pour un ordre d'accouchement aussi laborieux. S'il n*y avait une qu'elle donne, elle subit cent fois le joug. Et quelle corde interne qui tirat ainsi celles du dehors, d'ou merveille que le corps obeisse dan Tetat sain, puis- viendraient tous ces phenomenes? Admettre une qu'un torrent de sang et d'esprits vient Ty forcer, ante, pour les expliquer, c'est etre reduit a Yopera- la volonte ayant pour ministres une legion invisible Hon du St, Esprit. de fluides plus vifs que Teclair, et toujours prets a effet, si son En ce qui pense en mon cerveau n'est la servir ! Mais comme c'est par les nerfs que pas une partie de ce viscere, et consequemment de pouvoir s'exerce, c'est aussi par eux qu'il est arrete. tout le corps, pourquoi, lorsque tranquille dans mon La meilleure volonte d'un amant epuise, les plus lit je forme le plan d'un ouvrage, ou que je poursuis violents desirs lui rendront-ils sa vigueur perdue? un parce- raisonnement abstrait, pourquoi mon sang Helas ! non ; et elle en sera la premiere punie, s'echauffe-t-il ? pourquoi la fievre de mon esprit que, posees certaines circonstances, il n'est pas dans sa puissance de ne pas vouloir du plaisir. Ce que Au moins par les vaisseaux. Est-il sur qu'il n*y en a point par les nerfs ? j'ai dit de la paralysie, etc. revient ici. ; 64 MAN A MACHINE. L HOMME MACHINE. 65 La jaunisse vous surprend ! ne savez vous pas que que Thomme n'est qu'un animal, ou un assemblage la couleur des corps depend de celle des verres au de ressorts, qui tous se montent les uns par les autres, travers desquels on les regarde! Ignorez-vous que sans qu'on puisse dire par quel point du cercle hu- telle est la teinte des humeurs, telle est celle des main la nature a commence? Si ces ressorts different objets, au moins par rapport a nous, vains jouets entr'eux, ce n'est done que par leur siege et par de mille illusions ? Mais otez cette teinte de Thumeur quelques degres de force, et jamais par leur nature aqueuse de Toeil ; faites couler la bile par son tamis et par consequent Tame n*est qu*un principe de naturel: alors Tame ayant d'autres yeux, ne verra mouvement, ou une partie materielle sensible du plus jaune. N'est ce pas encore ainsi qu*en abattant cerveau, qu'on pent, sans craindre I'erreur, regarder la cataracte, ou en injectant le canal d'Eustachi, comme un ressort principal de toute la machine, qui on rend la vue aux aveugles, et Touie aux sourds? a une influence visible sur tous les autres, et meme Combien de gens qui n'etaient peut-etre d'ha- que parait avoir ete fait le premier ; en sorte que tous les biles charlatans dans des siecles ignorants, ont passe autres n'en seraient qu'une emanation, comme on le pour faire de grands miracles! La belle ame et la verra par quelques observations que je rapporterai puissante volonte, qui ne pent agir qu'autant que les et qui ont ete faites sur divers embryons. dispositions du corps le lui permettent, et dont les Cette oscillation naturelle, ou propre a notre ma- gouts changent avec Tage et la fievre ! Faut-il done chine, et dont est douee chaque fibre, et, pour ainsi s'etonner si les philosophes ont toujours eu en vue dire, chaque element fibreux, semblable a celle d'une la sante du corps pour conserver celle de Tame, pendule, ne pent toujours s'exercer. II faut la re- si Pythagore a aussi soigneusement ordonne la nouveler, a mesure qu'elle se perd; lui donner des diete, que Platon a defendu le vin? Le regime qui forces, quand elle languit; Taffaiblir, lorsqu*elle est convient au corps, est toujours celui par lequel les opprimee par un exces de force et de vigueur. C'est medecins senses pretendent qu'on doit preluder, en cela seul que la vraie medecine consiste. lorsqu*il s'agit de former Tesprit, de Telever a la Le corps n*est qu'une horloge, dont le nouveau connaissance de la verite et de la vertu; vains sons chyle est Thorloger. Le premier soin de la nature, dans le desordre des maladies et le tumulte des quand il entre dans le sang, c'est d'y exciter une sens! Sans les preceptes de Thygiene, Epictete, sorte de fievre, que les chimistes, qui ne revent que Socrate, Platon, etc. prechent en vain : toute morale foumeaux, ont du prendre pour une fermentation. est infructueuse, pour qui n'a pas la sobriete en Cette fievre procure une plus grande filtration partage : c'est la source de toutes les vertus comme d'esprits, qui machinalement vont animer les mus- rintemperance est celle de tous les vices. cles et le coeur, comme s'ils y etaient envoyes par En faut-il davantage (et pourquoi irais-je me ordre de la volonte. perdre dans Thistoire des passions, qui toutes s'ex- Ce sont done les causes ou les forces de la vie pliquent par Vcvopfuav d'Hippocrate) pour prouver qui entretiennent ainsi durant 100 ans le mouve- ; 66 MAN A MACHINE. L HOMME MACHINE. 67 ment perpetuel des solides et des fluides, aussi neces- divers. C'est supposer un joueur de flute qui pour- saire aux uns qu'aux autres. Mais qui peut dire rait faire de brillantes cadences sur une infinite de si les solides contribuent a ce jeu, plus que les trous qu'il ne connaitrait pas, et auxquels il ne fluides, et vice versa? Tout ce qu*on sait, c'est que pourrait seulement pas appliquer le doigt. Taction des premiers serait bientot aneantie, sans le Mais disons avec Mr. Hecquet qu*il n'est pas per- secours des seconds. Ce sont les liqueurs qui par mis a tout le monde d'aller a Corinthe. Et pourquoi leur choc eveillent et conservent I'elasticite des vais- Stahl n*aurait-il pas ete encore plus favorise de la seaux, de laquelle depend leur propre circulation. nature en qualite d'homme, qu*en qualite de chi- De la vient qu'apres la mort le ressort naturel de miste et de praticien? II fallait (heureux mortel!) chaque substance est plus ou moins fort encore sui- qu*il eut regu une autre ame que le reste des vant les restes de la vie, auxquels il survit, pour ex- hommes; une ame souveraine, qui non contente pirer le dernier. Tant il est vrai que cette force des d*avoir quelque empire sur les muscles volontaires, parties animales peut bien se conserver et s'aug- tenait sans peine les renes de tous les mouvements menter par celle de la circulation, mais qu'elle n*en du corps, pouvait les suspendre, les calmer, ou les depend point, puisqu'elle se passe meme de I'inte- exciter a son gre. Avec une maitresse aussi despo- grite de chaque membre, ou viscere, comme on I'a tique, dans les mains de laquelle etaient en quelque vu. sorte les battements du coeur et les lois de la circu- n'ignore pas cette opinion n'a pas ete lation, Je que point de fievre sans doute ; point de douleur goutee de tons les savants, et que Stahl surtout Ta point de langueur; ni honteuse impuissance, ni fa- fort dedaignec. Ce grand chimiste a voulu nous cheux priapisme. L'ame veut, et les ressorts jouent, persuader que Tame etait la seule cause de tons nos se dressent, ou se debandent. Comment ceux de la mouvements. Mais c'est parler en fanatique, et non machine de Stahl se sont-ils sitot detraques? Qui en philosophe. a chez soi un si grand medecin, devrait etre im- Pour detruire Thypothese Stahlienne, il ne faut mortel. pas faire tant d'efforts que je vois qu*on en a faits Stahl, au reste, n'est pas le seul qui ait rejete avant moi. II n'y a qu*a jeter les yeux sur un le principe d'oscillation des corps organises. De joueur de violon. Quelle souplesse! Quelle agilite plus grands esprits ne Tout pas employe, lorsqu'ils dans les doigts! Les mouvements sont si prompts, ont voulu expliquer Taction du coeur, Terection du qu'il ne parait presque pas y avoir de succession. penis, etc. II n*y a qu*a lire les Institutions de mede- Or, je prie, ou plutot je defie les Stahliens de me cine de Boerhaave, pour voir quels laborieux et dire, eux qui connaissent si bien tout ce que peut seduisants systemes, faute d'admettre une force aussi notre ame, comment il serait possible qu'elle exe- frappante dans tous les corps, ce grand homme a cutat si vite tant de mouvements, des mouvements ete oblige d'enfanter a la sueur de son puissant qui se passent si loin d'elle, et en tant d*endroits genie. ! 68 MAN A MACHINE. l'homme machine. 69 Willis et Perrault, esprits d*une plus faible trempe, celle-ci de la pensee. Et pour en venir a bout, 6 mais observateurs assidus de la nature, que le fa- bon Dieu, quels efforts n'ont pas faits certains phi- meux professeur de Leyde n'a connue que par autrui losophes! et quel galimatias j'ai eu la patience de et n'a eue, pour ainsi dire, que de la seconde main, lire a ce sujet! paraissent avoir mieux aime supposer une ame ge- Tout ce que Texperience nous apprend, c'est que neralement repandue par tout le corps, que le prin- tant que le mouvement subsiste, si petit qu'il soit cipe dont nous parlous. Mais dans cette hypothese dans une ou plusieurs fibres, il n'y a qu'a les piquer, qui fut celle de Virgile et de tous les Epicuriens, pour reveiller, animer ce mouvement presque eteint, hypothese que Thistoire du polype semblerait fa- comme on Ta vu dans cette foule d*experiences dont voriser a la premiere vue, les mouvements qui sur- j'ai voulu accabler les systemes. II est done constant vivent au sujet dans lequel ilssont inherents viennent que le mouvement et le sentiment s'excitent tour a d'un reste d'dme, que conservent encore les parties tour, et dans les corps entiers, et dans les memes qui se contractent, sans etre desormais irritees par corps dont la structure est detruite; pour ne rien le sang et les esprits. D'ou Ton voit que ces ecri- dire de certaines plantes qui semblent nous offrir vains dont les ouvrages solides eclipsent aisement les memes phenomenes de la reunion du sentiment toutes les fables philosophiques, ne se sont trompes et du mouvement. que sur le modele de ceux qui ont donne a la ma- Mais de plus, combien d'excellents philosophes ont tiere la faculte de penser, je veux dire, pour s'etre demontre que la pensee n*est qu'une faculte de sen- mal exprimes, en termes obscurs, et qui ne signifient tir, et que Tame raisonnable n'est que Tame sensi- rien. En effet, qu'est ce que ce reste d'dme, si ce tive appliquee a contempler les idees, et a raisonner n'est la force motrice des Leibniziens, mal rendue Ce qui serait prouve par cela seul que lorsque le sen- par une telle expression, et que cependant Perrault timent est eteint, la pensee Test aussi, comme dans surtout a veritablement entrevue. Voy. son Traite Tapoplexie, la lethargic, la catalepsie, etc. Car de la Mecanique des Animaux, ceux qui ont avance que Tame n*avait pas moins soporeuses, quoiqu'elle ne A present qu'il est clairement demontre contre pense dans les maladies les Cartesiens, les Stahliens, les Malebranchistes, et se souvint pas des idees qu'elle avait cues, ont sou- chose ridicule. les theologiens peu dignes d'etre ici places, que la tenu une est ce developpement, c'est une matiere se meut par elle-meme, non seulement lors- Pour ce qui de folic le a en rechercher le mecanisme. qu'elle est organisee, comme dans un coeur entier, de perdre temps nous est aussi inconnue par exemple, mais lors meme que cette organisation La nature du mouvement celle la matiere. Le moyen de decouvrir com- est detruite, la curiosite de Thomme voudrait savoir que de il s'y produit, a moins que de ressusciter avec comment un corps, par cela meme qu'il est origi- ment Tancienne et inin- nairement doue d'un souffle de vie, se trouve en Tauteur de rHistoire de VAme telligible doctrine des substantiellesl suis consequence orne de la faculte de sentir, et enfin par formes Je 70 MAN A MACHINE. l'homme machine. 71 done aussi console d'ignorer comment la matiere, juger de la nature de Tame. Je ne me trompe d'inerte et simple, devient active et composee d'or- point, le corps humain est une horloge, mais im- ganes, que de ne pouvoir regarder le soleil sans mense, et construite avec tant d*artifice et d'habilete, verre rouge: et je suis d'aussi bonne composition que si la roue qui sert a marquer les secondes vient sur les autres merveilles incomprehensibles de la a s'arreter, celle des minutes toume et va toujours nature, sur la production du sentiment et de la son train, comme la roue des quarts continue de pensee dans un etre qui ne paraissait autrefois a se mouvoir ; et ainsi des autres, quand les premieres, nos yeux homes qu'un peu de boue. rouillees, ou derangees par quelque cause que ce Qu'on m'accorde seulement que la matiere or- soit, ont interrompu leur marche. Car n'est-ce pas ganisee est douee d'un principe moteur, qui seul ainsi que Tobstruction de quelques vaisseaux ne la differencie de celle qui ne Test pas (eh! peut-on suffit pas pour detruire, ou suspendre le fort des rien refuser a Tobservation la plus incontestable?) mouvements, qui est dans le coeur, comme dans la et que tout depend dans les animaux de la diversite piece ouvriere de la machine; puisqu'au contraire de cette organisation, comme je Tai assez prouve; les fluides dont le volume est diminue, ayant moins e'en est assez pour deviner I'enigme des substances de chemin a faire, le parcourent d'autant plus vite, et celle de Thomme. On voit qu'il n'y en a qu'une emportes comme par un nouveau courant, que la dans Tunivers et que Thomme est la plus parfaite. force du coeur s'augmente en raison de la resistance II est au singe, aux animaux les plus spirituels, qu'il trouve a Textremite des vaisseaux? Lorsque ce que le pendule planetaire de Huygens est a une le nerf optique seul comprime ne laisse plus passer montre de Julien le Roi. S'il a fallu plus d'instru- rimage des objets, n'est-ce pas ainsi que la priva- ments, plus de rouages, plus de ressorts pour mar- tion de la vue n'empeche pas plus Tusage de Touie, quer les mouvements des planetes, que pour marquer que la privation de ce sens, lorsque les fonctions de les heures, ou les repeter; s*il a fallu plus d'art a la portion molle sont interdites, ne suppose celle Vaucanson pour faire son Fluteur, que pour son de Tautre? N'est-ce pas ainsi encore que Tun entend, Canard, il eut du en employer encore davantage sans pouvoir dire qu'il entend (si ce n'est apres rien, pour faire un Parleur ; machine qui ne pent plus etre Tattaque du mal) et que Tautre qui n'entend regardee comme impossible, surtout entre les mains mais dont les nerfs linguaux sont libres dans le d'un nouveau Promethee. II etait done de meme cerveau, dit machinalement tous les reves qui lui necessaire que la nature employat plus d*art et passent par la tete? Phenomenes qui ne surprennent d*appareil pour faire et entretenir une machine, qui point les medecins eclaires. lis savent a quoi s'en pendant un siecle entier put marquer tous les batte- tenir sur la nature de Thomme; et pour le dire en ments du coeur et de Tesprit ; car si on n*en voit pas passant: de deux medecins, le meilleur, celui qui au pouls les heures, c*est du moins le barometre de merite le plus de confiance, c'est toujours, a mon la chaleur et de la vivacite, par laquelle on peut avis, celui qui est le plus verse dans la physique. i> '!! 72 MAN A MACHINE. L HOMME MACHINE. 73 laissant d avouer que ces ou la mecanique du corps humain, et qui etres fiers et vains, plus distingues cette chimere par leur orgueil rame et toutes les inquietudes que que par le nom d'hommes, quelque n*est occupe seri- envie qu ils aient donne aux sots et aux ignorans, de s'elever, ne sont au fond que des animaux eusement que du pur naturalisme. et des machines perpendiculairement Laissons done le pretendu Mr. Charp se moquer rampantes. Elles ont toutes ce merveilleux instinct, dont des philosophes qui ont regarde les animaux, comme 1 education fait \ de I'esprit, et qui a toujours son ! siege dans des machines. Que je pense differemment Je crois le cerveau, et a son defaut, comme que Descartes serait un homme respectable a tous iorsqu il manque ou est ossifie, dans la moelle allon- egards, si, ne dans un siecle qu'il n'eut pas du eclairer, gee, et jamais dans le cervelet; car je I'ai vu con- il eut connu le prix de Texperience et de Tobser- siderablement blesse, d'autres* I'ont trouve squir- vation, et le danger de s'en ecarter. Mais il n*est reux. sans que I'ame cessat de faire ses fonctions. pas moins juste que je fasse ici une authentique re- iitre machine, sentir. penser, savoir distinguer le paration a ce grand homme, pour tous ces petits bien du mal, comme le bleu du jaune, en un mot philosophes mauvais plaisants, et mauvais singes de etre ne avec de 1 'intelligence et un instinct sur de Locke, qui, au lieu de rire impudemment au nez de morale, et n'etre qu'un animal, sont done des choses Descartes, feraient mieux de sentir que sans lui le qui ne sont pas plus contradictoires qu'etre un champ de la philosophic, comme celui du bon esprit singe ou un perroquet et savoir se donner du sans Newton, serait peut etre encore en friche. piaisir. Car, puisque I'occasion se presente de le II est vrai que ce celebre philosophe s'est beau- dire qui eut jamais devine d priori qu'une goutte coup trompe, et personne n'en disconvient. Mais de la hqueur qui se lance dans I'accouplement fit enfin il a connu la nature animale; il a le premier I ressentir des plaisirs divins, et qu'il en naitrait une parfaitement demontre que les animaux etaient de petite creature, qui pourrait un jour, posees cer- pures machines. Or, apres une decouverte de cette tames lois, jouir des memes delices? Je crois la importance et qui suppose autant de sagacite, le pensee si peu incompatible avec la matiere organisee, moyen, sans ingratitude, de ne pas faire grace a qu e le semble en etre une propriete, telle que I'elec- toutes ses erreurs! tncite, la faculte motrice. I'impenetrabilite, I'eten- Elles sont a mes yeux toutes reparees par ce grand due, etc. aveu. Car enfin, quoiqu'il chante sur la distinction Voulez vous de nouvelles observations? En voici des deux substances, il est visible que ce n*est qu*un I qu. sont sans replique et qui prouvent toutes que tour d'adresse, une ruse de style, pour faire avaler 1 homme ressemble parfaitement aux animaux dans aux theologiens un poison cache a Tombre d'une son origine, comme dans tout ce que nous avons deja analogic qui frappe tout le monde, et qu*eux seuls cru essentiel de comparer. ne voient pas. Car c*est elle, c'est cette forte J'en appelle a la bonne foi de nos observateurs. analogic qui force tous les savants et les vrais juges * Haller dans les Transact. Philosoph. > ; L HOMME MACHINE. 74 MAN A MACHINE. 75 vrai que I'homme semblable en cela a la matrice dont la substance Qu'ils nous disent s'il n'est pas qui devient meme se gonfle infiltres, dans son principe n'est qu'un ver, de sues independamment Les plus homme, comme la chenille papillon. de la repletion et du deploiement de tons ses coudes il faut vasculeux. graves* auteurs nous ont appris comment animalcule. Tons les Voyons I'homme dans et hors de sa coque; exa- s'y prendre pour voir cet Hartsoeker, dans la se- minons avec un microscope les plus jeunes em- curieux I'ont vu, comme ^ femme et non dans celle de la ; bryons, de 4, de 6, de 8 ou de 15 jours; apres ce mence de I'homme, ^ sots qui s'en soient fait scrupule. temps les yeux suffisent. Que voit-on ? la tete seule il nV a que les Comme chaque goutte de sperme contient une infinite un petit ceuf rond avec deux points noirs qui lances a I'ovaire, marquent les yeux. Avant ce temps, tout etant plus de ces petits vers lorsqu*ils sont adroit, ou le plus vigoureux qui informe, on n'apergoit qu'une pulpe medullaire, qui il nV a que le plus s'implanter dans Toeuf est le cerveau, dans lequel se forme d'abord I'origine ait la force de s'insinuer et de sa premiere des nerfs, ou le principe le que fournit la femme, et qui lui donne du sentiment, et coeur dans^ les qui a deja par nourriture.^ Cet oeuf, quelquefois surpris lui-meme dans cette pulpe la faculte la trompes de Fallope, est porte par ces canaux a de battre : c'est le punctum saliens de Malpighi, qui un grain de ble doit peut-etre deja une partie de sa vivacite a Tin- matrice, ou il prend racine, comme devienne monstru- fluence des nerfs. Ensuite peu-a-peu voit dans la terre. Mais quoiqu'il y on la point tete allonger col, eux par sa croissance de 9 mois, il ne differe le qui en se dilatant forme d'abord que sa peau le thorax, ou le coeur des oeufs des autres femelles, si ce n'est a deja descendu, pour s'y prodi- (Vamnios) ne se durcit jamais, et se dilate fixer; apres quoi vient le bas ventre qu'une cloison comparant (le gieusement, comme on en pent juger en diaphragme) separe. Ces dilatations donnent pres d'eclore (ce Tune, les bras, les mains, les doigts, les ongles, et les les foetus trouves en situation et une femme poils; I'autre les cuisses, les jambes, les pieds, que j'ai eu le plaisir d'observer dans etc., morte un moment avant Taccouchement), avec avec la seule difference de situation qu*on leur con- leur ori- nait, qui fait d'autres petits embryons tres proches de Tappui et le balancier du corps.' C'est coque, vegetation gine: car alors c'est toujours Tceuf dans sa une frappante. Ici, ce sont des cheveux ses mouve- qui couvrent le sommet de nos tetes ; la, et ranimal dans Toeuf, qui, gene dans ce sont des pour a voir le jour et ,_j^illes et des fleurs. ' Partout brille le meme luxe ments, cherche machinalement ;^ rompre avec la tete cette de la nature; et enfin Tesprit recteur des plantes y reussir, il commence par poulet, Toiseau, est place oij nous avons notre membrane, d'ou il sort, comme le ame, cette autre observation que je quintessence de I'homme. etc., de la leur. J'ajouterai une pas ne trouve nulle part; c'est que Vamnios n'tn est Telle est I'uniformite de la nature qu'on com- plus mince, pour s'etre prodigieusement etendu; mence a sentir, et I'analogie du regne animal et vegetal, de I'homme a la plante. Peut-etre meme Boerhaave, Inst, Med, et tant d'autres. ; 76 MAN A MACHINE. L HOMME MACHINE. 77 y a-t-il des plantes animal, c'est-a-dire qui en vege- bomes a ce qui n'en a point. Nous sommes dans i tant, ou se battent comme les polypes, ou font d'au- le cas d'une montre qui dirait: (un fabuliste en tres fonctions propres aux animaux? ferait un personnage de consequence dans un ou- Voila a peu pres tout ce qu*on sait de la genera- vrage frivole) "Quoi! c'est ce sot ouvrier qui m*a tion. <( Que les parties qui s'attirent, qui sont faites faite, moi qui divise le temps! moi qui marque si (( pour s'unir ensemble et pour occuper telle ou telle exactement le cours du soleil; moi qui repete a a place, se reunissent toutes suivant leur nature; et haute voix les heures que j'indique! non, cela ne ii qu'ainsi se forment les yeux, le coeur, Testomac et se peut pas." Nous dedaignons de meme, ingrats enfin i tout le corps, comme de grands hommes Tout que nous sommes, cette mere commune de tous les ecrit, cela est possible. Mais, comme Texperience rignes, comme parlent les chimistes. Nous ima- nous abandonne au milieu des ces subtilites, je ne ginons ou plutot supposons une cause superieure a supposerai rien, regardant tout ce qui ne frappe celle a qui nous devons tout, et qui a veritable- pas mes sens comme un mystere impenetrable. II ment tout fait d'une maniere inconcevable. Non, la est si rare que les deux semences se rencontrent matiere n*a rien de vil, qu'aux yeux grossiers qui dans le congres, que je serais tente de croire que la meconnaissent dans ses plus brillants ouvrages; la semence de la femme est inutile a la generation. ^ et la nature n'est point une ouvriere bornee. Elle Mais comment en expliquer les phenomenes, sans produit des millions d'hommes avec plus de facilite ce commode rapport de parties, qui rend si bien rai- et de plaisir, qu'un horloger n'a de peine a faire la son des ressemblances des en fants, tantot au pere, montre la plus composee. Sa puissance eclate egale- et tantot la a mere? D'un autre cote, Tembarras d'une ment et dans la production du plus vil insecte, et explication doit-elle contrebalancer un fait? II me dans celle de Thomme le plus superbe; le regne parait c'est que le male qui fait tout, dans une animal ne lui coute pas plus que le vegetal, ni le femme qui dort, comme dans la plus lubrique. plus beau genie qu'un epi de ble. Jugeons done L'arrangement des parties serait done fait de toute par ce que nous voyons, de ce qui se derobe a la etemite dans le germe, ou dans le ver meme de curiosite de nos yeux et de nos recherches, et n'ima- Thomme. Mais tout ceci est fort au-dessus de la ginons rien au dela. Suivons le singe, le castor, portee des plus excellents observateurs. Comme ils I'elephant, etc., dans leurs operations. S'il est evi- n'y peuvent rien saisir, ils ne peuvent pas plus juger dent qu'elles ne peuvent se faire sans intelligence,' de la mecanique de la formation et du developpe- pourquoi la refuser a ces animaux? et si vous leur ment des corps, qu'une taupe du chemin qu*un cerf accordez une ame, fanatiques, vous etes perdus; pent parcourir. vous aurez beau dire que vous ne decidez point sur Nous sommes de vraies taupes dans le champ sa nature, tandis que vous lui otez Timmortalite de la nature; nous ny faisons gueres que le trajet qui ne voit que c'est une assertion gratuite? qui ne de cet animal; et c'est notre orgueil qui donne des voit qu'elle doit etre ou mortelle, ou immortelle, 78 MAN A MACHINE. L HOMME MACHINE. 79 comme la notre, dont elle doit subir le meme sort blables, deploreraient amerement le sort de leur quel qu'il soit! et qu'ainsi c'est tomber dans Scilla espece qui leur semblerait s'aneantir. L'ame de pour vouloir eviter Carihde? ces insectes (car chaque animal a la sienne) est Brisez la chaine de vos prejuges ; armez-vous du trop bornee pour comprendre les metamorphoses il flambeau de Texperience et vous ferez a la nature de la nature. Jamais un seul des plus ruses d'entr- Thonneur qu'elle merite, au lieu de rien conclure eux n'eiit imagine qu'il dut devenir papillon. II a son desavantage, de Tignorance oii elle vous a en est de meme de nous. Que savons-nous plus de laisse. Ouvrez les yeux seulement, et laissez-la ce notre destinee, que de notre origine? Soumettons- que vous ne pouvez comprendre ; et vous verrez que nous done a une ignorance invincible de laquelle W ce laboureur dont Tesprit et les lumieres ne notre bonheur depend. s'etendent pas plus loin que les bords de son sillon, Qui pensera ainsi, sera sage, juste, tranquille sur ne differe point essentiellement du plus grand genie, son sort, et par consequent heureux. II attendra comme Vtxxt prouve la dissection des cerveaux de la mort, sans la craindre, ni la desirer ; et cherissant Descartes et de Newton: vous serez persuade que la vie, comprenant a peine comment le degout vient Timbecile ou le stupide sont des betes a figure corrompre un coeur dans ce lieu plein de delices; humaine, comme le singe plein d'esprit est un plein de respect pour la nature, plein de recon- petit homme sous une autre forme ; et qu'enfin tout naissance, d'attachement et de tendresse, a propor- dependant absolument de la diversite de Torganisa- tion du sentiment et des bien faits qu'il en a regus, tion, un animal bien construit, a qui on a appris heureux enfin de la sentir, et d'etre au charmant Tastronomie, pent predire une eclipse, comme la spectacle de I'univers, il ne le detruira certaine- guerison ou la mort, lorsqu'il a porte quelque temps ment jamais dans soi, ni dans les autres. Que dis- du genie et de bons yeux a Tecole d'Hippocrate et je! plein d'humanite, il en aimera le caractere jus- au lit des malades. C'est par cette file d'observa- ques dans ses ennemis. Jugez comme il traitera les tions et de verites qu'on parvient a Her a la matiere_ autres! II plaindra les vicieux, sans les hair; ce Tadmirable propriete de penser, sans qu'on en puisse ne seront a ses yeux que des hommes contrefaits. voir les liens, parce que le sujet de cet attribut nous Mais en faisant grace aux defauts de la conforma- est essentiellement inconnu. tion de I'esprit et du corps, il n'en admirera pas Ne disons point que toute machine, ou tout ani- moins leurs beautes et leurs vertus. Ceux que la mal, perit tout-a-fait, ou prend une autre forme, nature aura favorises lui paraitront meriter plus apres la mort; car nous n'en savons absolument d'egards que ceux qu'elle aura traites en maratre. ' rien. Mais assurer qu'une machine immortelle est C'est ainsi qu'on a vu que les dons naturels, la une chimere, ou un etre de raison, c'est faire un source de tout ce qui s'acquiert, trouvent dans la raisonnement aussi absurde que celui que feraient bouche et le coeur du materialiste des hommages des chenilles, qui, voyant les depouilles de leurs sem- que tout autre leur refuse injustement. Enfin le ! 80 MAN A MACHINE. L HOMME MACHINE. 81 materialiste convaincu, quoi que murmure sa propre ces raisonnements rebattus et pitoyables, qu'on fera vanite, qu'il n'est qu'une machine, ou un animal, sur la pretendue incompatibilite de deux substances ne maltraitera point ses semblables; trop instruit qui se touchent et se remuent sans cesse I'une et sur la nature de ces actions, dont I'inhumanite est I'autre, tant qu'il restera I'ombre du prejuge ou toujours proportionnee au degre d'analogie prouvee de la superstition sur la terre? Voila mon sys- ci devant; et ne voulant pas en un mot, suivant la teme, ou plutot la verite, si je ne me trompe fort. loi naturelle donnee a tous les animaux, faire a Elle est courte et simple. Dispute a present qui autrui ce qu'il ne voudrait pas qu'il lui fit. voudra Concluons done hardiment que I'homme est une machine; et qu'il n'y a dans tout I'univers qu'une seule substance diversement modifiee. Ce n'est point ici une hypothese elevee a force de demandes et de suppositions: ce n'est point I'ouvrage du prejuge, ni meme de ma raison seule; j'eusse dedaigne un guide que je crois si peu sur, si mes sens portant, pour ainsi dire, le flambeau, ne m'eussent engage a la suivre, en I'eclairant. L'experience m'a done parle pour la raison ; c'est ainsi que je les ai jointes ensemble. ) Mais on a du voir \ que je ne me suis permis le raisonnement le plus rigoureux et le plus immediate- ment tire, qu'a la suite d'une multitude d'observa- tions physiques qu'aucun savant ne contestera; et c'est encore eux seuls que je reconnais pour juges des consequences que j'en tire; recusant ici tout homme a prejuges, et qui n'est ni anatomiste, ni au fait de la seule philosophie qui soit ici de mise, celle du corps humain. Que pourraient contre un chene aussi ferme et solide ces faibles roseaux de la theologie, de la metaphysique et des ecoles; armes pueriles, semblables aux fleurets de nos salles, qui peuvent bien donner le plaisir de I'es- crime, mais jamais entamer son adversaire. Faut- il dire que je parle de ces idees creuses et triviales, de -^*^"l»sr- \ MAN A MACHINE. TT is not enough for a wise man to study nature A and truth; he should dare state truth for the i benefit of the few who are wilHng and able to think. As for the rest, who are voluntarily slaves of preju- dice, they can no more attain truth, than frogs can fly. I reduce to two the systems of philosophy which deal with man's soul. The first^ndj2ld£iLii)[st^m .>^ fv js materialism : the second is spirituahsm. nTj, The metaphysicians who have hinted that matter may well be endowed with the faculty of thoughti^ have perhaps not reasoned ill. For there is in this case a certain advantage in their inadequate way of expressing their meaning. In truth, to ask ) whether matter can think, without considering it otherwise than in itself, is like asking whether mat- ter can tell time. It may be foreseen that we shall avoid this reef upon which Locke had the bad luck —-^ to make shipwreck. The Leibnizians with their monads have set up an unintelligible hypothesis. They have rather spir- itualized matter than materialized the soul. How can we define ^^ing whose nature is absolutely unknown to usx2^ Descartes and all the Cartesians, among whom the followers of Malebranche have long been num- f 87 14-15] MAN A MACHINE. 86 MAN A MACHINE. [Text of faith, for, he ereign arbiter of the mysteries the same mistake. They have / bered, have made idea of Christianity \ adds, "what an astonishing taken for granted two distinct substances in man, reason. if one were to follow ^^ counted one would have, as if they had seen them, and positively to elucidate Not only do these reflections fail em. such frivolous ob- faith, but they also constitute The wisest men have declared that the soul can who undertake to to the method of those faith. However, jections not know itself save by the light of almost ashamed to interpret the Scripture, that I am as reasonable beings they have thought that they waste time in refuting them. could reserve for themselves the right of examining depend on a The excellence of reason does not what the Bible means by the word "spirit," which (immateriality), but big word devoid of meaning soul. And if in it uses in speaking of the human perspicuity of reason it- on the force, extent, and their investigation, they do not agree with the theo- should discover,^ Thus a "soul of clay" which more in self logians on this point, are the theologians relations and the con- at one glance, as it were, the agreement among themselves on all other points? of ideas hard to sequences of an infinite number Here is the result in a few words, of all their preferable to a fool- understand, would evidently be is the Author V' reflections. H there is a God, He that were composed of ish and stupid soul, though of nature as well as of revelation. He has given philos- • man is not a the most precious elements. A us the one to explain the other, and reason to make over the opher because, with Pliny, he blushes them agree. seems vile is wretchedness of our origin. What To distrust the knowledge that can be drawn and seems to be here the most precious of things, from the study of animated bodies, is to regard and most elaborate the object of nature's highest art / nature and revelation as two contraries which de- he should come from care. But as man, even though stroy each the other, and consequently to dare up- source, would yet be an apparently still more lowly hold the absurd doctrine, that God contradicts Him- so whatever the the most perfect of all beings, self in His various works and deceives us. noble, and lofty, origin of his soul, if it is pure, contradict K there is a revelation, it can not then which dignifies the man en- it is a beautiful soul nature. By nature only can we understand the dowed with it. ^ meaning of the words of the Gospel, of which ex- seems vicious Pluche's second way of reasoning perience is the only true interpreter. In fact, the smacks a little of tolJIT^en in his system, which commentators before our time have only obscured have an idea fanaticism; for [on his view] if we the truth. We can judge of this by the author of the clearest principles, of faith as being contrary to the "-Spectacle of Natu re.*'^ "It is astonishing," we must yet con- to the most incontestable truths, he says concerning Locke, "that a man who de- revelation and its author, clude, out of respect for grades our soul far enough to consider it a soul of clay should dare set up reason as judge and sov- / ) /A- /" / 89 88 MAN A MACHINE. [Text / 16-17I MAN A MACHINE. have admired it in the that this conception is false, and that we do not yet it in the first estate, than they the physicians h$ve understand the meaning of the words of the Gospel. second. Thus, to repeat, only What could the - Of the two alternatives, only one is possible: a right to speak on this subject^ have to say ? Is ^ either everything is illusion, nature as well as reve- others, especially the theologians, shamelessly coming ?. lation, or experience alone can explain faith. But it not ridiculous to hear them concerning which they what can be more ridiculous than the position of to conclusions about a subject of knowing anything, and from / our author ! Can one imagine hearing a Peripatetic have had no means completely say, "We ought not to accept the experiments of which on the contrary they have been studies that have led them Jorricelll^ for if we should accept them, if we turned aside by obscure in a word, to should rid ourselves of the horror of the void, what to a thousand prejudiced opinions,— ignorance an astonishing philosophy we should have!" fanaticism, which adds yet more to their I have shown how vicious the reasoning of Pluche of the mechanism of the body? chosen the best guides, is* in order to prove, in the first place, that if there But even though we have and stumbling blocks is a revelation, it is not sufficiently demonstrated we shall still find many thorns by the mere authority in the way. J\ /• — of the Church, and without ^ , . machinftSAhat it is im-^ any appeal to reason, as all those who fear reason Man is so complicated a of tlie^machin^ 1 claim: and in the second place, to protect against possiBlTto'gerircIear idea to define it. For this all assault the method of those who would wish to hand, and hence impossible have been vain, which follow the path that I open to them, of interpreting reason, all the investigations madejaj^nori, that is supernatural things, incomprehensible in themselves, the greatest philosophers have it were, the wings in the light oMhose ideas with which nature has to say, in so far as they use, as try- spirit. Thus it is only ajosteriori or by endowed jis i Experience and observation should of the from the organs of the therefore be our only guides here. Both are to be ing to disentangle the soul can reach the highest found throughout the records of the physicians who body, so to speak, that one -V man's own nature, even were philosophers, and not in the works of the phi- probability concerning discover with certainty what losophers who were not physicians^^ The former though one can not have traveled through and illuminated the labyrinth his nature is. of us then take in our hands the staff of ex- man ; they alone have laid bare to us those springs Let the accounts of all [of life] hidden under the external integument perience,i-paying no heed to of philosophers. To be blind and which conceals so many wonders from our eyes. the idle theories can do without this staff is the They alone, tranquilly contemplating our soul, have to think that one of blindness. How truly a contemporary surprised it, a thousand times, both in its wretched- worst kind only vanity fails to gather from ness and in its glory, and they have no more despised writer says that causes the same lessons as from primary * He evidently errs by begging the questioa secondary ^i\ — — ^1 \ 90 MAN A MACHINE. [Text 17-19] MAN A MACHINE. 91 causes! One can and one even ought to admire to make him feel all its motions ; and this causes him all these fine geniuses in their most useless works, an indefinable and inexpressible kind of imaginary such men as Descartes , Malebranche, Leibniz, WoJff suffering. This man cries like a child at death's and the rest, but whS ^ofitT^'ask,^ , , has~any one approach, while this other jests. What was needed \t gained from their profound meditations, and from to change the bravery of Caius Julius, Seneca, or a^^ their works ? Let us start out then to discover Petronius into cowardice or faintheartedness? not what has been thought, but what must be thought Merely an obstruction in the spleen, in the liver, for the sake of repose in life. an impediment in the portal vein ? Why ? Because ^ There are as many different minds, different char- the imagination is obstructed along with the viscera, J ""acters, and different customs, as there are different /and this gives rise to all the singular phenomena of temperaments. Even Galen^ knew this truth which ^''hysteria and hypochondria. Descartes carried so fa?ls to claim that medicine V What can I add to the stories already told of alone can change minds and morals, along with those who imagine themselves transformed into bodies. (By the writer of 'JJlust^redeVsme;'^ wolf-men, cocks or vampires, or of those who think this teaching is incorrectly ^attributedTo Hippoc- I ji rate^^O) that the dead feed upon them ? Why should stop It is true that melancholy, bile, phfeghi, ,1 blood to speak of the man who imagines that his nose or u etc.—according to the nature, the abundance, \'i'- some other member is of glass? The way to help and the different combination of these humors this man regain his faculties and his own flesh-and- make each man different from ^nother.^^ , In blood nose is to advise him to sleep on hay, lest disease the soul is sometimes hidden, showing fire to no sign of life; he break the fragile organ, and then to set sometimes it is so inflamed by fury the hay that he be afraid of being burned that it seems to be may doubled ; sometimes, imbecility vanishes a fear which has sometimes cured paralysis. But I and the convalescence of an idiot produces a wise man. must touch lightly on facts which everybody knows. Sometimes, again, the greatest genms be- comes imbecile Neither shall I dwell long on the details of the and loses the sense of self. Adieu then to all that fine effects of sleep. Here a tired soldier snores in a knowledge, acquired at so high a price, and with so much trench, in the middle of the thunder of hundreds trouble ! Here is a paralytic who asks if his leg of cannon. His soul hears nothing; his sleep is as is in bed with him; there is a soldier who deep as apoplexy. A bomb is on the point of crush- thinks that he still has the arm which has been cut off. ing him. He will feel this less perhaps than he feels The memory of his old sensations, and of insect which is under his foot. the place to which they an , were referred by hiVsoiil, is the cause On the other hand, this man who is devoured by ^ of his illusion, and of this kind of de- lirium. jealousy, hatred, avarice, or ambition, can never The mere mention of the member which he has lost find any rest. The most peaceful spot, the freshest is enough to recall it to his mind, and and most calming drinks are alike useless to one A MACHINE. [Text 92 MAN 19-21] MAN A MACHINE. 93 has not freed his heart from the torment of It who Its own measure and according to the dosg^ passion. makes a man happy in a state which would seem- the body fall asleep together. As The soul and ingly be the tomb of feeling, as it is the image of the motion of the blood is calmed, a sweet feeling soul would death. How sweet is this lethargy ! The and quiet spreads through the whole mech- a of peace long never to emerge from it. For the soul has been soul feels itself little by little growing anism. The prey to the most intense sorrow, but now feels only droop, and loses its tenseness, as heavy as the eyelids the joy of suffering past, and of sweetest peace. little it be- the fibres of the brain relax ; thus little by will, forcing the soul which Opium even alters the ii with it all the muscles comes as if paralyzed and wished to wake and to enjoy life, to sleep in spite the body. These can no longer sustain the of of itself. I shall omit any reference to the effect soul can no longer bear \ the ^ weight of the head, and I of poisons. as if it were the burden of thought; it is in sleep Coffee, the well-known antidote for wine, by not. scourging the imagination, cures our headaches and soul can not Is the circulation too quick? the scatters our cares without laying up for us, as wine the blood sleep. Is the soul too much excited? does, other headaches for the morrow. But let us be quieted: it gallops through the veins can not contemplate the soul in its other needs. . . ^ Such are the two opposite its ' ^zJ^JLAm^ with an audible murmur. human body is a machine which winds , The ^ in the midst causes of insomnia. A single fright It is the Ijvin image o f_perpetual own sprmgs. gf dreams makes the heart beat at double speed of our y|/vver^^^<^-» and snatches us from needed and delicious g^CE^se,^ pines Qt\yji/^- as a real grief or an urgentneedjvould do. \ Lastly away, goes mad, and dies exhausted. The soul is r"a5"Ttie"mere cessation otThe functionsoi the soul a taper whose light flares up the moment before produces sleep, there are, even when we are awake nourish the body, pour into its ^J^ ; it goes out. But (or at least when we are half awake), kinds of very veins life-giving juices and strong liquors, and then frequent short naps of the mind, vergers* dreams, the soul grows strong like them, as if arming itself which show that the soul does not always wait for soldier water ^ with a proud courage, and the whom the body to sleep. For if the soul is not fast asleep, would have made flee, grows bold and runs joy- it surely is not far from sleep, since it can not point ously to death to the sound of drums. Thus a hot out a single object to which it has attended, among drink sets into stormy movement the blood which ^ the uncounted number of confused ideas which, so to a cold drink would have calmed. speak, fill the atmosphere of our brains like clouds. is in meal! revives in ^, What power there a Joy Y ^^^^-^'^^^-^^'""^^ly^^^^,JUry^ Opium is too closely related to the sleep it pro- a sad heart, and infects the souls of comrades, who duces, to be left out of consideration here. This express their delight in the friendly songs in whichij^ drug intoxicates, like wine, coffee, etc., each in the Frenchman excels. The melancholy man alone^'^'*"'^ m. I / T MAN A MACHINE. 95 94 MAN A MACHINE. [Text 21-24I is dejected, and the studious man is equally out of onljLaLJSejLre^^ r is some- the wa our machinejsjmning. One )lace [in such company]. on y timeTincImeTto^rt^^ \f^-.JUi Raw meat makes animals^fierce, and it would } /^A/v< who said that stomach, m^r^J^i^^T^^^^^'' — Jjave the same effect on man. This is soTrue that thc-^^aToTthrsoul was in the pylorus, made only the English who eaFmeat red and bloody, and not whole. mistake of taking the part for the as well done as ours, seem to share more or less in the bring us We excesses cruel hunger can ! y^^^^^V^ the savagery due to this kind of food, and to other To what and chil- no longer regard even our own parents causes which can be rendered ineffective by educa- make tear them to pieces eagerly and tion only. This savagery creates in the soul, pride, dren. We the fury with horrible banquets of them; and in hatred, scorn of other nations, indocility and other always are carried away, the weakest is sentiments which degrade the character, just as which we strongest heavy food the prey of the makes a dull and heavy mind whose influence needs only eyes to see the necessary usual traits are laziness and indolence. One follows the prog- old age on reason. The soul Pope understood well the full power of greedi- of progress of educa- the body, as it does the ness when he said:i£ ress of soul accords also with tion. In the weaker sex, the "Catius is ever moral, ever grave, this delicacy fol- delicacy of temperament, and from Thinks who endures a knave is next a knave, due more ^ tenderness, affection, quick feelings Save just at dinner—then prefers no doubt, low reason, prejudices, and super- A rogue with ven'son to a saint without." to passion than to hardly be effaced. stitions, whose strong impress can Elsewhere he says: Man, on the other hand, whose brajnjadjier^ "See the same man in vigor, in the gout partake o^ Alone, in company, in place or out, "str^iger "UjakkLi^^ . .. .i:::::^ .^^ ——''^ Early at business and at hazard late. womelTlackr^trengnrens his mind Mad at a fox chase, wise at a debate. MJ^ad^iTwhich help of nature and art, Drunk at a borough, civil at a ball. still more. Thus with such more gen- Friendly at Hackney, faithless at White Hall." why should not a man be more grateful, stronger in ad- erous, more constant in friendship, In Switzerland we had a bailiff by the name of exactly the thought versity? But, to follow almost M. Steigner de Wittighofen. When he fasted he la hymogno- of the author of the ^Tettres sur ^ was a most upright and even a most indulgent charms of the mie"^^ the sex which unites the judge, but woe to the unfortunate man whom he ^rmfd'Tnd of the body with almost all the tenderest ^ found on the culprit's bench after he had had a should not \ and most delicate feelings of the heart, large dinner! He was capable of sending the in- have been vy us the two capacities which seem to nocent like the guilty gallows. envy to the enable him better given to man, the one merely to \ We think we are, and in fact we are, good men, 'i 96 MACHINE. [Text MAN A 24-26] MAN A MACHINE. 97 to fathom the allurements of beauty, and the other in foods, and difference in inheritance,* and in part merely to enable him to minister better to its pleas- from the mixture of the diverse elements which ures. void? The float around in the immensity of the \ It is no more necessary to be just as great a mind, like the body, has its contagious diseases and physiognomist as this author, in order to guess the its scurvy. quality of the mind from the countenance or the Such is the influence of climate, that a man who shape of the features, provided these are sufficiently change, goes from one climate to another, feels the Irflr^ marked, than it is necessary to be a great doctor ^J in spite of himself. Hejs^a^walking plantjadikh to recognize a disease accompanied by all its marked has transplanted itself: if jjae cli mfbte-ts-ircrtr'the^ symptoms. Look at the portraits of Locke^of Steele,, same, it will surely either dfg^^^^^^^ ^"^ improve of Boerhaave,^ ^ of Maupertuis,*"^ the rest, and and Furthermore, we catch everything from those you wilPnot 6e surprised to find strong faces and their with whom we come in contact ; their gestures, eagle eyes. Look over a multitude of others, and you lowered ( eyelid is instinctively accent, etc. ; just as the can always distinguish the man of talent from the when a blow is foreseen, or as (for the same reason) man of genius, and often even an honest man from a the body of the spectator mechanically imitates, in scoundrel. For example, it has been noticed that spite of himself, all the motions of a good mimic-i2- a celebrated poet combines (in his portrait) the V From what I have just said, it follows that a look of a pickpocket with the fire of Prometheus. brilliant man is his own best company, unless he History provides us with a noteworthy example can find other company of the same sort. In the of the power of temperature. The famous Duke society of the unintelligent, the mind grows rusty of Guise was so strongly convinced that Henry the for lack of exercise, as at tennis a ball that is Third, in whose power he had so often been, would served badly is badly returned. I should prefer an never dare assassinate him, that he went to Blois. intelligent man without an education, if he were When the Chancelor Chiverny learned of the duke*s still young enough, to a man badly educated. A departure, he cried, "He is lost." After this fatal badly trained mind is like an actor whom the prov- prediction had been fulfilled by the event, Chiverny inces have spoiled. was asked why he made it. "I have known the Thus, the^ diverse states of the^^oul are always "^ king for twenty years," said he; "he is naturally J^ correlative with thosc-of the bodV>^ \ But the better kind and even weakly indulgent, but I have noticed to show this dependenceTinitsaTfTipleteness and \ that when it is cold, it takes nothing at all to pro- its causes, let us here make use of comparative voke him and send him into a passion." J:^^ w anatomy; let us lay bare the organs of man and One nation is of heavy and stupid wit, and an- \^^ * The history of animals and of men proves how the mind other quick, light and penetrating. Whence comes \ i and the body of children are dominated by their mhentance this difference, if not in part from the difference from their fathers. ^i — ' 98 MAN A MACHINE. [Text 26-28J MAN A MACHINE. 99 of animals. How can human nature be known, if dition, that the more one gains in intelligence the ) we may not derive any light from an exact com- more one loses in instinct. Does this bring gain parison of the structure of man and of animals? or loss ? In general, the form and the structure of the Do not think, however, that I wish to infer by ^ brains of quadrupeds are almost the same as those V that, that the size alone of the brain, is enough to ll ' of the brain of man; the same shape, the same ar- indicate the degree of tameness in animals: the rangement everywhere, with this essential differ- quality must correspond to the quantity, and the ence, that of all the animals man is the one whose solids and liquids must be in that due equilibrium brain is largest, and, in proportion to its mass, more which constitutes health. convoluted t han the brain of any other animal ; then f, as is ordinarily observed, the imbecile does come the monkey, the beaver, the elephant, the not lack brain, his brain will be deficient in its con- dog, the fox, the cat. These animals are most like sistency—for instance, in being too soft. The same man, for among them, too, one notes the same thing is true of the insane, and the defects of their progressive analogy in relation to the corpus callo- brains do not always escape our investigation. But sum in which Lancisi anticipating the late M. de — if the causes of imbecility, insanity, etc., are not ob- ^ la Peyronie^ established the seat of the soul. The — vious, where shall we look for the causes of the di- Tatter, however, illustrated the theory by innumer- versity of all minds ? They would escape the eyes ofa^^ able experiments. Next after all the quadrupeds, lynx and of an argus. A mere nothing, a tiny fibre, birds have the largest brains. Fish have large something that could never be found by the most heads, but these are void of sense, like the heads delicate anatomy, would have made of Erasmus of many men. Fish have no corpus callosum, and andJPontenelleff two idiots, and FontenelleTiimserF very little brain, while insects entirely lack brain. speaks of this very fact in one of his best dialogues. ' shall not launch out into any more detail about Willis has noticed in addition to the softness of the varieties of nature, nor into conjectures con- the brain-substance in children, puppies, and birds, cerning them, for there is an infinite number of both, that the corpora striata are obliterated and dis- I as any one can see by reading no further than the colored in all these animals, and that the striations treatises of WjJHs "De Cerebro" and "De Anima are as imperfectly formed as in paralyticsTTTT:^ ' - /; Bnitoriim£2i . 'V 52i5^e}2i:xautious_5^^ shall CiA>^^^ ^^V^ 1 draw the conclusions which follow clearly the^9jQS£qiierices that c^be deduced fronitHeseob- ' from these \ incontestable observations: 1st, that the nervations, ana^ronTmanv^^ f ,>yMV^>^^^ fiercer animals are, the less brain they have; 2d, kirTd^f W variation in the organs, ^lerves? etc., [one that this organ seems to increase in size in propor- must admit that] so many di] iri^tie§^j^t tion to the gentleness of the animal; 3d, that na- not bejhe^atuitous play f>f ^^tn^^ Tljey prove ture seems here eternally to impose a singular con- at leastthe necessi^ for a gopH anH vigorous phys- * K [Text 101 100 MAN A MACHINE. 28-30] MAN A MACHINE. master, jcal organization, since throughout the anjrnaj_king- not considering myself worthy to be his that excellent tiTgains force"linth the body and ac- I should put him in the school of with another guiresjceenness, as the body gain s strength. teacher whom I have just named, or JLeFus pause to contemplate' the varying capacity teacher equally skilful, if there is one. of animals to learn. Doubtless the analogy best You know by Amman's work, and by all those wonders framed leads the mind to think that the causes we who have interpreted his method, all the born deaf. have mentioned produce all the difference that is he has been able to accomplish for those himself ex- found between animals and men, although we must In their ^yes he discovered ears, as he limited to the short he taught confess that our weak understanding, plains, and in how short a time ! In grant that coarsest observations, can not see the bonds that them to hear, speak, read, and write. I are keener exist between cause and effects. This is a kind of a deaf person's eyes see more clearly and loss of one member harmony that philosophers will never know. than if he were not deaf, for the of ^Among animals, some learn to speak and sing; or sense can increase the strength or acuteness understand they remember tunes, and strike the notes as ex- another, but apes see and hear, they the actly as a musician. Others, for instance the ape, what they hear and see, and grasp so perfectly not that show more intelligence, and yet can not learn music. signs that are made to them, that I doubt any What is the reason for this, except some defect in they would surpass the pupils of Amman in the edu- the organs of speech? But is this defect so essen- / other game or exercise. Why then should might not tial to the structure that it could never be remedied ? cation of monkeys be impossible? Why impossible last imitate In a word, would it be absolutely to the monkey, by dint of great pains, at think so. neces- teach the ape a language P^^ I do not after the manner of deaf mutes, the motions decide I should choose a large ape in preference to any sary for pronunciation? I do not dare however other, until by some good fortune another kind whether the monkey's organs of speech, like for nothing But, should be discovered, more us, trained, would be incapable of articulation. prevents there being such an one in regions un- because of the great analogy between ape and man^ whose exter- known to us. The ape resembles us so strongly and because there is no known animal man's, that naturalists have called it "wild man" or "man nal and internal organs so strikingly resemble of the I should take it in the condition were absolutely im- woods./ it would surprise me if speech ^^ certainly / of the pupils of Amman^ that is to say, I should possible to the ape. Locke, who was not want it to be too young or too old; for apes never suspected of credulity, found no difficulty William TempleSi that are brought to Europe are usually too old. in believing the story told by Sir / could an- I would choose the one with the most intelligent in his memoirs, about a parrot which carry face, and the one which, in a thousand little ways, swer rationally, and which had learned to best lived to its look of intelligence. Finally Soul.** up The author of "The Natural History of the fi\ ! 102 MAN A MACHINE. [Text 103 3i>-32] MAN A MACHINE. on a kind of connected conversation, as any really we do. I defy any one to name I Not only do know that people have ridiculed* this great meta- proves my view im- conclusive experiment which physician; but suppose the some one should have an- is the likeness of possible and absurd ; but such nounced that reproduction sometimes takes place the ape to ours that 1 structure and functions of without eggs or a female, would he have found this animal were prop- have very little doubt that if many partisans ? Yet M. Tremblev^ ^ has Pronounce found he might at last be taught to cases where erly trained reproduction takes place without copu- language. Jhen t^e and consequently to know, a lation and by fission. Would not Amman too have nor a defective would no longer be a wild man, passed for mad if he had boasted gentle that he could be a perfect man a little instruct man, but he would scholars like his in so short a time, before muscle as we have, with as much matter or he had happily man, accomplished the feat? His suc- by his education. for thinking and profiting cesses have, however, astonished the world; and The transition from^ninmlstojnan^n^vjj^. he, like the author of was '^TbeJEIisLorv of Polyps." has le}iC^n?^e:^noio^?n^lUlSr^ risen to immortality at one bound. Whoever owes the miracles that he works to his own genius sur- ^.oflangyageji^ An anlSl^ftT^ passes, in my opinion, the man In those who owes his to iiiitinct than the others. chance. He ^h much less who has discovered the art of adorning himself king over the other days, he did not consider the most beautiful of the kingdoms he ape [of nature], and was he distinguished from of giving anhnals, nor it perfections that it did not have, itself differs should be except as the ape f rated above and from the rest, an idle creator of frivolous systems, or a by a more mtelhgen ?rom the other animals, i. e.. painstaking author of sterile discoveries. Amman's knowledge of Reduced to the bare intuitive discoveries are certainly face of a much greater value; saw only shapes and colors, he has the 'Leibnizians he freed men from the instinct to which they between them being able to distinguish seemed to be condemned, without y^ and has given them ideas, child at all ages, he hsped The same, old'as young, intelligence, or in a word, a soul that is whijah the^woukL and his needs, as a dog never have out his sensations had. What greater power than this for something to or tired of sleeping, asks Let us not limit Sungry the resources of nature; they li a walk. are eat or for a t. c infinite, especially when reinforced by great and the fine art. languages, laws, sciences, ^"^-^i^uld not the Words, device which opens the Eustachian R the rough dia- have come, and by them finally canal of the deaf, open arts has that of apes? Might not a has been pohshed. Man happy mond of our mind desire to imitate the master's pronunciation, He has the same way as animals hberate been trained in the organs of speech in animals that imitate author, as they became beas^"*^"'^^^: \^o many other signs become an with such skill and intelligence ? perform the most geometrician has learned to * The A author of "The History of the SouL" and calculations, as a mon- difficult demonstrations \ A / 104 MAN A MACHINE. [Text 105 32-341 MAN A MACHINE. key has learned to take his Httle hat off and on, - feelings by mo- and to mount his tame dog. AH has been accoqi- of animals), to express their new \ ^Jlfation, V-r::plished through^gns^evsry. species has learned what tions depending on the nature ot tneir iiiU in this way men have ac- by spontaneous sounds, \ it could understand, and and^ therefore atterwards expression quired symbolic knowledge, still so called by our distmctive ot each animal, db LIil imUu-al and their GernSn'pHiTosophers./^ of their surprise, their joy, their ecstasies nature endowed , is so simple s_ the-, those whom t- "/- "C^ Nothin p^. as any one can see a needs ? For doubtless "^ facility in ex- metHamsm of our education. Everything may be with finer feeling had also greater reduced to sounds or words that pass from the pression. have used mouth of one through the ears of another into his That is the way in which, I think, men intelligence brain. At the same moment, he perceives through their feeling and their instinct to gain to gain his eyes the shape of the bodies of which these and then have employed their intelligence so far as I can words are the arbitrary signs. c J knowledge. Those are the ways, have filled the brain But who was the first to speak? Who was the understand them, in which men ^ of which nature first teacher of the human race ? Who invented the with the ideas, for the reception helped each other -y- means of utilizing the plasticity of our organism? made it. Nature and man have ; first splendid have, little by little, I can not answer : the names of these and the smallest beginnings could geniuses have been lost in the night of time. But increased, until everything in the universe -^^ art is the child of nature, so nature must have long be as easily described as a circle. -^ harpsichord key vi- preceded it. As a violin string or a cerebral fibres, We must think that the men who were the most brates and gives forth sound, so the to render highly organized, those on whom nature had lav- struck by waves of sound, are stimulated And as ished her richest gifts, taught the others. They or repeat the words that strike them. when eyes could not have heard a new sound for instance, nor the structure of the brain is such that perceived the experienced new sensations, nor been struck by all well formed for seeing, have once j^^ seeing the varied and beautiful objects that compose the image of objects, the brain can not help so ^when the ravishing spectacle of nature without finding them- their images and their differences, or im- selves in the state of mind of the deaf man of signs of these differences have been traced examines Chartres, whose experience was first related by the printed in the brain, the soul necessarily examination that would have ^ great Fontenelle,^^ when, at forty years, he heard their relations—an discovery of signs or for the first time, the astonishing sound of bells. been impossible without the the time when the Would it be absurd to conclude from this that the invention of language. At attitude toward the first mortals tried after the manner of this deaf universe was almost dumb, the soul's without any idea man, or like animals and like mutes (another kind all objects was that of a man piece of sculp- of proportion toward a picture or a ^^ \^' vf .^^^ A >3^^^" ^^' \ ^ / iiiilil IIP' 34-36] MAN A 106 MAN A MACHINE. [Text MACHINE. 107 4 tinguish and recall objects. All ture, in which he could distinguish nothing; or the our ideas are awak- ened after the fashion in which the soul was like a little child (for the soul was then gardener who knows plants recalls all stages of their growth at in its infancy ) who, holding in his hand small bits sight of them. These words of straw or wood, sees them in a vague and super- and the objects desig- nated by them are so connected in the brain that it is '^ ficial way without being able to count or distinguish V comparatively rare to imagine a thing But let some one attach a kind of banner, without the them. name or sign that is attached to it. or standard, to this bit of wood (which perhaps is I always use the word "imagine," called a mast), and another banner to another similar because I think .N^* that everything is the work of imagination, and object ; let the first be known by the symbol 1, and the that all the faculties of the soul can second by the symbol or number 2, then the child be correctly reduced to pure imagination in will be able to count the objects, and in this way which^ they all con- ^sist.3^ Thus judgment, reason, he will learn all of arithmetic. As soon as one andlnemory are not absolute parts of the soul, but figure seems equal to another in its numerical sign, merely modi- fications of this kind of medullary he will decide without difficulty that they are two screen upon which images of the objects painted in the eye are different bodies, that 1 + 1 make 2, and 2 + 2 make ' projected as by a magic lantern. 4,* etc. But if such is the ^ marvelous and This real or apparent likeness of figures is the incomprehen- sible result of the structure of the brain, fundamental basis of all truths and of all we know. if every- thing is perceived and explained by imagination, Among these sciences, evidently those whose signs j i why should we divide the sensitive are less simple and less sensible are harder to principle which thinks in man? Is not this a clear \ understand than the others, because more talent is inconsistency m the partisans of the required to comprehend and combine the immense simplicity of the mind? For a thing that is divided number of words by which such sciences express can no longer without absurdity be regarded as the truths in their province. On the other hand, indivisible. See to what ^one is brought by the abuse the sciences that are expressed by numbers or by of language and by j those fine words (spirituality, other small signs, are easily learned; and without immateriality, etc.) used haphazard and not understood doubt' this facility rather than its demonstrability even by the most brilliant^ l\ is what has made the fortune of algebra. Nothing is easier than to prove a system All this knowledge, with which vanity fills the based, as this one is, on th^ intimate feeljn_g # <- balloon-like brains of our proud pedants, is there- ani_personal experience of_eachJndividual. If the fore but a huge mass of words and figures, which imagination, or, let us say, that fantastic part of the brain form in the brain all the marks by which we dis- whose nature is as unknown to us as its way of acting, be * There are peoples, even to-day, who, naturally through lack of a small or weak, it will hardly be able to greater number of signs, can count only to 20. li -— < > f#f«*V ^J \ [Text 108 MAN A MACHINE. 36-38] MAN A MACHINE. 109 / resemblance of its ideas, compare the analogy or the tive, robust, broad, and capable of thinking. The is face with it will be able to see only what face to best of organisms has need of this exercise. will ^^ it, or what affects it very strongly; and how preeminent advantage is his organism. // , ^\ Man's all it is imagination which it see this! Yet always V In vain all writers of books on morals fail to re- V' apperceives, and imagmation which represents to gard as praiseworthy those qualities that come by ^v^' sym- itself all objects along with their names and nature, esteeming only the talents gained by dint again, imagination is the soul, bols; and thus, once of reflection and industry. For whence come, I it plays all the roles of the soul. By the im- since ask, skill, learning, and virtue, if not from a dis- agination, by its flattering brush, the cold skeleton position that makes us fit to become skilful, wise the of reason takes on living and ruddy flesh, by and virtuous? And whence again, comes this dis- imagination the sciences flourish, the arts are ^ position, if not from nature? Only through nature echoes sigh, the adorned, the wood speaks, the do we have any good qualities; to her we owe all rocks weep, marble breathes, and all inanimate ob- that we are. ^ Why then should I not esteem men ^ t is imagination again which adds !£ts gain \iie,^ with good natural qualities as much as men who the piquant charm of voluptuousness to the tender- shine by acquired and as it were borrowed virtues? heart; which makes tenderness ness of an amorous Whatever the virtue may be, from whatever source bud in the study of the philosopher and of the it may come, it is worthy of esteem ; the only ques- dusty pedant, which, in a wor^, creates scholars as tion is, how to estimate it. Mind, beauty, wealth, poets. ^^^Foolishly decried by well as orators and nobility, although the children of chance, all have some, vainly praised by others, and misunderstood their own value, as skill, learning and virtue have all ; it follows not only in the train of the graces by theirs. Those upon whom nature has heaped her the fine arts, it not only describes, but can and of most costly gifts should pity those to whom these also measure nature. It reasons, judges, analyzes, gifts have been refused; but, in their character of compares, and investigates. Could it feel so ceenly j experts, they may feel their superiority without the beauties of the pictures drawn tor it^_unlgsS-Jt pride. A beautiful woman would be as foolish to h their relations? No, asucan not \^W^ fliscovered. Jusi think herself ugly, as an intelligent man to think turn its thoughts^on tfie'pleasures of the senses, himself a fool. An exaggerated modesty (a rare without enjoying their perfection or their volup- fault, to be sure) is a kind of ingratitude towards tuousness, it can not reflect on what it has mechan- nature. An honest pride, on the contrary, is the ically conceived, without thus being judgment it- mark of a strong and beautiful soul, revealed by self. rnanly features moulded by feeling. - '^ The more the imagination or the poorest talent ^ If one's organism is an advantage, and the pre- is exercised, the more it gains in embonpoint, so to / eminent advantage, and the source of all others, speak, and the larger it grows. It becomes sensi- X ' education is the second. 'The best made brain would \ \ I i^ 7 110 MAN A MACHINE. [Text 38-40] MAN A MACHINE. Ill be a total loss without it, just as the best con- charact|r, to avoid all disputes stituted man would be but a common peasant, with- unless to whet conver- sation, ^he Cartesians out knowledge of the ways of the world. But, on would here in vain make an onset upon me with the other hand, what would be the use of the most their innate ideas) I certainly would not give myself a excellent school, without a matrix perfectly open quarter of the trouble that M. Locke took, to attack such to the entrance and conception of ideas? It is chimeras^ In truth, what is the use of writing a .... impossible to impart a single idea to a man ponderous volume to prove a doctrine which became an deprived of all his senses axiom three thou- sand years ago? But if the brain is at the same time well organized According to the principles which and well educated, it is fertile soil, well sown, we have laid a down, and which we consider true '*he that brings forth a hundredfold what it has re- who has the most imagination should be regarded ceived: or (to leave the figures of speech often as having th^ most intelligence or genius?^for all these h'»^ needed to express what one means, and to add grace J words are f synonymous; and again, only by a to truth itself) the imagination, raised by art to the shameful abuse [of terms] do we think that we are rare and beautiful dignity of genius, apprehends saying different things, when we are merely using different T exactly all the relations of the ideas it has con- words, different sounds, to which no idea or ceived, and takes in easily an astounding number of real distinction IS attached. ^bjects, in order to deduce from them a long chain The finest, greatest, or strongest of consequences, which are again but new relations, imagination is then the one most suited to the sciences as produced by a comparison with the first, to which well as to the arts. I do not pretend to say the soul finds a perfect resemblance. Such.is^_I^ whether more intellect is necessary to excel in the art think, the generation of intelligence*^^ I say "finds" of Aris- totle / or of Descartes than to excel in as I before gave the epithet "apparent" to the that of Eu- ripides or of Sophocles, and whether likeness of objects, not because I think that our nature has taken more trouble to make Newton senses are always deceivers, as Father Malebranche than to make Corneille, though I doubt this. 'But it is has claimed, or that our eyes, naturally little certain a un- that imagination alone, differently applied, steady, fail to see objects as they are in themselves, has pro- duced their diverse triumphs and their ^ (though microscopes prove this to us everyday) but ^^ immortal glory. '^ V in order to avoid any dispute with the Pyrrtlon- one is a known as having little judgment and ians^^j^^mong whom Bayle^l^is well known. much imagination, this means that the imagination I say of truth in general what M. de Fontenelle has been left too much alone, has, as it were says of certain truths in particular, that we must oc- cupied most of the time in looking at itself in sacrifice it in order to remain on good terms with the mirror of its sensations, has not sufficiently society. And it accords with the gentleness of my formed the habit of examining the sensations them- ; \ I A MACHINE. [Text / 112 MAN 40-42] MAN A MACHINE. 113 [It means that the imagination] selves attentively. ine them in all their aspects in order to see all sides impressed by images than by their has been more of an object, then the imagination, ready in judg- likeness. or their • truth , ment, will comprehend the greatest possible sphere , imagina- quick are the responses of the Truly, so of objects, through reasoning; and its vivacity (al- the that key or mother of tion that if attention, ways so good a sign in children, and only needing part, imagination can do sciences, does not do its I to be regulated by study and training) will be only run over and skim its objects. little more than a far-seeing insight without which little progress always ready bough : it seems See that bird on the can be made in the sciences. is like the bird, always to fly away. Imagination Such are the simple foundations upon which the turmoil of the blood and the carried onward by the edifice of logic has been reared. Nature has built leaves a mark, effaced by animal spirits. One wave these foundations for the whole human race, but pursues it, often m the one that follows; the soul some have used them, while others have abused which to regret the loss of that vain : it must expect them. Thus, quickly enough seized and fixed. I it has not 'In spite of all these advantages of man over ani- is being cease- I the true image of time, imagination, mals, it is doing him honor to place him in the. renewed. 'ilessly destroyed and same class. For, truly, up to a certain age, he is the continuous quick suc- } Such is the chaos and i^ more of an animal than they, since at birth he has they drive each other away cession of our ideas: less instinct. What animal would die of hunger in if yields to another. Therefore, ^ even as one wave the midst of a river of milk? Man alone.^^ Like were, use one set of its "imagination does not, as it that child of olden time to whom a modern writer, of equilibrium with the muscles to maintain a kind refers, following Arnobius^he knows neither the its attention for a while fibres of the brain, to keep foods suitable for him, nor the water that can disappearing, is on the point of upon an object that drown him, nor the fire that can reduce him to prema- itself from contemplating and to prevent ashes. Light a wax candle for the first time under [unless the imagination does turely another object— a child's eyes, and he will mechanically put his never be worthy of the fine name all this] , it will fingers in the flame as if to find out what is the has will express vividly what it of judgment. It new thing that he sees. It is at his own cost that fashion: it will create orators, perceived in the same he will learn of the danger, but he will not be caught poets, but never a single philos- musicians, painters, again. Or, put the child with an animal on a preci- if the imagination be opher. On the contrary, pice, the child alone falls off; he drowns where to bridle itself and to keep trained from childhood the animal would save itself by swimming. At four- its own impetuosity— from being carried away by teen or fifteen years the child knows hardly anything creates only brilliant enthu- an impetuosity which of the great pleasures in store for him, in the re- to restrain, its ideas, to exam- siasts—and to check, production of his species; when he is a youth, he h\ it MACHINE. 115 [Text .42-44] MAN A 114 MAN A MACHINE. by a ray us that man alone has been enlightened does not know exactly how to behave in a game such expe- all other animals? If there is no hides denied which nature teaches animals so quickly. He goes on in ani- rience, we can no more know what pleasure, himself as if he were ashamed of taking men, minds or even in the minds of other animals mals' and of having been made to be happy, while inner part than we can help feeling what affects the frankly glory in being cynics. Without education, and our own being. We know that we think, more ex- of they are without prejudices. For one forces us to rec- feel remorse—an intimate feeling a child who have ample, let us observe a dog and this feeling in us is ognize this only too well ; but cries lost their master on a highway: the child remorse of insufficient to enable us to judge the and does not know to what saint to pray, while the others at others. That is why we have to take than the dog, better helped by his sense of smell sensible and exter- their word, or judge them by the child by his reason, soon finds his master. A-^ when we nal signs we have noticed in ourselves lower than animals ' "^ nature made us to be and ^:?^ r^hus experienced the same accusations of conscience \)r at least to exhibit all the more, because of that the same torments. native inferiority, the wonderful efficacy of edu- do not In order to decide whether animals which v^ cation which alone raises us from the level of the must, there- talk have received the natural law, we grant animals and lifts us above them.N^ut shall we to which I have fore, have recourse to those signs this same distinction to the deaf and to the blind, facts seem to just referred, if any such exist. The to imbeciles, madmen, or savages, or to those who master who was teas- prove it..- A dog that bit the animals; have been brought up in the woods with minute afterwards; it ing it, seemed to repent a through to those who have lost their imagination show itself, and' looked sad, ashamed, afraid to y>'i' melancholia, or in short to all those animals in and seemed to confess its guilt by a crouching form who give evidence of only the rudest example human downcast air. History offers us a famous instinct? No, all these, men of body but not of abandoned of a lion which'would not devour a man mind, do not deserve to be classed by themselves. him as its bene- to its fury, because it recognized do not intend to hide from ourselves the that man We factor. How much might it be wished that can be brought forward against our kind- arguments himself always showed the same gratitude for belief and in favor of a primitiyedistinction between Then nesses, and the same respect for humanity! - Some say that there is in man wretches, men and animals. we should no longer fear either ungrateful law, a knowledge of good and evil, which race a natural or wars which are the plague of the human been imprinted on the heart of animals. has never and the real executioners of the natural law. this objection, or rather this assertion, based such a But is But a being to which nature has given -\ Any assertion unfounded_on _ob- judges, on observation? precocious and enlightened instinct, which be rejected byT philosopher. Have as the servation may combines, reasons, and deliberates as far we ever had a single experience which convinces — 117 116 MAN A MACHINE. [Text 44-46] MAN A MACHINE. living with others like themselves. But _\ Sphere of its activity extends and permits, a being more so by peaceful animal which lives among which feels attachment because of benefits received, a gentle and other animals of the same disposition and of gentle and which leaving a master who treats it badly goes 0' will be an enemy of blood and carnage; to seek a better one, a being with a structure like nurture, -^ f There ours, which performs the same acts, has the same itjwilTWushJntema^^ difference, that since among animals passions, the same griefs, the same pleasures, more is perhaps this sacrificed to their needs, to their pleas- or less intense according to the sway of the imagina- everything is necessities of life, which they enjoy tion and the delicacy of the nervous organization ures, to the more than we, their remorse apparently^ should not l\ does not such a being show clearly that it knows its be as keen as ours, because we are not in the same faults and ours, understands good and evil, and in a dulls state of necessity as they. Custom perhaps word, has consciousness of what it does ? Would its perhaps stifles remorse as well as pleasures. soul, which feels the same joys, the same mortifica- and will suppose for a moment that I am utterly 1 But I Ni tion and the same discomfiture which we feel, remain mistaken in concluding that almost all the world /Utterly unmoved by disgust when it saw a fellow- holds a wrong opinion on this subject, while I alone * / creature torn to bits, or when it had itself pitilessly best ^ am right. I will grant that animals, even the dismembered this fellow - creature ? If this be of them, do not know the difference between moral granted, it follows that the precious gift now in have no recollection of the question good and evil, that they would not have been denied to animals : for trouble taken for them, of the kindness done them, since they show us sure signs of repentance,' as no realization of their own virtues. [I will suppose], well as of intelligence, whatsis there absurd in think- for instance, that this lion, to which I, like so many ing that beings, almost as~p'erTect machines as our- t 'I others, have referred, does not remember at all that selves, are, like us, made to understand and to feel to kill the man, abandoned to its fury, in ature ? it refused a combat more inhuman than one could find among Let no one object that animals, for the most part, lions, tigers and bears, put together. For our com- are savage beasts, incapable of realizing the evil patriots fight, Swiss against Swiss, brother against that they do; for do all men discriminate better brother, recognize each other, and yet capture and between vice and virtue? There is ferocity in our pays kill each other without remorse, because a prince species as well as in theirs. Men who are in the for the murder. I suppose in short that the natural i)arbarous habit of breaking the natural law are law has not been given animals. Whatjvill be the not tormented as much by it, as those who trans- is not consequences of this supposition ? »^ (fen, gress it for the first time, and who have not been moulded from a costlier clay; nature has used but hardened by the force of habit. The same thing is one dough, and has merely varied the leaven. true of animals as of men—both may be more or vio- Therefore if animals do not repent for having less ferocious in temperament, and both become ^mf 118 MAN A MACHINE. [Text 46.48] MAN A MACHINE. 119 lated this inmost feeling which I am discussing, or daughter of a thief and cannibal who at twelve rather if they absolutely lack it, man must neces- years followed in his steps, although she had been sarily be in the same condition. Farewell then to orphaned when she was a year old, and had been the natural law and all the fine treatises published brought up by honest people; to say nothing of about it! 'The whole animal kingdom in general many other examples of which the records_Qf_Qur would be deprived of it. But, conversely, if man can observers are full, all of them proving that there not dispense with the belief that when health permits / are a thousand hereditary vices arid virtues which him to be himself, he always distinguishes the up- j are transmitted from parents to children as those right, humane, and virtuous, from those who are not of the foster mother pass to the children she nurses. humane, virtuous, nor honorable: that it is easy Now, I believe and admit that these wretches do 1 to tell vice from virtue, by the unique pleasure and not for the most, part feel at the time the enormity ) the peculiar repugnance that seem to be their natural of their actions. rBulimia, or canine hunger, for ex- effects, it follows that animals, composed of the ample, can stifle all feeling; it is a mania of the same matter, lacking perhaps only one degree of stomach that one is compelled to satisfy, but what fermentation to make it exactly like man's, must remorse must be in store for those women, when share the same prerogatives of animal nature, and they come to themselves and grow sober, and re- that thus there exists no soul or sensitive substance member the crimes they have committed against those without remorse.^^ The following consideration they held most dear! What a punishment for an will reinforce these observations. * ^ involuntary crime which they could not ijsijt, of It isimpossjble to destroy the natural law. The which they_ had no consciousness whatever! How- impress ot it on all animals is so strong, that I have ever, this is apparently not enough for the judges. no doubt that the wildest and most savage have For of these women, of whom I tell, one was cruelly some moments of repentance. I believe that that beaten and burned, and another was buried alive, cruel maid of Chalons in Champagne must have realize all that is demanded by the interest of so- orrowed for her crime, if she really ate her sistejij ^ ciety. But doubtless it is much to be wished__that 1 think that the same thing is Irue of all those who excellenij)hysicians might be the only judges. They commit crimes, even involuntary or temperamental alone cpuld tell the innocent criminal from the crimes: true of Gaston of Orleans who could not guilty. ILreason is the slave of a depraved or mad help stealing; of a certain woman who was subject Lesire, how can it control the desire?J ^(^ to the same crime when pregnant, and whose chil- But if crime carries with it its own more or less dren inherited it; of the woman who, in the same cruel punishment, if the most continued and most condition, ate her husband; of that other woman barbarous habit can not entirely blot out repent- who killed her children, salted their bodies, and ate ance in the crudest hearts, if criminals are lacerated a piece of them every day, as a little relish ; of that by the very memory of their deeds, why should we 48-50] MAN A MACHINE. 121 MAN A MACHINE. [Text 120 ' I doing good, in recognizing and appreciating what frighten the imagination of weak minds, by a hell, one receives, so much satisfaction in practising vir- by specters, and by precipices of fire even less real tue, in being gentle, humane, kind, charitable, com- than those of Pascal ?* Why must we have recourse passionate and generous ( for this one word includes ^sTas an honest pope once said himself, to all the virtues), that I consider as sufficiently pun- torment even the unhappy wretches who are exe- ished any one who is unfortunate enough not to cuted, because we do not think that they are suffi- have been born virtuous. ciently punished by their own conscience, their first We were not originally made to be learned; we executioner? I do not mean to say that all crim- have become so perhaps by a sort of abuse of our inals are unjustly punished; I only maintain that organic faculties, and at the expense of the State those whose will is depraved, and whose conscience which nourishes a host of^Tuggardg^hom vanity IS extinguished, are punished enough by their re- has adorned with the nameSf^iilosophers. Nature morse when they come to themselves, a remorse, has created us all solely to be happy^^ yes, all of I venture to assert, from which nature should in — 7 us from the crawling worm to the eagle lost in the this case have delivered unhappy souls dragged on cloulds. xFor this cause she has given all animals by a fatal necessity. some sh^re of natural law, a share greater or less Criminals, scoundrels, ingrates, those in short according to the needs of each animars organs when are without natural feelings, unhappy tyrants who ^<^ irh normal condition. V unworthy of life, in vain take a cruel pleasure in ^> ' Now how shall we define natural law? jLis a their barbarity, for there are calm moments of re- feelin g that teaches us what w^should not do, be- c \ flection in which the avenging conscience arises, cause we would not wish it to be done to us. Should testifies against them, and condemns them to be I dare add to this common idea, that this feeling almost ceaselessly torn to pieces at their own hands, seems to me but a kind of fear or dread, as salutary /itv^hoever torments men is tormented by himself; to the race as to the individual; for may it not be and the sufferings that he will experience will be ' true that we respect the purse and life of others inflicted. • the just measure of those that he has '* , y ' only to save our own possessions, our honor, and vjOn the other hand, there is so much pleasure in :'S ourselves; like those Ixions of Christianity^^ who In a company, or at table, he always required a rampart love God and embrace so many fantastic virtues, of chairs or else some one close to him at the left, to prevent merely because they are afraid of hell! _\ his seeing horrible abysses into which (in spite of his under- standing these illusions) he sometimes feared that he might You see that natural law is but an intimate feel- fall. What a f^JfjllM Ifg^lt of imagination. or-MJlie^-Peciir, side of ing that, like all other feelings (thought included), liar circulation in a lob£x^ the hraial Great man on one t-. his nature, on the other he was half-mad. Madness and wisdom, belongs also to imagination. Evidently, therefore, had its compartment, or its lobe, the two separated by each natural law does not presuppose education, revela- a fissure. Which was the side by which he was so strongly attached to Messieurs of Port Royal? (I have read this in an tion, nor legislator,—^provided one does not propose extract from the treatise on vertigo by M. de la Mettrie.) \i * — \ It [Text MACHINE. 123 122 MAN A MACHINE. 50-52] MAN A such works as those confuse natural law with civil laws, in the ridic- But, some will say, read all ^ to Abad.e of fashion of the theologians. of Fenelon," of Nieuwentyt^Lof ulous wil rest. Well ! what The arms of fanaticism may destroy those who Derhani,ii:irRais^and the what have they taught these truths, but they will never destroy the they te-^me or rather support zealous only tiresome repetitions of truths themselves. me? They are adds to the other only verb- I do not mean to call in question the existence writers, one of whom to undermine likely to strengthen than being ; on the contrary it seems to me iage, more of a supreme the atheism. The number of \ degree of probability is in favor the foundations of that the greatest does from the spectacle of nature of this belief. But since the existence of this being evidences drawn ^»M^ force. Either T>/v«r/^^, evidences any more . goes no further than that of any other toward not give these of a finger, of an ear, of aij.eye^ ^M^ proving the need of worship, it is a theoretic truth the mers^tructure h\ since rLoLMalsigtufi with very little practical value. Therefore, r^n^dToteeTvario ^^°^^fi,^^--~. muarbetteTthan Pescartgs anjL-Maie^ we may say, after such long experience, that religion dSubtless evidences prove honesty, we are authorized by b7SSEi3SSHXoZ3nheWr does not imply exact • even CHnstians, should there- the same reasons to think that atheism does not nothing.vPeists^land out that throughout the f content to point e^^clude it. ore~S aims are pursued and can be sure that the reason animal kingdom the same 13iv Furthermore, who different by an infinite number of f6r man's existence is not simply the fact that he accomplished exactly geomet- chance on mechanisms, all of them however exists ?^^ Perhaps he was thrown by herebe what stronger weaftgns could some spot on the earth's surface, nobody knows rical. For J UiuX i overthrow atheists?|)lt is tnle that it nor why, but simply that he must live and with which to how the whole z^,,.,,^^ es not deceive TnenBan and die, like the mushrooms which appear from day ASy reasgmiS- for this unity to have been designed or like those flowers which border the (universe seem to day, organism, the ^ThTiiH; air, water, the ditches and cover the walls. T oT' aim. V.i> is brought to a focus in the infinite, for we are shape of bodies,-everything , ourselves TCet us not lose presents eye as in a mirror that faithfully not made to have the least idea thereof, and are abso- in the reflected in it, in o) imagination all the objects lutely unable to get back to the origin of things. \ to the required by the infinite \ accordance with the laws Besides it does not matter for our peace of mind, f take part in vision. have been created^ variety of bodies which ^^A whether matter be eternal or the everywhere a striking variety, and yet I not a GoJ How foolish i we find \M^ wfiether there be or be birds, and ' in men, animals, things which difference of structure to torment ourselves "SO much about are produce different uses. AH ears know, and which would not make us fishes, does not we can not tend equally to mathematically made, that they any happier even were we to gain knowledge about so would end, namely, hearing. But ' one and the same em ! \^. / 124 MAN A MACHINE. [Text 52-541 MAN A MACHINE. .125 J Chance, the deist asks, be a great enough geometri- made to a man who says,' "We do not know nature; cian to vary thus, at pleasure, the works of which causes hidden in her breast might have produced she is supposed to be the author, without being hin- -0^ everything. Inj^ur turn, observe the polyp of Trem- 1 dered by so great a diversity from gaining the same s which bley :^Moes it not contain in itself the cause l^^• end? Again, the deist will bring forward as a bring aboutjegeneration ? Why^ then "wmM- it difficultyJthose parts oLthe animal that are clearly ^^<^T^. be^^ahsurdjojlimk^tha^ causes ^ contamed in it for future use^he butterfly in the by reason of which everything has lfeen niadergnd caterpillar, man in the sperm^^awliole polyp in each 5s tq^whid^^ "Lt-A -^^^-t. of its parts, tlie valvule in theovaT orifice, the lungs so necessarily bound and^MTHarrro^ in the foetus, the^teetH~m"tTieir sockets, the bones jn happens, could have failed to Tiappen,B-rcauses, the^ fluid from which they detach themselves and of which we are so invincibly ignorant that we (in aa.Jncomprehensible manner) harden. And have had recourse to a God, who, as some aver, since the partisans of this theory, far from neglect- much as a logical entity? Thus to de- is not so ftl ing anything that would strengthen it, never tire stroy chance is not to prove the existence of a of piling up proof upon proof, they are willing supreme being, since there may be some other thing to avail themselves of everything, even of the nature. which is neither chance nor God—I mean, weakness of the mind in certain cases. Look, It follows that the study of nature can make only they say, at men like Spinoza, Vanini,^^ Desbar- of all its more unbelievers ; and the way of thinking reau."*^ and Boindin,^^ apostles who^honor deism successful investigators proves this." more than they harm IE The duration of their - The weight of the universe therefore far from health was the measure of their unbelief, and one crushing a real atheist does not even shake him. rarely fails, they add, to renounce atheism when All these evidences of a creator, repeated thousands the passions, with their instrument, the body, have and thousands of times, evidences that are placed grown weak. far above the comprehension of men like us, are That is certainly the most that can be said in self-evident (however far one push the argument) favor of the existence of God : although the last argu- only to the anti-Pyrrhonians,^or to those who ment is frivolous in that these conversions are short, have enough confidence in their reason to believe and the mind almost always regains its former opin- themselves capable of judging on the basis of cer- ions and acts accordingly, as soon as it has regained tain phenomena, against which, as you see, the athe- or rather rediscovered its strength in that of the ists can urge others perhaps equally strong and ab- body. That is, at least, much more than was said solutely opposed. For if we listen to the naturalists by the physician Diderot,^* in his "Pensees Philo- again, they will tell us that the very causes which, i5^ sophiques," a sublime work that will not convince in a chemist's hands, by a chance combination, made a singk atheist. What reply can, in truth, be the first mirror, in the hands of nature made the r t 1 1 [Text 126 MAN A MACHINE. 54-56] MAN A MACHINE. 127 pure water, the mirror of the simple shepherdess; man, as frank a Pyrrgnian as^I, a man of much merit, that the motion which keeps the world going could and worthy of^ betfef tate. He gave me a very "p' have created it, that each body has taken the place singular answer in regard to the matter. "It is assigned to it by its own nature^Vthat the air must true," he told me, "that the pro and con should not have surrounded the earth, and that iron and the disturb at all the soul of a philosopher, who sees other metals are produced by internal motions of that nothing is proved with clearness enough to the earth, for one and the same reason ; that the sun force his consent, and that the arguments offered is as much a natural product as electricity, that it on one side are neutraHzed by those of the other. was not made to warm the earth and its inhabitants, However," he continued, "the universe will never whom it sometimes burns, any more than the rain be happy, unless it is atheistic."^^ Here are this was made to make the seeds grow, which it often wretch's reasons. If atheism, said he, were gen- spoils ; that the mirror and the water were no more erally accepted, all the forms of religion would then made for people to see themselves in, than were all be destroyed and cut off at the roots. No more other polished bodies with this same property ; that theological wars, no more soldiers of religion—such the eye is in truth a kind of glass in which the soul terrible soldiers! Nature infected with a sacred can contemplate the imag£_of_ objects as_fhey_are poison, would regain its rights and its purity. Deaf presented to it by these bodiesTlBurTHat^it is ^ot to all other voices, tranquil mortals would follow proved that this orgatrwsrs~really_made "expressly only the spontaneous dictates of their own being for this contemplation_^jiQ£jurposely placed iix4ts- the only commands which can never be despised socket, and in short that it mayj^lllSe that Lucre- with impunity and which alone can lead us to hap- tius,^^ the physictSTT'l^my,^^ and all EpicSreans piness through the pleasant paths of virtue. both ancient and modern were right when they Such is natural law: whoever rigidly observes sugge5ted that the eye sees only because it is fonned it is a good man and deserves the confidence of and placed as it is,^^ and that, given once for_all, all the human race. Whoever fails to follow it the s^e rules of motion followed by nature in the scrupulously affects, in vain, the specious exterior generation and development of bodies , this mar- of another religion; he is a scamp or a hypocrite Yflnns nrgaii^ould not have been formed and placed~~ whom I distrust. differently. \^ After this, let a vain people think otherwise, let Such is tlie pro and the con, and the summary them dare affirm that even probity is at stake in of those fine arguments that will eternally divide not believing in revelation, in a word that another the philosophers. I do not take either side. religion than that of nature is necessary, whatever it may be. Such assertion is "Non nostrum inter vos tantas componere lites."" an wretched and piti- able; and so is the good opinion which each one This is what I said to one of my friends, a French- gives us of the religion he has embraced! We do — i 128 MAN A MACHINE. [Text 56-58] MAN A MACHINE. 129 not seek here the votes of the crowd. Whoever removed shall now read of experiments that will raises in his heart altars to superstition, is born to completely satisfy them. orship idols and not to thrill to virtue. 1. The flesh of all animals palpitates after death. ji But since all the faculties of the soul depend to Jhis palpitation continues longer, the more cold Tsuch a degree on the proper organization of the blooded the animal is and the less it perspires. Tor- -..--A .KAy^ V brain and of the whole body, that apparently they toises, lizards, serpents, etc. are evidence of this. ^^V^-^thc- Ure but this organization itself, the soul is clearly 2. Muscles separated from the body contract when an enlightened machine. For finally, even if man they are stimulated. ^ 3. The intestines keep up their peristaltic or vermi- alone had received a share of natural law, would he be any less a machine for that? A few more cular motion for a long time. wheels, a few more springs than in the most perfect 4. According to Cowper,®^ a simple injection of animals, the brain proportionally nearer the heart hot water reanimates the heart and the muscles. and for this very reason receiving more blood 5. A frog's heart moves for an hour or more any one of a number of unknown causes might al- after it has been removed from the body, especially ways produce this delicate conscience so easily when exposed to the sun or better still when placed .1'* on a hot table or chair. If this movement seems wounded, this remorse which is no more foreign to /I matter than to thought, and in a word all the differ- totally lost, one has only to stimulate the heart, and ences that are supposed to exist here. Could the that hollow muscle beats again. Harvey^^made this organism then suffice for everything?^ Once more, same observation on toads. 6. Bacon of Verulam^^ in his treatise "Sylva yes ; since thought visibly develops with our organs, why should not the matter of which they are com- Sylvarum" cites the case of a man convicted of posed be susceptible of remorse also, when once it treason, who was opened alive, and whose heart has acquired, with time, the faculty of feeling? thrown into hot water leaped several times, each time less high, to the perpendicular height of two ( The soul is therefore but an empty word, of -f 130 MAN A MACHINE. [Text 58-60] MAN A MACHINE. 131 hearts would. The same movements can be seen me of this. It was easy for me to come to this con- clusion, in paws that have been cut off from moles. both from the perfect analogy of the struc- ture of the heart 8. The caterpillar, the worm, the spider, the fly, human with that of animals, and also from the very bulk of the in the eel — all exhibit the same phenomena; and in human heart, which this movement escapes our eyes only because it is hot water, because of the fire it contains, the move- smothered, ment of the detached parts increases. and finally because in corpses all the organs are cold and lifeless. If executed criminals 9. A drunken soldier cut off with one stroke of were dissected while their still his sabre an Indian rooster's head. The animal re- bodies are warm, we should probably see in mained standing, then walked, and ran: happening their hearts the same move- 11 ments that are observed in the face-muscles of those to run against a wall, it turned around, beat its that havebeenbeheaded. wings still running, and finally fell down. As it le motive principle of the whole body, and even lay on the ground, all the muscles of this rooster Y^ jkiji^ *, of its parts cut in pieces, is such that it produces kept on moving. That is what I saw myself, and not irregular movements, as some have thought, . almost the same phenomena can easily be observed but very regular on es, in warm blooded and perfeet^^^^^--^^ in kittens or puppies with their heads cut off. animals as well as in cold and imperfect ones^ No ' 10. Polyps do more than move after they have resource therefore remains open to our adversaries been cut in pieces. In a week they regenerate to form but to deny thousands and thousands of facts which as many animals as there are pieces. I am sorry " J eygryman can easily verify. that these facts speak against the naturalists* sys- now any one ask me where is this innate force tem of generation; or rather I am very glad of it, in our bodies, I answer that it very clearly resides for let this discovery teach us never to reach a in what the ancients called the parenchyma, that is general conclusion even on the ground of all known to say, in the (and most decisive) experiments. very substance of the organs not in- cluding the veins, the arteries, the nerves, in a rTHere we have many more facts than are needed to AA^V^KAyXcif^ word, that it resides in the organi54tion of the prove, in an incontestable way, that each tiny fibre whole body, and that consequently each organ con- or part of an organized body moves by a principle tains within itself forces more or less active accord- which belongs to it^' Its activity, unlike voluntary ing to the need of them. motions, does not 3epend in any way on the nerves, Let us now go into somg^tail concerning these since the movements in question occur in parts of springs of the human^ machine. \\\llthe JsdtaXlani^ the body which have no connection with the cir- maL natural, and^utornati^ ^ntmng ^re carried < 132 MAN A MACHINE. [Text 60-63] MAN A MACHINE. 133 that the eyelids are lowered at the menace of a in such a laborious deliverance. If there were not I blow, as some have remarked, and that the pupil an internal cord which pulled the external ones, contracts in broad daylight to save the retina, and whence would come all these phenomena? To admit \ is to be reduced to I dilates to see objects in darkness? Is it not by a soul as explanation of them, mechanical means that the pores of the skin close [explaining phenomena by] the operations of the in winter so that the cold can not penetrate to the Holy Spirit. interior of the blood vessels, and that the stomach fact, if what thinks in my brain is not a part (./V-/" vomits when it is irritated by poison, by a certain of this organ and therefore of the whole body, why quantity of opium and by all emetics, etc. ? that the does my blood boil, and the fever of my mind pass form- heart, the arteries and the muscles contract in sleep into my veins, when lying quietly in bed, I am ^-W-^. as well as in waking hours, that the lungs serve as ing the plan of some work or carrying on an ab- bellows continually in exercise, that the heart stract calculation? Put this question to men of im- are enraptured contracts more strongly than any other muscle ?5S.. . agination, to great poets, to men who I shall not go into any more detail concerning all by the felicitous expression of sentiment, and trans- of these little subordinate forces, well known to all. ported by an exquisite fancy or by the charms enthusiasm, But there is another more subtle and marvelous nature, of truth, or of virtue ! By their experienced, force, which animates them all; it is the source of by what they will tell you they have that har- all our feelings, of all our pleasures, of all our you will judge the cause by its effects ; by Borelli^^la mere anatomist, understood \ passions, and of all our thoughts : for the brain mony which all fEeLeibnizians, you will comprehend t has its muscles for thinking, as the legs have muscles better than for walking/£I I wish to speak of this impetuous the material unity of man. In short, if the nerve- principle that Hippocrates calls cvop/twi/V(soul). This tension which causes pain occasions also the fever its will-power, principle exists and has its seat in the brain at the by which the distracted mind loses too much excited, dis- origin of the nerves, by which it exercises its con- and if, conversely, the mind that inner fire which trol over all the rest of the body.^ TBy this fact is turbs the body (and kindles still so young) ; if an explained all that can be explained, even to the sur- killed Bayle while he was ardent wish for prising effects of maladies of the imagination agitation rouses my desire and my ago, I cared nothing about, and if Look at the portrait of the famous Pope who is, what, a moment impressions excite the to say the leajt,jhe Voltaire of the English." The in their turn certain brain desires, then why should effort, the energy of his geni^^^e imprinted upon same longing and the same is manifestly one being?' his countenance. It is convulsed. His eyes pro- we regard as double what the power of the will, since \A^ trude from their sockets, the eyebrows are raised In vain you fall back on gives, it bows a hundred with the muscles of the forehead. Why? Because for one order that the will yoke.52 what wonder that in the brain is in travail and all the body must share times to the And [Text 134 MAN A MACHINE. 63-65] MAN A MACHINE. 135 health the body obevg. since a torrent of blood giene, Epictetus, Socrates, Plato, and the rest and of animal^-smrity^ forces its obedience, and J preach in vain: all ethics is fruitless for one who "since the will has as ministers an invisible legion of lacks his share of temperance; it is the source of fluids swifter than lightning and ever ready to do all virtues, as intemperance is the source of all its bidding! But as the power of the will is exer- vices. cised by means of the nerves, it is likewise limited Is more needed^ (for whv lose myself ip dis- by them cussion of the passions which are all explained by Does the result of jaundice surprise you? Do tnej:erm, cvo/o/Aw^^_Hi2pocrates) to prove that man you not know that the color of bodies depends on isbut an animal, or acollection of springswhich wind the color of the glasses through which we look at eachotherup, without our being able to tell at"what them,*^^ and that whatever is color the of the humors, this pointJn_ human circle , nature has begun_?_J[f such is the color of objects, at least for us, vain uMr thesesprings differ among themselves, these djger- playthings of a thousand illusions? But remove ences consist only in their position and in theirdg- this color from the aqueous humor of the eye, let grees~or strength, and never in their nature; wliere- the bile flow through its natural filter, then the soul tr- fore_the son l is.,^ut a principle of motion or a having new eyes, will no longer see yellow. Again, is material and sensible part of the brain, which can ^ it not thus, by removing cataract, or by injecting the ^~7egaHgd»....:w ithout fear of error, as the main- Eustachian canal, that sight is restored to the blind, spring of the whole machine, having a visible in- or hearing to the deaf? many people, How who fluence on all the parts: The soul seems even to were perhaps only clever charlatans, passed for mir- 'have been made le Drain, so that all the other acle workers in the dark ages! Beautiful the soul, paits of the system are but a kind of emanation and powerful the will which can not act save by from the brain. This will appear from certain ob- permission of the bodily conditions, and whose servations, made on different embryos, which I shall tastes change with age and fever ! Should we, then, now enumerate. be astonished that philosophers have always had JThis_^scillatiDn, which is natural or suited to our in mind the health of the body, to preserve the achine, and with which each fibre and even each health of the soul, that Pythagoras'^^ j-^j^g £qj. g^y^ )rous element, so to speak, seems to be endowed, the diet as carefully as Plato forbade ?'^^ wine The ce that of a pendulum, can not keep up forever. regime suited to the body is always the one with It must be renewed, as it loses strength,invigorated which sane physicians think they must begin, when when it is tired, and weakened when it is disturbed it is a question of forming the mind, and of instruct- by excess of strength and vigor. In this alone, true ing it in the knowledge of truth and virtue ; but these V. medicine consists. are vain words in the disorder of illness, and in the The body is but a watch, whose watchmaker is tumult of the senses. Without the precepts of hy- thc^^JML chvleT^ature s iirst care, when the chyJiT A^-^tetv^ ,./ gi[|2l2Qil3S *nfc ••*"-*^ ! ' ^-^ I »,. UJ ' II ) \ 65-67] MAN A MACHINE. 137 136 MAN A MACHINE. [Text done before me. We need only glance at a violinist. enters the blood, is to excite in it a kind of fever^* What flexibility, what lightness in his fingers! The ' which the chemists, who dream only of retorts, must movements are so quick, that it seems almost as if have taken for fermentation. This fever produces there were no succession. But I pray, or rather I a greater filtration of spirits, which mechanically challenge, the followers of Stahl who understand animate the muscles and the heart, as if they had so perfectly all that our soul can do, to tell me how V been sent there by order of the will. it could possibly execute so many motions so quickly, These then are the causes or the forces of life motions, moreover, which take place so far from which thus sustain for a hundred years that per- the soul, and in so many different places. That is petual movement of the solids and the liquids which to suppose that a flute player could play brilliant ca- is as necessary to the first as to the second. But dences on an infinite number of holes that he could who can say whether the solids contribute more than not know, and on which he could not even put his the fluids to this movement or vice versa? All that finger we know is that the action of the former would But let us say with M. Hecquet'^^ that all men soon cease without the help of the latter, that is, may not go to Corinth.'^'^ Why should not Stahl without the help of the fluids which by their onset have been even more favored by nature as a man rouse and maintain the elasticity of the blood ves- than as a chemist and a practitioner ? Happy mortal, sels on which their own circulation depends. From he must have received a soul different from that this it follows that after death the natural resilience of the rest of mankind,—a sovereign soul, which, of each substance is still more or less strong ac- not content with having some control over the vol- cording to the remnants of life which it outlives, untary muscles, easily held the reins of all the move- being the last to perish. So true is it that this ments of the body, and could suspend them, calm force of the animal parts can be preserved and them, or excite them, at its pleasure! With so strengthened by that of the circulation, but that it despotic a mistress, in whose hands were, in a sense, does not depend on the strength of the circulation, the beating of the heart, and the laws of circulation, since, as we have seen, it can dispense with even the there could certainly be no fever, no pain, no weari- integrity of each member or organ. / ness, ! Thesoul wills, and the springs play.- I am aware that this opinion has not been rel- contract or relax. But how did \ he spnnpr.s^of ished by all scholars, and that Stahl especially had Stahl's machine get out of order so soon ? He who much scorn for it. This great chemist has wished las in himself soTgreat a doctor, should be inTT to persuade us that the soul is the sole cause of all " mortal ^ our movements. But this is to speak as a fanatic Moreover, Stahl is not the only one who has re- and not as a philosopher. jected the principle of the vibration of organic To destroy the hypothesis of Stahl,7« we need bodies. Greater minds have not used the principle not make as great an effort as I fina^ffiat others have I ! I* 138 MAN A MACHINE. [Text 67-69] MAN A MACHINE. 139 when they wished to explain the action of the heart, sians, the followers of etc. One need only read the "Institutions of Stahl, the Malebranchists, and the theologians Medicine" by Boerhaave^^ to see what laborious and who little deserve to be men- tioned here, that matter is self-moved,^! enticing systems this great man was obliged to in- not only when qrganized, as in a wholeTieart, vent, by the labor of his mighty genius, through tOr example, "^T^-r^^ but even when this organization has been destroyed, failure to admit that there is so wonderful a force in human curiosity would like all bodies. to discover how a body, by the fact that it is originally Willis^^ and Perrault,®^ minds of a more feeble endowed with the breath of life, finds stamp, but carefmBBSefvers of nature (whereas itself adorned in consequence with the faculty of feeling, nature was known to the famous Leyden professor and thus with that of thought. And, heavens, what efforts only through others and second hand, so to speak) have not been made by certain philosophers to seem to have preferred to suppose a soul generally manage to prove this and ! what nonsense on this subject extended over the whole body, instead of the prin- I have had the patience to read ciple which we are describing. But according to this \ » All tliat experience teaches hypothesis (which was the hypothesis of Vergil us is that while move- ment persists, however slight and of all Epicureans, an hypothesis which the it may be, in one or more fibres, we need only stimulate history of the polyp might seem at first sight to them to re- excite and animate this movement favor) the movements which go on after the death almost extin- guished)^ This has been shown in the of the subject in which they inhere are due to a host of ex- periments with which I have undertaken remnant of soul still maintained by the parts that to crush the systems. It is therefore certain contract, though, from the moment of death, these that motion and feeling excite each other in turn, are not excited by the blood and the spirits. Whence both in a whole body and in the same body it may be seen that these writers, whose solid works when its struc- ture is destroyed, to say nothing of certain easily eclipse all philosophic fables, are deceived only plants which seem to exhibit the same in the manner of those who have endowed matter phenomena of the .^^ union of feeling and motion?" with the faculty of thinking, I mean to say, by hav- But furthermore, how many ing expressed themselves badly in obscure and mean- excellent philos- ophers have shown that thought is but a faculty ingless terms. In truth, what is this remnant of a / of feeling, and that the reasonable soul is soul, if it is not the "moving force" of the Leib- but the feeling soul engaged in contemplating nizians (badly rendered by such an exp^ression), its ideas and in reasoning! This would be proved which however Perrault in particular has really by the fact " alone that when feeling foreseen. See his Treatise is stifled, thought also is "" on the Mechanism o f ' " checked, Animals." for instance in apoplexy, in lethargy, in catalepsis, etc. For it is ridiculous to suggest fow that it is clearly proved against the Carte- that, during these stupors, the soul keeps on thinking, 140 MAN A MACHINE. [Text 1 69-71] MAN A MACHINE. 141 even though it does not remember the ideas that it than for has had. making his duck, would have needed still (^^^'^^^^^2>v. more to make { 1^ to the development of feehng and motion, a talking man, a mechanism no longer to be regarded as impossiblc^esgecially in the (xj^s-'^*^ A^ it is absurd to waste time seeking for its mechan- hands of another Prometheus. ism. The nature of motion is as unknown to us flTlitr fashion, it was necessary that as that of matter.®^ How can we discover how nature should use more elaborate art in making ' and it is produced unless, like the author of "Thejiis.- sustainiag.^j2iachine which for IS a whole century tory^of the Soul," we resuscitate the old and un- could mark all motions of the heart and of the mind; for though ^ intelligible doctrine of substantial one does not ..A* forms? X_am tell time by the pulse, ^ then quite as content not to know how inert and it is at least the barometer ^^ of the warmth and '^ simple matter becomes active and highly organized, the vivacity by which one may estimate the nature of the soul. I as not to be able to look at the sun without red am right ! The jjllfflan^bodyJs_a^atch, a large watch glasses ; and I am as little disquieted concerning constructed KitlLSuch skill the other incomprehensible wonders of nature, the andjngenuity, that it the wheel seconds^ppens production of feeling and of thought in a being _ tostop, the rninute idlgeUurns jiid^keeps which earlier appeared to our limited eyes as a on going its round, and in the_saniejvay:j[ mere clod of clay. g^ and aTl"The Qtherrgo"gn^juanii^ the Grant only that organized matter is endowed iiigM>vlieejshave with \ a principle of motion, which alone differentiates it ojider. Is it not for a similar reason" that the from the inorganic (and can one deny this in the j stoppage of a few blood face oTthemost incontestable observation?) and vessels is not enough to i destroy or suspend the strength that among animals, as I have sufficiently proved, of the movement 1 which is in the heart as everything depends upon the diversity of this_orr in the mainspring of the £iachine; since, on ganization: these admissions suffice for guessing the contrary, the fluids whose volume is diminished, the riddle of substances and of man. It [thus] having a shorter road to travel, cover the ground appears that there is but one [type of organization] more quickly, borne on as by a fresh current which the theuniverse, and that man is the mojt perfect energy of the heart increases in proportion to the -|H[AOK^ V^ [e^aSS[ejr~^ ^^^^ ap€> resistance it encoun- *^^ and to the most intelli- ters at the ends of the gent animats. as jhe planetary pendulum of Huy- blood-vessels ? And is not this the reason why the loss of ghens^^ is to ^^"watcITo f Julien Leray-^^L-3Ipre sight (caused by the com- pression of the optic instruments, more wheels "^TfTrnnre sprinpr<; jvp^^ nerve and by its ceasing to con- T" vey the images of objects) necessarv to mark the movements of the no more hinders hearing, v>- than the loss of hearing (caused jhairtomark or strike the hours ;jin(l VaucansQa^^^ by obstruction of the functions of the auditory who neiaed more skill for making his flute player nerve) implies the loss of sight ? In the same way, finally, does not one man ) \ ! V' 11 I 142 MAN A MACHINE. [Text 71-73] MAN A MACHINE. 143 hear (except immediately after his attack) with- And after a discovery of this importance demand- out being able to say that he hears, while another ing so much sagacity, how can we without ingrati- hears nothing, but whose lingual nerves are un- who tude fail to pardon all his errors injured in the brain, mechanically tells of all the In my eyes, they are all atoned for by that great dreams which pass through his mind? These phe- confession. For after all, although he extols the nomena do not surprise enlightened physicians at distinctness of the two substances, this is plainly but all. They know what to think about man's nature, a trick of skill, a ruse of style, to make theologians and (more accurately to express myself in passing) swallow a poison, hidden in the shade of an analogy of two physicians, the better one and the one who which strikes everybody else and which they alone deserves more confidence is always, in my opinion, fail to notice. (F^QLiLis^this, this strong analogy, the one who is more versed in the physique or mech- which forces all scholars and wise7u3gesT^n!g^nfess anism of the human body, and who, leaving aside ^thatjtnese proug and vain beings , fflote distinguishes^ the soul and all the anxieties which this chimera by^their prTae^gan^b^THTname"^ . ^„^,^. gives to fools and to ignorant men, is seriously oc- cupied only in pure naturalism. bottom only animals and machineTwhich, though There fore let the pretended M. Charp deride phi- upright, go on all fqursTlTlTey'all have this maf^ losophers have regarded animals as machines. who yelous instinct, which is developed by education Tlow different is my view !\\I believe that Descartes / into mind, and which always has its seat in the would be a man in every way worthy of respect, if, brain, (or for want of that when it is lacking or in a century that he had not been obliged to hardened, bom in the medulla oblongata) and never in enlighten, he had known the value of experiment the cerebellum; for I have often seen the cere- and observation, and the danger of cutting loose bellum injured, and other observers* have found from them.>& But it is none the less just for me it hardened, when the soul has not ceased to fulfil to make an authentic reparation to this great man its functions. ^\ for all the insignificant philosophers poor jesters, — TVbe amachine, to feel to think, to know how poor imitators of Locke instead of laugh- and —who jodistinguish good from badfas well as bluTTrSm ing impudently at Descartes, might better realize yeflowTlna'wora; 'fo"5e bom "with an intelligence that without him the field^of philosophy, like the and a sure moral instinct, and to be but an ani- field of science without Newton, might perhaps be mal, \juJ^ are therefore characters which are no more still uncultivated. ' contradictory, than to be an ape or a parrot and This celebrated philosopher, it is true, was much to be able to give oneself pleasure.....! believe deceived, no one denies that. But at any rate that and thought is^.,saJittIeJncon^^ with organized he understood animal nature, he was the first to "tatter, thaLJlseems^ bronToTltg" properties on prove completely that animals are pure machines^ * Haller in the Transact. PhilosopK / 1 144 MAN A MACHINE. [Text 73-77] MAN A MACHINE. 145 a par with electricity, the faculty of motion, im- luxury of nature, and finally the directing principle penetrabiHty, extension, etc. of plants is placed where we have our soul, that Do you ask for further observations ? Here are other quintessence of man. some which are incontestable and which all prove Such is the uniformity of nature, which we are UA^yj^^A^^ that man resembles animals perfectly, in his origin ^ beginning to reali ze: and the analog of the animaT ' as well as in all the points in which we have thought with the vegetable kingdom, of man with plant. Per- it essential to make the comparison haps there even are animal plants, which in vege- Let us observe man both in and out of his shell, tating, either fight as polyps do, or perform other let us examine young embryos of four, six, eight or functions characteristic of animals fifteen days with a microscope ; after that time our are We veritable moles in the field of nature ; we eyes are sufficient. What do we see? The head achieve little more than the mole's journey and it alone; a little round tg% with two black points is our pride which prescribes limits to the limitless. which mark the eyes. Before that, everything is We^re in t he_pQsition of a watch that should say formless, and one sees only a medullary pulp, which (a writer of fables would make the watch a hero in is the brain, in which are formed first the roots of silly a tale) : "I was never made by that fool of a the nerves, that is, the principle of feeling, and the workman, I who divide time, who mark so exactly heart, which already within this substance has the the course of the sun, who repeat aloud the hours power of beating of itself; it is the punctum saliens which I mark! No! that is impossible!" In the of Malpighi, which perhaps already owes a part of same way, we disdain, ungrateful wretches that we its excitability to the influence of the nerves. Then are, this common mother of all kingdoms, as the little by little, one sees the head lengthen from the chemists say. We imagine, or rather we infer, a cause neck, which, in dilating, forms first the thorax in- superior to that to which we owe all, and which side which the heart has already sunk, there to be- -SfT^ truly has wrought all things in an inconceivable ^^' come stationary; below that is the abdomen which J : fashion. No^jnatter contains nothing base, except is divided by a partition (the diaphragm). One of V' to the vulgar eyes which do not recognize her in her j)-- these enlargements of the I 1 body forms the arms, ' mgst-Sfdendjd^works ; and nature is no stupid /(/>^ % work- the hands, the fingers, the nails, and the hair; the A^ man, cr ^he eates . millions of men, with a facility \ other forms the thighs, the legs, the feet, etc., which 31ld_aj2leasTLirr]^reJ^^ ^ differ only a u '0> in their observed situation, and which ?atchinakerj I ^- ^ constitute the support and the balancing pole of Her power shines forth equally in creating thelow- the body. The whole process is a strange sort of liest insect and in creating the most highly developed growth, li ke that of plants. On the tops of our man ; the animal kingdom costs her no more than the heads is hair in place of which the plants have vegetable, and the most splendid genius no more leaves and flowers; everywhere is shown the same than a blade of wheat. Let us then judge by what we 146 MAN A MACHINE. [Text 77-79] MAN A MACHINE. 147 predict see of that which is hidden from the curiosity an eclipse, as it can predict recovery or death of our eyes and of our investigations, and let us when it has used its genius and its clearness of not imagine anything beyond. Let us observe the vision, for a time, in the school of Hippocrates and at ape, the beaver, the elephant, etc., in their opera- the bedside of the sick. By this line of observa- tions. If it is clear that these activities can not tions and truths, we come to connect the admirable be performed without intelligence, why refuse in- power of thought with matter, without being able ! to see telligence to these animals? And if you grant them / the links, because the subject of this attribute is essentially us. a soul, you are lost, you fanatics ! You will in vain unknown to say that you assert nothing about the nature of the Let us not say that every machine or every animal ' animal soul and that you deny its immortality. Who perishes altogether or assumes another form after death, for absolutely does not see that this is a gratuitous assertion ; who we know nothing about the does not see that the soul of an animal must be subject. On the other h\ ^d, to assert that an im- either mortal or immortal, whichever ours [is], and mortal machine is a chimera or a logical fiction, is cXvv^-/-^^^ ^ 1 that it must therefore undergo the same fate as to reason as absurdly as caterpillars would reason ours, whatever that may be, and that thus [in ad- if, seeing the cast-off skins of their fellow-cater- mitting that animals have souls], you fall into Scylla pillars, they should bitterly deplore the fate of their in the effort to avoid Charybdis ? species, which to them would seem to come to noth- Break the chain of your prejudices, arm your- ingj^xThe soul of these insects (for each animal selves with the torch of experience, and you will has his own) is too limited to comprehend the meta- render to nature the honor she deserves, instead of morphoses of nature. Never one of the most skil- inferring anything to her disadvantage, from the ful among them could have imagined that it was ignorance in which she has left you. Only open destined to become a butterfly. It is the same with wide your eyes, only disreg^ard what you CM^not us. What more do we know of our destiny than of understand, and you will see that the ploughman our origin ? Let us then submit to an invincible ig- wTToselnfelligence and ideas extend no further than norance on which our happiness depends. the bounds of his furrow, does not differ essentially He who so thinks will be wise, just, tranquil from the greatest genius,—a truth which the dis- about his fate, and therefore happy. He will await I 4 u.^' section of Descartes's and of Newton's brains would death without either fear or desire, and will cherish /" XVt-^' have proved; you will be persuaded that the imbe- life (hardly understanding how disgust can corrupt ^^^"^^ a heart in this place of many delights) will n cile and the fool are animals with human faces, as ; he be filled with reverence, the intelligent ape is a little man in another shape; t gratitude, affection, and ten- in short, you will learn thar since everything^depends, derness for nature, in proportion to his feeling of absolutely on3itference of^rganization,*ra well con- the benefits he has received from nature; he will structed^nimal which has studied astronomy, can be happy, in short, in feeling nature, and in being *v" — 146 MAN A MACHINE. [Text 77-79] MAN A MACHINE. 147 see of that which is hidden from the curiosity predict an eclipse, as it can predict recovery or death of our eyes and of our investigations, and let us when it has used its genius and its clearness of not imagine anything beyond. Let us observe the vision, for a time, in the school of Hippocrates and ape, the beaver, the elephant, etc., in their opera- at the bedside of the sick. By this line of observa- tions. If it is clear that these activities can not tions and truths, we come to connect the admirable be performed without intelligence, why refuse in- power of thought with matter, without being able to see the links, telligence to these animals? And if you grant them because the subject" of this attribute II is essentially unknown to a soul, you are lost, you fanatics ! You will in vain us ~±i say that you assert nothing about the nature of the .et us not say that every machine or every animal animal soul and that you deny its immortality. Who perishes altogether or assumes another form after death, for does not see that this is a gratuitous assertion ; who we know absolutely nothing about the does not see that the soul of an animal must be subject. On the other hand, to assert that an im- either mortal or immortal, whichever ours [is], and mortal machine is a chimera or a logical fiction, is crvvv^-w^'—^r^ •) that it must therefore undergo the same fate as to reason as absurdly as caterpillars would reason ours, whatever that may be, and that thus [in ad- if, seeing the cast-off skins of their fellow-cater- mitting that animals have souls], you fall into Scylla pillars, they should bitterly deplore the fate of their in the effort to avoid Charybdis ? species, which to them would seem to come to noth- ^^ Break the chain of your prejudices, arm your- ingj^^/The soul of these insects (for each animal selves with the torch of experience, and you will has his own) is too limited to comprehend the meta- render to nature the honor she deserves, instead of morphoses of nature. Never one of the most skil- inferring anything to her disadvantage, from the ful among them could have imagined that it was ignorance in which she has left you. Only open destined to become a butterfly. It is the same with wide your eyes, only disregard what you ^arrTiot us. What more do we know of our destiny than of understand, and you will see that the ploughman our origin ? Let us then submit to an invincible ig- wTiose intelligence and ideas extend no further than norance on which our happiness depends. the bounds of his furrow, does not differ essentially He who so thinks will be wise, just, tranquil from the greatest genius,—a truth which the dis- about his fate, and therefore happy. He will await ' death without either fear or desire, and will cherish '/fAX^'-^ section of Descartes's and of Newton's brains would have proved; you will be persuaded that the imbe- life (hardly understanding how disgust can corrupt in this {TX^} cile and the fool are animals with human faces, as a heart place of many delights) ; he will be the intelligent ape is a little man in another shape; tfilled with reverence, gratitude, affection, and ten- in short, you will learn thar^since everything^depeads_ derness for nature, in proportion to his feeling of absolutely ondifference ororganization,'Tawell con- the benefits he has received from nature; he will structed^himal which has studledTstronomy, can be happy, in short, in feeling nature, and in being f ' ; — 148 MAN A MACHINE. [Text 79-81] MAN A MACHINE. 149 present at the enchanting spectacle of the universe, f. ^^.^ Experience has and he will surely thus spoken to me in behalf of rea^^ I never destroy nature either in son; and in this himself or in others. way I have combined the two.*' ^ More than that! Full of But it must have been noticed humanity, this man will love htrnian character even that I have not' I allowed myself even the most vigorous and 7 in his enemies. imme- , he will . Judge how treat others. I diately deduced reasoning, except as a result of I jtX^ '^^ r^ He jwilL4nty_the wicked jvithoiit iiating -Ihem;jn a multitude of observations which no scholar will Eg^"eyes^_th€y^ wjlLbe but mis-mad^jnerL_ But in con- test ; and furthermore, I recognize pardoning the faults of the structure of mind and only scholars as judges of the conclusions which I draw from the A-J»— body, he will none the less admlre~th'e Beauties and observations; and I hereby challenge_eyery jreju- the virtues of both. Those whom nature shall have diced man who^is iieilliei "anatornistTrior acquainted favored will seem to him to deserve more respect can here n- than those whom she has treated in stepmotherly ^^^^^^^I^^ be^ sHereclTltinrot the li umanjK^dy. Against so strong fashion. Thus, as we have seen, natural gifts, the and sohd an oakTwhat could the weak reeds of the- source of all acquirements, gain from the lips and ology, of metaphysics, and of the schools, heart of the materialist, the homage which every avail, childish amis, like our parlor foils, that may well other thinker unjustly refuses them. In short, the afford the pleasure of fencing, but can never wound materialist, convinced, in spite of the protests of an adversary. Need I say that I refer to the his vanity, that he is but a machine or an animal, empty and trivial notions, to the pitiable and trite will not maltreat his kind, for he will know too well arguments the that will be urged (as long as the shadow nature of those actions, whose humanity is al- of prejudice or of superstition remains on earth) ways in proportion to the degree of the analogy for the supposed incompatibility of two substances proved above [between human beings and animals] which meet and move each other unceasingly? Such and following the natural law given to all animals, is sy he will my jtem^r rather the truth, ^nless I am much not wish to do to others what he would not I deceived IFTs short and wish them to do to him. simpler^lJispute It now^ L^tus^hen^^ - wIio~will. anJTHaflffT^^^^ substance differently modified. This is no hypoth- eStrsetTofthlBy^dint of a number of postulates and assumptions; it is not the work of prejudice, nor even of my reason alone; I should have disdained a guide which I think to be so untrustworthy, had not my senses, bearing a torch, so to speak, induced me to follow reason by lighting the way themselves. Ill H w THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SOUL.- BY JEAN OFFRAY DE LA METTRIE. EXTRACTS. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SOUL. CHAPTER II. CONCERNING MATTER. ALL philosophers who have examined attentively -^^ the nature of matter, considered in itself, in- dependently of all the forms which constitute bodies, have discovered in this substance, diverse proper- ties proceeding from an absolutely unknown es- sence. Such are, (1) the capacity of taking on different forms, which are produced in matter it- self, by which matter can acquire moving force and the faculty of feeling; (2) actual extension, which these philosophers have rightly recognized as an attribute, but not as the essence, of matter. However, there have been some, among others Descartes, who have insisted on reducing the es- sence of matter to simple extension, and on limiting all the properties of matter to those of extension; but this opinion has been rejected by all other mod- ern philosophers, .... so that the power of acquiring moving force, and the faculty of feeling as well as that of extension, have been from all time con- sidered as essential properties®"^ of matter. All the diverse properties that are observed in this unknown principle demonstrate a being in which these same properties exist, a being which must therefore exist through itself. But we can not conceive, or rather it seems impossible, that a being Vi liillii.Mlill.,:. iska. .il:ill!i.'.u;.:ll:giiNllikL.L. 154 MAN A MACHINE. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SOUL. 155 which exists through itself should be able neither the idea of a being which is at the same time long, to create nor to annihilate itself. It is evident that broad, and deep; because the idea of these three only the forms to which its essential properties dimensions is necessarily bound up with our idea make it susceptible can be destroyed and reproduced of every magnitude or quantity. in turn. Thus, does experience force us to confess Those philosophers who have meditated most con- that nothing can come from nothing. cerning matter do not understand by the extension All philosophers who have not known the light of this substance, a solid extension composed of dis- of faith, have thought that this substantial principle tinct parts, capable of resistance. Nothing is united, of bodies has existed and will exist forever, and nothing is divided in this extension ; for there must that the elements of matter have an indestructible be a force which separates to divide, and another solidity which forbids the fear that the world is force to unite the divided parts. But in the opinion going to fall to pieces. The majority of Christian of these physical philosophers matter has no actually philosophers also recognize that the substantial prin- active force, because every force can come only ciple of bodies exists necessarily through itself, and from movement, or from some impulse or tendency that the power of beginning or ending does not toward movement, and they recognize in matter, accord with its nature. One finds that this view is stripped of all form by abstraction, only a potential upheld by an author of the last century who taught moving force. theology in Paris. This theory is hard to conceive, but given its principles, it is rigorously true in its consequences. CHAPTER III. CONCERNING THE EXTENSION OF MATTER. It is one of those algebraic truths which is more readily believed than conceived by the mind. Although we have no idea of the essence of mat- The extension of matter is then but a metaphys- ter, we can not refuse to admit the existence of the ical extension, which according to the idea of these properties which our senses discover in it. very philosophers, presents nothing to affect our I open my eyes, and I see around me only matter, senses. They rightly think that only solid or exten- the extended. Extension is then a property which sion can make an impression on our senses. always It belongs to all matter, which can belong to thus seems to us that extension is an attribute which matter alone, and which therefore is inseparable constitutes part of the metaphysical form, but we from the substance of matter. are far from thinking that extension constitutes its This property presupposes three dimensions in essence. the substance of bodies, length, width, and depth. However, before Descartes, some of the ancients Truly, if we consult our knowledge, which is gained made the essence of matter consist in solid exten- entirely from the senses, we cannot conceive of sion. But this opinion, of which all the Cartesians matter, or the substance of bodies, without having have made much, has at all times been victoriously 156 MAN A MACHINE. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SOUL. 157 combated by clear reasons, which we will set forth em thinkers have not discovered in matter mov- later, for order demands that we first examine to ing force and the faculty of feeling. what the properties of extension can be reduced. It should now be evident at the first glance, it seems to me, that if there is an active principle it CHAPTER V. CONCERNING THE MOVING FORCE must have, in the unknown essence of matter, an- OF MATTER. other source than extension. This proves that sim- The ancients, persuaded that there is no body ple extension fails to give an adequate idea of the without a moving force, regarded the substance of complete essence or metaphysical form of the sub- I bodies as composed of two primitive attributes. It stance of bodies, and that this failure is due solely was held that, through one of these attributes, this to the fact that extension excludes the idea of any substance has the capacity for moving and, through activity in matter. Therefore, if we demonstrate the other, the capacity for being moved.®® As a mat- this moving principle, if we show that matter, far ter of fact, it is impossible not to conceive these from being as indifferent as it is supposed to be, to two attributes in every moving body, namely, the movement and to rest, ought to be regarded as an thing which moves, and the same thing which is active, as well as a passive substance, what resource moved. can be left to those who have made its essence con- It has just been said that formerly the name, sist in extension? matter, was given to the substance of bodies, in The two principles of which we have just spoken, so far as it is susceptible of being moved. When extension and moving force, are then but poten- capable of moving this same matter was known by tialities of the substance of bodies ; for in the same way in which this substance is susceptible of move- the name of "active principle" . . . But these two attributes seem to depend so essentially on each ment, without actually being moved, it also has al- PI' other that Cicero, in order better to state this ways, even when it is not mo:^ing itself, the faculty r spontaneous motion. essential and primitive union of matter with its of ancients rightly noticed that this moving principle, says that each is found in the The have moving the other. This expresses very well the idea of the force acts in the substance of bodies onlv when ancients. substance is manifested in certain forms; they have also observed that the different motions which it From this it is clear that modern writers have produces are all subject to these different forms or given us but an inexact idea of matter in attempt- regulated by them. That is why the forms, through ing (through a confusion ill understood) to give the substance of bodies can not only move, this name to the substance of bodies. For, once which but also move in different ways, were called material more, matter, or the passive principle of the sub- forms. stance of bodies, constitutes only one part of this Once these early masters had cast their eyes on substance. Thus it is not surprising that these mod- 158 MAN A MACHINE. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SOUL. 159 all the phenomena i; Is. Ixvi)." of nature, they discovered in the ciple in the elements of matter (Gen. substance of bodies, the power of self-movement. One might here make up a long list of author- In fact, this professors substance either moves itself, or when ities, and take from the most celebrated It is in motion, the doctrine of all the rest ; but it motion is communicated to it the substance of the by another substance. But can anything be seen is clear enough, without a medley of citations, that in this substance, save the substance itself in action; matter contains this moving force which animates and if sometimes all laws it seems to receive a motion that it, and which is the immediate cause of the it has not, does it receive that motion from any of motion. cause other than this same kind of substance, whose parts act the one upon the other? CHAPTER VI. CONCERNING THE SENSITIVE If, then, FACULTY OF MATTER. one infers another agent, I ask what agent, and I spoken of two essential attributes of demand proofs of its existence. But We have smce no one has the matter, upon which depend the greater number of least idea of such an agent, it is not even a logical its properties, namely extension and moving force. entity. Therefore it is clear that the ancients but to prove a third attribute: I must have easily recognized an intrinsic We have now force of faculty feeling which the philosophers motion within the substance of bodies, mean the of smce in all in this same substance. fact it is impossible to prove or conceive of centuries have found any other I all philosophers, although I not ignorant substance acting upon it. say am Descartes, have made, a genius made to blaze new paths and of all the efforts which the Cartesians to go astray in vain, to rob matter of this faculty. But in order in them, supposed with some other philosophers to avoid insurmountable difficulties, they have flung that God is the only efficient cause of motion, and that every instant He communicates themselves into a labyrinth from which they have motion to all bodies. thought to escape by this absurd system "that ani- But this opinion is but an hypothesis which mals are pure machines."®^ he tried to adjust to the light of faith and in so An opinion so absurd has never gained admittance ; doing he was no longer attempting to speak philosophers, except the play of or as as a philosopher or to philosophers. Above among as wit all he was not a philosophical pastime. For this reason we shall addressing those who can be con- vinced only by the force of evidence. not stop to refute it. Experience gives us no less The Christian proof of the faculty of feeling in animals than of Scholastics of the last centuries have felt the full force of this feeling in men reflection ; for this reason they have There comes up another difficulty which more wisely limited themselves to purely philosophic nearly concerns our vanity: namely, the impossi- knowledge concerning the motion of matter, although bility of our conceiving this property as a depend- they might have shown that God Himself said that ence or attribute of matter. Let it not be forgotten He had "imprinted an active prin- 160 MAN A MACHINE. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SOUL. 161 that this substance reveals only ineffable char- to us It, because it forms (at least in relation to the subject acters. is Do we understand better how extension of which I am treating) a system that is solid and derived from its essence, how it can be moved by well articulated like the body, whereas all these a primitive force whose action is exerted without scattered members of modern philosophy form no contact, and a thousand other miracles so hidden system. from the gaze of the most penetrating eyes, that (to paraphrase the idea of an illustrious modern writer) they reveal or«ly the curtain which conceals them ? But might not one suppose as some have sup- posed, that the feeling which is observed in ani- ' / mated bodies, might belong to a being distinct from the matter of these bodies, to a substance of a different nature united to them? Does the light of reason allow us in good faith to admit such con- jectures? in We know bodies only matter, and we ii observe the faculty of feeling only in bodies: on what foundation then can we erect an ideal being, disowned by all our knowledge? However, we must admit, with the same frank- ness, that we are ignorant whether matter has in itself the faculty of feeling, or only the power of acquiring it by those modifications or forms to which matter is susceptible; for it is true that this faculty of feeling appears only in organic bodies. This is then another new faculty which might exist only potentially in matter, like all the others which have been mentioned; and this was the hypothesis of the ancients, whose philosophy, full of insight and penetration, deserves to be raised above the ruins of the philosophy of the moderns. It is in vain that the latter disdain the sources too remote from them. Ancient philosophy will always hold its own among those who are worthy to judge APPENDIX. OUTLINES AND NOTES. BY GERTRUDE CARMAN BUSSEY. LA METTRIE'S RELATION TO HIS PRED- ECESSORS AND TO HIS SUCCESSORS. I. The Historical Relation of La Mettrie to Rene Descartes (1596-1650). The most direct source of La Mettrie^s work, if the physiological aspect of his system is set aside, is found in the philosophy of Descartes. In fact it sometimes seems as if La Mettrie's materialism grew out of his insistence on the contradictory char- acter of the dualistic system of Descartes. He criti- cises Descartes's statement that the body and soul are absolutely independent, and takes great pains to show the dependence of the soul on the body. Yet though La Mettrie's system may be opposed to that of Descartes^ from one point of view, from another point of view it seems to be a direct consequence of it. La Mettrie himself recognizes this relationship and feels that his doctrine that man is a machine, IS a natural inference from Descartes's teaching that animals are mere machines.^ Moreover La Mettrie carries on Descartes's conception of the body as a machine, and many of his detailed dis- cussions of the machinery of the body seem to have been drawn from Descartes. i« "LTiistoire naturelle de rame," chapters XI, VIII. S«1 r>-.'^^" ? ^*<=ti"«". P-, '42. Cf. U Mettrie's commentary on ffi«^MrTome*'"^ ^'*''** ^^ ""*^'"'' P'-Wosophiiuesl" 166 MAN A MACHINE. APPENDIX. 167 It should be noted that La Mettrie did justice to Hobbes published Descartes, and "The Leviathan" in 1651 and realized how much all philosophers "De Corpore" in 1655. Thus he wrote about owed to him. He insisted moreover a that Descartes's century before La errors were due Mettrie, and since the eighteenth to his failure to follow his own century was one in which the influence of method.3 Yet La Mettrie's England method was different upon France from was very great, it is easy to suppose that of Descartes, for La Mettrie was an that La Mettrie had read empiricist* without Hobbes. If so, he must rationalistic leaning. As re- have gards gained many ideas from him. The extent of doctrine: La Mettrie differed from Des- this influence is, however, cartes m his unknown, for La Mettrie opinion of matter. Since he disbelieved rarely if ever quotes from Hobbes, or m any spiritual reality, he gave attributes matter the attri- any of his butes of motion and doctrines to Hobbes. thought, while Descartes insisted In the first place, both that the one attribute Hobbes and La Mettrie of matter is extension." It are thoroughgoing materialists. They was a natural consequence of La both beHeve Mettrie's disbelief that in body is the only reaHty, and that anything spiritual substance that he could throw doubt on spiritual the is unimaginable. ^ Furthermore their con- existence of God.* On the other hand the be- ceptions lief of matter are very similar. According in God was one of the foundations to of Des- La Mettrie, matter cartes s system. La contains the faculty of sensation Mettrie tried to show that and Descartes's the power of motion as well as the quality of l^elief in a soul and in God was merely extension.^ This designed to hide same conception of matter is held his true thought from the priests, by Hobbes, for he and to save himself from specifically attributes extension persecution.^ and motion to matter, and then reduces sensation to a kind of internal ^^ Ila. The Likeness motion. Thus sensation also of La Mettrie to the English Ma- may be an attribute of matter. terialists, Thomas Moreover Hobbes Hobbcs (1588-1679) and and La Mettrie are in agreement on many smaller John Toland (1670-1721). points, and \K La Mettrie elaborates much that is sug- The influence of gested Descartes upon La Mettrie can- in Hobbes. They both believe that the pas- not be questioned but it sions are is more difficult to estimate dependent on bodily conditions. ^^ They the influence upon him agree in the of materialistic philosophers. belief that all the diflFerences in men % are due to differences Descartes," in the constitution and organi- Phktes%,^tV'"'^"'''- p. 6, (Euvres PMloso. ^^1^"' Chap.34; Part I, All,Xn^On^I'v"^.''?!??""Upen aap. u Court Edition, p. 169. L'histoire Descartes. "Principles." naturelle de I'ame," Chapters III, V, and VI. Part II, Prop. 4. I 10 • "Man a Machine," pp. 122-126. ^' ^^^P- ^' ^^' "Concerning Body," Part IV,Tv7r^'''^vt"Vr^*'"* ^ Uiap. XXV, 2. Ihid., p. 142. U « Man a Machine," pp. 90-91. 'tj M " 168 MAN A MACHINE. APPENDIX. 169 zation of their bodies." They both discuss the nature found. '^ Since motion is essential to matter, there and importance ^^ of language. is no need, Toland believes, to account for the be- Hobbes differes from La Mettrie in holding that ginning of motion. Those who have regarded mat- we can be sure that God exists as the cause of this ter as inert have had to find some efficient cause for world. 1* However even though he thinks that it motion, and to do this, they have held that all nature is possible to know that God exists, he does not be- is animated. But this pretended animation is utterly lieve that we can know his nature. useless, since matter is itself endowed with motion.'® La Mettrie's system may be regarded as the ap- The likeness to La Mettrie is evident. La Mettrie plication of a system like that of Hobbes to the likewise opposes the doctrine of the animation of special problem of the relation of soul and body in matter, and the belief in any external cause of mo- man; for if there is nothing in the universe but mat- tion.'® Yet he feels the need of postulating some ter and motion, it inevitably follows that man is beginning of motion,^^ and although he uses the merely a very complicated machine. conception so freely, he does not agree with Toland There is great similarity also between the doc- that the nature of motion is known. He believes trine of La Mettrie and that of Toland. It is inter- that it is impossible to know the nature of motion,^' esting to note the points of resemblance and of while Toland believes that the nature of motion is difference. Toland's "Letters to Serena," which self-evident. 2^ contain much of his philosophical teaching, were Another point of contrast between Toland and published in 1704. There is a possibility therefore La Mettrie is in their doctrines of God. Toland that La Mettrie read them and gained some sugges- believes that God, "a pure spirit or immaterial be- tions from them. ing," is necessary for his system,^^ while La Mettrie The point most emphasized in Toland's teach- questions God's existence and insists that immate- ing's is that motion is an attribute of matter. He riality and spirituality are fine words that no one 1^- argues for this belief on the ground that matter understands. must be essentially active in order to undergo It must be admitted, in truth, that La Mettrie and change,i« and that the conception of the inertness Toland have different interests and different points of matter is based on the conception of absolute of view. Toland is concerned to discover the essen- rest, and that this absolute rest is nowhere to be tial nature of matter, while La Mettrie's problem " Ibid., p. 203. ^^Ibid., p. 199. ''Ibid., Part I, Chap. IV. Cf. " "L'histoire naturelle de rame," Chap. V, p. "Man a Machine," p. 103. 94. * **/Wrf., Part I, Chap. XII. "Man a Machine," p. 139. ** " "Letters "Man a Machine, p. 140. to Serena," V, p. i6a " "Letters to Serena," V, p. 227. ^Ibid., p. rg6. ^Ibid.j V, p. 234. ! 170 MAN A MACHINE. APPENDIX. 171 is to find the specific relation of body and mind. turelle de I'ame," and therefore it is probable that this On relation, he builds his whole system. Condillac had read this work, and gained some ideas from it. Yet Condillac never mentions La Mettrie's b The Relation of La Mettrie to an English Sensa- name nor cites his doctrines. This omission may tionalist: John Locke (1632-1704). be accounted for by the fact that the works of La Locke's "Essay Concerning Human Understand- Mettrie had been so condemned that later philos- ing" was published in 1690, and La Mettrie, like ophers wished to conceal the similarity of their most cultured Frenchmen of the Enlightenment, was doctrines to his. Whether the sensationalists were mfluenced by his teaching. The main agreement influenced by his teachings or not, there is such a between Locke and La Mettrie is in their doctrine profound likeness in their teachings, that La Mettrie that all ideas are derived from sensation. Both may well be regarded as one of the first French vigorously oppose the belief in innate ideas,24 teach- sensationalists as well as one of the leading French ing that even our most complex and our most ab- materialists of the time. stract ideas are gained through sensation. But La Condillac and La Mettrie agree that experience Mettrie does not follow Locke in analyzing these IS the source of all knowledge. As Lange sug- ideas and in concluding that many sensible qualities gests,^® La Mettrie's development of reason from of objects— such as colors, sounds, etc.—have no the imagination may have suggested to Condillac existence outside the mind.25 He rejects Locke's the way to develop all the faculties from the soul. doctrine of spiritual substances,2« and opposes La Mettrie asserts that reason is but the sensitive Locke's theistic teaching, laying stress, on the other soul contemplating its ideas, and that imagination ,' hand, upon Locke's admission of the possibility that plays all the roles of the soul, while Condillac elab- "thinking being "^^ may also be material. orates the same idea, and shows in great detail how all the faculties of the soul are but modifications of Ilia. The Likeness, probable but unacknozvledged, sensation.^^ to La Mettrie, of the French Sensationalists] Both La Mettrie and Condillac believe that there Ettenne Bonnot de Condillac (1715-1780) and is no gulf between man and the lower animals ; but Claude Adrien Helvetius (1715-1771). this leads to a point of disagreement between the Condillac's "Traite des sensations" was published two philosophers, for Condillac absolutely denies about ten years after La Mettrie's "L'histoire na- that animals can be mere machines,^^ and we must B^t^B^'k'n, '^.^'"''"""'"^ ^""'" Understanding.'' suppose that he would the more ardently oppose the "Locke, teaching that man is merely a complicated machine "Essay," Book II, Chap, a "/feiU, * F. A. Lange, Book II, Chap. 23. "History of Materialism," Vol. II, Chap. IL ""Traite des sensations," Part I. "Ai^'-^^P- '°- «^°^^^ M^«"«'s summary of Locke'lfi-ocke, cf. ?khis Abrege dcs systemes." (Euvres, Tome 2. •"Traite des animaux," Chap. I, p. 454. ^4 172 MAN A MACHINE. APPENDIX. 173 Condillac finally, unlike La Mettrie, believes in the b. The Likeness to La Mettrie the French Mate- existence of God. A final point of contrast also of rialist, Baron Paul Heinrich Dietrich von Hoi- concerns the theology of the two writers. La Met- bach (1723-1789). trie insists that we can not be sure that there is any purpose in the world, while Condillac affirms that As Condillac and Helvetius emphasize the sensa- we can discern intelligence and design throughout tionalism taught by La Mettrie, so Holbach's book the ^^ universe. is a reiteration and elaboration of the materialism Like La Mettrie and Condillac, Helvetius teaches set forth in La Mettrie*s works. The teaching of that all the faculties of the mind can be reduced to Holbach is so like that of La Mettrie, that the simi- sensation.«2 Unlike La Mettrie, he specifically dis- larity can hardly be a coincidence. tinguishes the mind from the soul, and describes La Mettrie regards experience as the only teacher. the mind as a later developed product of the soul Holbach dwells on this same idea, and insists that or faculty of sensation.^^ This idea may have been experience is our only source of knowledge in all suggested by La Mettrie's statement that reason matters.^^ Holbach likewise teaches that man is is a modification of sensation. Helvetius, however, a purely material being. He disbelieves in any spir- unlike La Mettrie, does not clearly decide that sen- itual reality whatsoever, and makes matter the only sation is but a result of bodily conditions, and he substance in the world. He lays stress, also, on one admits that sensation may be a modification of a thought which is a natural consequence of La Met- spiritual substance.^^ Moreover, he claims that cli- trie's teaching. La Mettrie has limited the action mate and food have effect no on the mind, and that of the will and has insisted that the will is dependent the superiority of the understanding is not depen- on bodily conditions. Holbach goes further and dent on the strength of the body and its organs.^^ declares lepeatedly that all freedom is a delusion, La Mettrie and Helvetius resemble each other and that man is controlled in every action by rigid in ethical doctrine. Both make pleasure and pain necessity.^® This teaching seems to be the natural the ruling motives of man's conduct. They claim outcome of the belief that man is a machine. that all the emotions are merely modifications of Holbach*s atheistic theology is more extreme than corporeal pleasure and pain, and that therefore the his predecessor's, for La Mettrie admits that God only principle of action in man is the desire for may exist, while Holbach vigorously opposes the pleasure and the fear of pain.^^ possibility. Moreover Holbach holds the opinion, Traite des animaux," Chap. VI, ff. nw p. 577 barely suggested by La Mettrie, that an atheistic Treatise on Man," Sect. II, Chap. I, p. 96. doctrine would ameliorate the condition of man- Ibid., Sect. II, Chap. II, p. 108. U Id 91 Ut 'Essays on the Mind," 'Systeme de la nature," Vol. I, I, 6. Essay II, Chap. I. p. 35. Chap. p. "Treatise on Man," Chap. XII, p. 161. "Systeme de la nature," Vol. I, Chap. VI, p. 94. 'Ibid.,I Chap. IX, p. 146; Chap. VII, p. 129. I 174 MAN A MACHINE. kind.3® He insists that the idea of God has hin- dered the progress of reason and interfered with natural law. Holbach is indeed the only one of the philosophers here discussed, who frankly adopts a fatalistic and atheistic doctrine of the universe. In these respects, his teaching is the culmination of French materialism. OUTLINE OF LA METTRIE'S METAPHYS- ^^!^ "u'-^^fP* ^^^' Pv45i. and Chap. XXVI, ICAL DOCTRINE. Cf.r^-^"^" p. 485. Man a Machine," pp. 125-126. PAGES* I. Insistence on the Empirical Standpoint. .i6f.; 88f.; 72, 142 : V II. Arguments in Favor of Materialism: a. The "Soul" is Affected, 1. • By Disease i8f. ; gof. 2. By Sleep igf. ; gii. 3. By Drugs 20 ; 92 4. By Food 2if. 93if. By ; 5. Age and Sex 23! ; 95!. 6. By Temperature and Climate 24! ; g6S, b. There is No Sharp Distinction Between Men and Animals (Machines) 28f., looff.; 4iff., ii3ff.; 75!., I42f. c. Bodily Movements are Due to the "Motive Power" of the Body siff., i29flF. III. Conception of Matter. a. Matter is Extended 154! b. Matter Has the Power of Motion 70, 140; i56flF. c. Matter Has the Faculty of Feeling I59ff. rV. Conception of Man: a. Man is a Machine ii 17, 89; 21, 93; 56, 128; 69, I40f.; 73, 143; 80, 148 b. All Man's Faculties Reduce to Sense and Im- agination 35ff., io7ff. c. Man is Like Animals in Being Capable of Education 38, no d. Man is Ignorant of His Destiny 79, 147 V. Theological Doctrine: o. The Existence of God is Unproved and Prac- tically Unimportant 50, 122 b. The Argument from Design is Ineffective Against the Hypothesis of Mechanical Cau- sahty siff., i24ff. c. Atheism Makes for Happiness 55, I26f. * The references are to pages of this book. NOTES.^ NOTES ON MAN A MACHINE. I. ^'Matter may well be endowed with the faculty of NOTE ON FREDERICK thought." THE GREAT'S EULOGY. Although La Mettrie attempts to "avoid this reef," by refraining This from the use of these words, yet he asserts translation is made from the third volume, pp. ff. throughout of ,^"vresde 159 his work that sensations, consciousness, and the Frederic II., Roi de Prusse, Publiees du vivant soul itself are modifications of matter and motion. de I'Auteur," Berlin. 1789. r The possibility of matter being endowed La Mettrie was received with the faculty at the court of Frederick the Great, when of thought, is denied by Elie Luzac, the publisher of "L'homme he had been driven from Holland on account of the machine," in his work "L'homme heretical teaching of "L'Homme plus que machine." In this Machine," The "Eloge" was work read he tries to disprove the conclusions of "L'homme ma- by Darget, the secretary of the king, at a public meeting chine." He says: "We have therefore proved by the idea of of the Academy of Berlin, to which, at the initiative of Frede- the inert state of matter, by that of motion, by that of rela- nck. La Mettrie had been admitted. tions, by that of activity, by that of llie careful reader wiU extension, that matter can not fail to note that Frederick's not be possessed of the faculty of thinking". .. arithmetic is at fault, ."To be brief, and that La Mettrie died at the age of I say, that if, by a material substance, forty-one, not forty-three, we understand that years. matter which falls under the cognizance of our senses, and At a few points, perhaps, the Eloge demands elucidation. which is endowed with the qualities we have mentioned, the Coutances like Caen, is a Norman town. St. Malo lies, just soul can not be material : so that it must be immaterial, and, over the border, in Brittany. U Mettrie's military service for the same reason, God could not have given the faculty was with the French in of the Silesian wars against Maria thinking to matter, since He can not perform contradic- Theresa. The battle of Dettingen was fought in Bavaria and tions."* was won by the Austrians through the aid given by George II of England to Maria Theresa, The battle of Fontenoy in the 2. "How can we define a being whose nature is absolutely Netherlands was the only victory of the French in this war. unknown to us?" La Mettrie uses this as an argument against the belief in a soul, Other and yet he later admits that the "nature accounts of the life of La Mettrie are: of motion is as unknown to us as the nature of matter." It is J. Assezat, Introduction to 'X'Homme Machine," Paris, 1865 difficult then to see why there is more reason to doubt the F. A. Lange, "History of Materialism." existence of spirit, than Ph. Damiron, to doubt the existence of matter. "Histoire de la philosophie du dix-huitieme Locke makes this point very well. "It is for want siecle," Pans, 1858. of reflec- tion that we are apt to think that our senses show us N. Quepat, **La philosophie nothing materialiste au XVIII* siecle. but material things. Every act of sensation, when duly con- Essai sur La Mettrie, sa vie, ct scs ceuvres." Paris, 1873. a Machine," pp. 10, 12. For sUtement of the editionsJil2^^.to^*15*i,*?u"which these Notes "^ *^.? ^^"^ "^"^ «° PP- '^^'^7. except ref- malce reference, see pp. 205-207. erencea«r«^rt!r'^"*to Man a Machme"u. which are to thi. translation. ThTtrans- .'''^•."^.* ^""'** *^ °^^ ^"^'^^^ the haswJL""^°*.made " ^ editor use of translation or of French text ^""V^ ^FTW^^' -rrr T •I*^il6s»..?% a. fti, %i^iSL . iT^i.^ NOTES.^ NOTES ON MAN A MACHINE. I. "Matter may well he endowed with the faculty of NOTE ON FREDERICK THE GREAT'S EULOGY. thought." Although La Mettrie attempts to "avoid this reef," '' by refraining from the use of these words, yet he asserts This translation is made from the third volume, pp. 159 ff. throughout his work that sensations, consciousness, and the of "CEuvres de Frederic II., Roi de Prusse, Publiees ^ du vivant soul itself are modifications of matter and motion. r de I'Auteur/- Berlin, 1789. The possibility of matter being endowed with the faculty La Mettrie was received at the court of Frederick the Great, of thought, is denied by Elie Luzac, the publisher of "L'homme when he had been driven from Holland on account of the machine," in his work "L'homme plus que machine." In this heretical teaching of X'Homme Machine," The "Eloge" was work he tries to disprove the conclusions of "L'homme ma- read by Darget, the secretary of the king, at a public meeting chine." He says: "We have therefore proved by the idea of of the Academy of Berlin, to which, at the initiative of Frede- the inert state of matter, by that of motion, by that of rela- rick, La Mettrie had been admitted. tions, by that of activity, by that of extension, that matter can The careful reader will not fail to note that Frederick's not be possessed of the faculty of thinking" "To be brief, arithmetic is at fault, and that La Mettrie died at the age of I say, that if, by a material substance, we understand that forty-one, not forty-three, years. matter which falls under the cognizance of our senses, and At a few points, perhaps, the Eloge demands elucidation. which is endowed with the qualities we have mentioned, the Coutances, like Caen, is a Norman town. St. lies, Malo just soul can not be material: so that it must be immaterial, and, over the border, in Brittany. La Mettrie's military service for the same reason, God could not have given the faculty of was with the French in the Silesian wars against Maria thinking to matter, since He can not perform contradic- Theresa. The battle of Dettingen was fought in Bavaria and tions."* was won by the Austrians through the aid given by George II of England to Maria Theresa. The battle of Fontenoy in the 2. "How can we define a being whose nature is absolutely Netherlands was the only victory of the French in this war. unknown to us?" La Mettrie uses this as an argument against the belief in a soul, and yet he later admits that the "nature Other accounts of the life of La Mettrie are: of motion is as unknown to us as the nature of matter." It is J. Assezat, Introduction to "L'Homme Machine," Paris, 1865. difficult then to see why there is more reason to doubt the F. A. Lange, "History of MateriaHsm." existence of spirit, than to doubt the existence of matter. Ph. Damiron, "Histoire de la philosophie du dix-huitiemc Locke makes this point very well. "It is for want of reflec- siecle," Paris, 1858. - tion that we are apt to think that our senses show us nothing N. Quepat, "La philosophie materialiste au XVIIP siecle. but material things. Every act of sensation, when duly con- Essai sur La Mettrie, sa vie, ct scs oeuvrcs." Paris, 1873. *"Man More than a Machine," pp. 10, 12. For statement of the * Page-references editions to which these Notes reference, see are to the editions dted on pp. 305-307, except ref- make pp. 205-207. erences to "Man a Machine" which are to this translation. The trans- lated or original title of a French book is dted according as the editor has made use of translation or of French text. 178 MAN A MACHINE. APPENDIX. 179 parts of nature, the sidered, gives us an equal view of both edge concerning physiological subjects. He intended to pub- immaterial spirit corporeal and spiritual."*. .. ."If this notion of lish a complete edition of Diderot's works, but overwork on easy to be ex- may have, perhaps, some difficulties in it not this undermined his health, so that he was unable to complete deny or doubt plained, we have therefore no more reason to if deny or doubt the existence of such spirits, than we have to of body is cumbered Torricelli physicist and mathematician who lived the existence of body because the notion 4. was a impossible to be I from 1608 to a disciple of Galileo, and acted as with some difficulties, very hard and perhaps 1647. He was explained or understood by us."* his amenuensis for three months before Galileo's death. He was then nominated as grand-ducal mathematician and pro- nature* " Noel Antoine fessor of mathematics in the Florentine Academy. In 1643, 3. "Author of the 'Spectacle de la was Director that the height Pluche (1688-1761) was a Jansenist author. He he made his most famous discovery. He found of his position on to which a liquid will rise in a closed tube, depends on the of the College of Laon, but was deprived "Unigenitus." liquid, from this that the account of his refusal to adhere to the bull specific gravity of the and concludes intendant of Nor- pressure. This Rollin then recommended him to Gasville, column of liquid is sustained by atmospheric education. He vacui, and mandy, who entrusted him with his son's discovery did away with the obscure idea of a fuga works are: "Spectacle laid bare the principle on which mercurial barometers are finally settled in Paris. His principal des langues et I'art constructed. For a long time the mercurial thermometer was nature," (Paris, 1739) ; "Mecanique de la I "Harmonic des Psaumes et called the "Torricellian tube," and the vacuum which the de les enseigner," (Paris, 1751) ; de la geographic des includes is still known as a "Torricellian vacuum."' de I'Evangile," (Paris, 1764) ; "Concorde barometer * diflferents ages," (Paris, 1765) esprit et "Only the physicians have a right to speak on this subject" La Mettrie describes Pluche in the "Essais sur 1 5. soul wit, without taste, he is Luzac says: "'Tis true that if the materiality of the was les beaux esprits** thus: "Without need of the work proved, the knowledge of her would be an object of natural ? Rollin's pedant. A superficial man, he had and tiresome imi- philosophy, and we might with some appearance of reason of M. Reaumur, of whom he is only a stale in his dialogues. It reject all arguments to the contrary which are not drawn from tator in the flat little sayings scattered de la Na- that science. But if the soul is not material, the investigation was with the works of Rollin as with the 'Spectacle Person, of its nature does not belong to natural philosophy, but to other : Gaqon praised ture,' one made the fortune of the both."' those who search into the nature of its faculties, and are called Person praised Ga<;on, and the public praised them edition metaphysicians."' This quotation from La Mettrie occurs in Assezat's was published as of La Mettrie's "L'homme machine," which rfe.y'JWan is... a machine.*' This is the first clear statement of "Singularites physiologiques' the second volume of the series theory, which as the title of the work indicates, is S.ie publisher and writer. He tbir (1865). Assezat was a French this work. Descartes had strongly denied Anthropological Society, and central doctrine of was at one time Secretary of the possibility of conceiving maiTas a machine. "We may publication of "La Re- the collaborated with other writers in the "La Pensee nou- easily conceive a machine to be so constructed that it emits vue Nationale," "La Revue de Paris," and that it emits some correspondent to the Machine" show great knowl- vocables, and even velle." His notes to "L'Homme action upon it of external objects which cause a change in Understanding/' Book II. Chap. «Locke»8 "Essay Concerning Human its organs,.... but not that it should emit them variously so XXIII, I IS. •Condensed and translated from La Grande Encyclopedie, Vol. 4. • Ibid., S 31. Vol 26. "* Condensed from the Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th ed., Vol. XXIII. translated from La Grande EncychpSdie, •Condensed and All references are to this edition. machine." from a note of Assizat in "L'homme •Translated •"Man More than a Machine," p. 5. I , 1 ! 180 MAN A MACHINE. APPENDIX. 181 as appositely to reply to what is said in its presence, as men of the lowest grade of intellect can do."* teen centuries, and his services to logic and to philosophy were also great."** et us then take in our hands the staff of experience" trie repeatedly emphasizes the belief that knowledge 9. The author of "LTiistoire de I'ame" is La Mettrie him- muST come from experience. Moreover he confines this ex- \1 self. perience to sense experience, "L'histoire " and concludes natu- III. relle de Tame" with these words: "No senses, no ideas. The 10. Hippocrates is often termed the "father of medicine." He fewer senses there are: the fewer ideas. No sensations ex- 4 was bom in Cos in 460 B. C. He studied medicine under his perienced, no ideas. These principles are the necessary con- father, Heraclides, and Herodicus of Selymbria; and philos- sequence of all the observations and experiences that constitute ophy under Gorgias and Democritus. He was the first to I the unassailable foundation of this work." separate medicine from religion and from philosophy. He in- This doctrine is opposed to the teaching of IJcsflyJgs, who sisted that diseases must be treated by the physician, as if insists that "neither our imagination nor our senses can give they were governed by purely natural laws. The Greeks had us assurance of anything unless our understanding inter- 'J such respect for dead bodies that Hippocrates could not have vene"*" Moreover Descartes believes that the senses are fal- dissected a human body, and consequently his knowledge of lacious, and that the ideal method for philosophy is a method its structure was limited, but he seems to have been an acute corresponding to that of mathematics." Condillac and Holbach and skilful observer of conditions in the living body. He agree withLa Mettrie's opinion. Thus, Condillac teaches that man wrote several works on medicine, and in one of them showed is nothing more than what he has become by the use of his the first principles on which the public health must be based. senses." And Holbach says: "As soon as we take leave of The details of his life are hidden by tradition, but it is certain experience, we fall into the chasm where our imagination that he was regarded with great respect and veneration by the leads us astray."" Greeks." 8. "Galen (Galenus) Claudius, 130 to circa 210 A. D. An fQ>T[i.\The different combinations of these humors " Com- eminent Greek physician and philosopher. Bom at Pergamus, partijhis with Descartes's statement that the difference in Mysia, he studied both the Platonic and Peripatetic systems men comes from the difference in the construction and posi- of philosophy. Satyrus instructed him in anatomy. He trav- tion of the brain, which causes a difference in the action of the eled extensively while young to perfect his education. About animal spirits." 165 A. D. he moved to Rome, and became very celebrated as a surgeon and practising physician, attending the family of 12. "This drug intoxicates, like wine, coffee, etc., each in Marcus Aurelius. He returned to Pergamus, but probably its own measure, and according to the dose" Descartes also visited Rome three or four times afterwards. He wrote in speaks of the effect of wine. "The vapors of wine, entering philosophy, logic, and medicine. Many, probably most, of his the blood quickly, go from the heart to the brain, where they works are lost He was the one medical authority for thir- are converted into spirits, which being stronger and more • "Discourse on Method," Part. V. abundant than usual are capable of moving the body in several » "Discourse on Method," Part IV. strange fashions."" ""Meditations," II. "Quoted from Baldwin's Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology » Traits des sensations," Part IV, Chap. IX, | $• Vol. I. >* "Systime la nature," Vol. I, Chap. I. de » Condensed from the Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. XI. " "Les passions de I'ame," Part I, Art XV. and Art XXXIX. "Ibid., Part I, Art. XV. 182 MAN A MACHINE. APPENDIX. 183 13. The quotation from Pope is from the "Moral Essays," relative with those of the body" This view is in diametrical published 1731 to 1735, Epistle I, i, 69. / opposition to the teaching of Descartes, who says: "The soul \ A J is_JJl.anaturejvhol^^ of the body."" Yet Des- \ 14. Jan Baptista Van Helmont (1578-1644) was a Flemish cartes aIso1tates~thatlhere is airrntimatFconnecTion between 'V physician and chemist. He is noted for having demonstrated the two. "The Reasonable Soul could by no means be the necessity of the balance in chemistry, and for having been educed from the power of matter it must be expressly among the first to use the word "gas." His works were pub- created ; and it is not sufficient that it be lodged in the human lished as "Ortus Medicinae," 1648." body, exactly like a pilot in a ship, unless perhaps to move its members, but i Hs neces sary for it to bejpin^^ ?n d !TnitH 15. The author of "Lettres sur la physiognomic" was Jacques '"orecloselyjojhejjody, in order to have^ensations and appe- Pernety or Pernetti. He was born at Chazelle-sur-Lyon, was jites simTIarto ours, and ift thus constitute a reaHnan."^ for some years canon at Lyons, and died there in 1777.' HoTbach later emphasizes this close connectiofTbetween body and soul, which is so insisted upon by La Mettrie. "If freed 16. Boerhaave. See Note 78. from our prejudices we wish to see our soul, or the moving principle which acts in us, we shall remain convinced that it is 17. Pierre Louis Moreau de Maupertuis (1698-1759) was a part of our body, that it can not be distinguished from the French mathematician, astronomer and philosopher. He sup- body except by an abstraction, that it is but the body itself ported the Newtonian theory against the Cartesians. In 1740 considered relatively to some of the functions or faculties to he became president of the Academy of Berlin. He was the which its nature and particular organization make it suscep- head of the expedition which was sent by Louis XV to meas- tible. We shall see that this soul is forced to undergo the ure a degree of longitude in Lapland. Voltaire satirized Mau- same changes as the body, that it grows and develops with pertuis in the "Diatribe du Docteur Akakia."" the body Finally we can not help recognizing that at some periods it shows evident signs of weakness, sickness, and 18. Luzac sums up the preceding facts by saying: "Here are death."" a great many facts, but what is it they prove? only that the faculties of the soul arise, grow, and acquire strength in pro- 20. "Peyronie (Frangois Gigot de la), a French surgeon, portion as the body does; so that these same faculties are born in Montpellier, the fifteenth of January, 1678, died the weakened in the same proportion as the body is.... But from twenty-fifth of April, 1747. He was surgeon of the hospital all these circumstances it does not follow that the faculty of of Saint-Eloi de Montpellier and instructor of anatomy to the thinking is an attribute of matter, and that all depends on the Faculty; then, in 1704, served in the army. In 1717 he became manner in which our machine is made, that the faculties of the reversioner of the position of first surgeon to Louis XV; in soul arise from a principle of animal life, from an innate heat 1731, steward of the Queen's palace; in 1735, a doctor of the or force, from an irritability of the finest parts of the body, King; in 1736, first surgeon of the King, and chief of the from a subtil ethereal matter diffused through it, or in a surgeons of the kingdom. The greatest merit of La Peyronie word, from all these things taken together."** is for having founded the Academy of Surgery in Paris, and for having gained special protection for surgery and surgeons 19. ' ii^ diverse states the soul are therefore always cor- ^ of in France. He wrote little."** ''Condensed from the Century Dictionary, Vol. IX. ""Discourse on Method," V, last paragraph. » Transl^d and condensed from La Grande Encyclopidie, Vol. a6. " "Systime de la nature," Vol. I, Chap. VIL "Condensed from the Century Dictionary, Vol. IX. * Translated from La Grande Encyclopidie, Vol. 26. ""Man More than a Machine," p. 23. I — ^» APPENDIX. 185 184 MAN A MACHINE. 24- Johann Conrad Amman was born at Schaflfhausen, in 21. 'Willis, Thomas (1621-1675), English physician, was Switzerland, in 1669. After his graduation at Basle, he prac- tised born at Great Bedwin, Wiltshire, on 27th January, 162 1. He medicine at Amsterdam. He devoted most of his atten- studied at Christ Church, Oxford; and when that city was tion to the instruction of deaf mutes. He taught them by at- garrisoned for the king he bore arms for the Royalists. He tracting their attention to the motion of his lips, tongue, and took the degree of bachelor of medicine in 1646, and after the larynx, while he was speaking, and by persuading them to surrender of the garrison applied himself to the practice of his imitate these motions. In this way, they finally learned to profession. In 1660, shortly after the Restoration, he became articulate syllables and words, and to talk. In his works Sedleian professor of natural philosophy in place of Dr. Joshua "Surdus Loquens," and "Dissertatio de Loquela," he explained Cross, who was ejected, and the same year he took the degree the mechanism of speech, and made public his method of in- struction. of doctor of physic He was one of the first members of From all accounts it seems that his success with the Royal Society, and was elected an honorary fellow of the the deaf mutes was remarkable. He died about 1730." Royal College of Physicians in 1664. In 1666, he removed 25- " the great analogy between " to Westminster, on the invitation of Dr. Sheldon, Archbishop ape and man Compare Haeckel: "Thus comparative anatomy proves to the of Canterbury He died at St. Martin's on nth November, satisfaction of every unprejudiced and critical student the sig- 1675, and was buried in Westminster Abbey."" nificant fact that the body of man and that of the anthropoid 22. Fontenelle, Bernard le Bovier de. Born at Rouen, France, ape are not only peculiarly similar, but they are practically one and the in February 11, 1657; died at Paris, January 9, 1757. A French same every important respect."* advocate, philosopher, poet, and miscellaneous writer. He was 26. Sir William Temple was born in London in the nephew (through his mother) of Comeille, and was 'one 1628. He attended the Puritan College of Emmanuel, Cambridge, of the last of the Precieux, or rather the inventor of a new but left without taking his degree. After an extensive tour combination of literature and gallantry which at first exposed on the continent, he settled in Ireland in 1655. His political career him to not a little satire' (Saintsbury). He wrote 'Poesies began with the accession of Charles II in 1660. is par- pastorales' (1688), 'Dialogues des morts* (1683), 'Entretiens He ticularly noted for concluding "The Triple Alliance" sur la pluralite des mondes' (1686), 'Histoire des oracles' between England, the United Netherlands, and Sweden, and for his (1687), 'Eloges des academiciens' (delivered 1690-1740)."* part in bringing about the marriage of William and Mary, 23. "In a word, would it be absolutely impossible to teach which completed the alliance of England and the Netherlands. the ape a language f I do not think, so." Compare with Temple was not as successful in political work at home as this Haeckel's statement of the relation between man's speech abroad, for he was too honest to care to be concerned in the intrigues and that of apes. "It is of especial interest that the speech in English affairs, at that time. He retired from of apes seems on physiological comparison to be a stage in the politics and died at Moor Park in 1699. formation of articulate human speech. Among living apes Temple wrote several works on political subjects. His « Memoirs" were begun in 1682; the first there is an Indian species which is musical ; the hylobates syn- part was destroyed dactylus sings a full octave in perfectly pure harmonious half- before it was published, the second part was published without tones. No impartial philologist can hesitate any longer to his consent, and the third part was published by Swift after admit that our elaborate rational language has been slowly Temple's death. His fame rests more on his diplomatic work and gradually developed out of the imperfect speech of our than on his writings.** Pliocene simian ancestors."" "Condensed from the Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. I. » "The Riddle of the Universe," Chap. II. "Quoted from the Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. XXIV. "Condensed from the Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. * Quoted from the Century Dictionary, Vol. IX. XXIII. " £. Haeckel, "The Riddle of the Universe," Chap. III. / 186 MAN A MACHINE. APPENDIX. 187 Swiss naturalist, born in Ge- transformed 27. "Trembley (Abraham) a in diverse ways."** Helvetius also says : "All the twelfth neva, the third of September, 1700, died in Geneva, the operations of the mind are reducible to sensation."" of May, 1784. He was educated in his native city, and in the Hague, where he became tutor of the son of an English resi- 31. "See to what one is brought by the abuse of language, dent, and later the tutor of the young duke of Richmond, with and by the use of those fine words (spirituality, immateriality, whom he traveled in Germany and Italy. In 1760, he obtained etc.)." Compare Hobbes, "Though men may put together words the position of librarian at Geneva, and gained a seat in the of contradictory signification, as spirit znd incorporeal; yet they council of the Two Hundred.* His admirable works on the /^can never have the imagination of anything answering to fresh-water snake procured for him his election as member them."«* of the Royal Society of London, and as correspondent of the 32. "Man's preeminent advantage Academy of Sciences in Paris. From 1775 to 1782 he pub- is his organism." Luzac says: "This no more proves that organization is the chief lished several works on natural religion, and articles on merit of man, than that the form of a musical natural history in the 'Philosophical Transactions,' 1742-57- instrument con- stitutes the chief merit of the musician. In proportion to the His most important work is 'Memoires pour servir a Thistoire goodness of the instrument, the musician charms by his art, d'un genre de polype d'eau douce* (Leyden, 1744; Paris, 2 and the case is the same with the soul. In proportion volumes)."" to the soundness of the body, the soul is in better condition to exert \ her faculties."" the 28. *'What was man before the invention of words and language? An animal." Compare this with the knowledge of 33. "Such is, I think, the generation of intelligence." Luzac of Hobbes: "The most noble and profitable inven- statement argues against this statement thus: "But if thought and all that of Speech, consisting of names or tion of all others was the faculties of the soul depended only on the organization connexion, without which there had appellations, and their as some pretend, how could the imagination draw a long nor amongst men neither commonwealth, nor society, ?"*• been chain of consequences from the objects it has embraced contract, nor peace, no more than amongst lions, bears, and wolves.""" 34. Pyrrhonism is "the doctrine of Pyrrho of Elis which has been transmitted chiefly by his disciple Timon. More generally, 29. Fontenelle. See note 22. radical Scepticism in general."** to 30. "All the faculties of the soul can he correctly reduced 35. Pierre Bayle was bom at Carlat in 1647. Although the pure imagination." Compare with this La Mettrie's state- child of Protestant parents, he was converted by the Jesuits. ment in "Uhistoire naturelle de I'ame": "The more one studies After his reconversion to Protestantism, he was driven out all the intellectual faculties, the more convinced one remains, of France, and took refuge first in Geneva, and then in Holland, that they are all included in the faculty of sensation, upon In 1675 ^^ became professor of philosophy at the Protestant which they all depend so essentially that without it the soul College of Sedan, and in 1681 professor of philosophy and This resembles could never perform any of its functions."" •* "Traits des sensations," p. 50. Cf. ibid.. Chap. XII (2). sensation: "Judgment, reflexion, de- Condillac*s doctrine of •""Treatise on Man," Sect. II, Chap. I, p. 4. Cf. "Essays on Mind," Essay I, Chap. I, sires, passions, etc., are nothing but sensation itself which is p. 7. •• "Leviathan," Part I, Chap. XII. Vol. "Translated from La Grande EncyclopSdU, 31 •*"Man More than a Machine," p. 25. ""Leviathan/' Part I, Chap. IV. '^ Ibid., p. 26. I99> • "L'hiatoire naturelle de I'ame," Chap. XIV. p. ••Quoted from Baldwin's Dictionary of Philosophy, Vol. II. *-i APPENDIX. 189 188 MAN A MACHINE. of dread? These are ideas which can not be excited by ob- history at Rotterdam. In 1693 he was forced to resign from '^ jects which operate on our senses."** his position on account of his religious views. <: of the time. Bayle was one of the leading French sceptics 38. "Nature has created us solely to be happy** This is a of J He was a Cartesian, but questioned both the certainty statement of the doctrine, which La Mettrie developes in his one's own existence, and the knowledge derived from it. He principal ethical work "Discours sur le Bonheur." He teaches^ Mdeclared that religion is contrary to the human reason, but that happiness rests upon bodily pleasure and pain. In "L'his- distin- that this fact does not necessarily destroy faith. He toire naturelle de Tame," La Mettrie states that all the pas- guished religion not only from science, but also from morality, sions can be developed from two fundamental passions, of and vigorously opposed those who considered a certain religion which they are but modifications, love and hatred, or desire necessary for morality. He did not openly attack Christianity, and aversion.** Like La Mettrie, Helvetius makes corporeal yet all that he wrote awakened doubt, and his work exerted pleasure and pain the ruling motives for man's conduct. Thus an extensive influence for scepticism. he writes: "Pleasure and pain are and always will be the only cri- His principal work is the "Dictionnaire historique et principles of action in man."** "Remorse is nothing more tique," published 1695- 1697, and containing a vast amount than a foresight of bodily pain to which some crime has ex-/ This of knowledge, expressed in a piquant and popular style. posed us."*" He definitely makes happiness the end of human super- fact made the book widely read both by scholars and by action. "The end of man is self-preservation and the attain- ficial readers. ment of a happy existence Man, to find happiness, should save up his pleasures, and refuse all those which might change 36. Amobius the Elder was bom at Sicca Venerea in Nu- into pains The passions always have happiness as an object: midia, in the latter part of the third century A. D. He was at they are legitimate and natural, and can not be called good first an opponent of Christianity, but was afterwards converted, or bad except on account of their influence on human beings. and wrote "Adversus Gentes" as an apology for Christianity. To lead men to virtue, we must show them the advantages of In this work, he tries to answer the complaints made against virtuous actions."*" Holbach, finally, goes further than La Christians on the ground that' the disasters of the time were Mettrie or Helvetius, and makes purely mechanical impulses due to their impiety; vindicates the divinity of Christ; and the motives of man's action. "The passions are ways of discusses the nature of the human soul. He concludes that the being or modifications of the internal organs, attracted or soul is not immortal, for he believes that the belief in the repulsed by objects, and are consequently subject in their immortality of the soul would have a deteriorating influence own way to the physical laws of attraction and repulsion."** on morality. For translation of his work compare Vol. XIX ^ of the "Ante-Nicene Christian Library."*® 39. "Ixions of Christianity." Ixion, for his treachery, stricken with madness, was cast into Erebus, where he was continually 37. "There exists no soul or sensitive substance without rC' scourged while bound to a fiery wheel, and forced to cry: morse" Condillac had said: "There is something in animals "Benefactors should be honored." besides motion. They are not pure machines : they feel."** La Mettrie also attributed remorse to animals, but believed that 40. "Who can be sure that the reason for man's existence they are none the less machines. Luzac said in comment: "What renders these systems completely ridiculous, is, that **"Man More than a Machine," p. 65. « naturelle de I'ame," Chap. the persons who pronounce men machines, give them prop- "L'histoire X, S XII. *• "Treatise on Man," Chap. X. belie their assertion. If beings are but machines, erties which 4 ! ^Ihid., Chap. VII. internal sense, kind "^m" I why do they grant a natural law, an a *• "Le vrai sens du systeme de la nature," Chap. IX. *• Condensed from the Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. II. «7Wi., Vol. I. Chap. VIII, p. 140. <^ "Traits des animaux," Chap. I, p. 454* \ 190 MAN A MACHINE. APPENDIX. 191 M not simply the fact that he exists?" Luzac opposes this gion in him- chretienne' (1684), with its continuation by saying : "If the reason of man's existence was man Traite de la divinite de notre Seigneur self, this existence would be a necessary consequence of his Jesus-Christ' (1689)."" own nature; so that his own nature would contain the cause 44. "Derham (William), or reason of his existence. Now since his own nature would English theologian and scholar, born in Stoughton, near imply the cause of his existence, it would also imply his Worcester, in 1657, died at Upminster in 1735. Pastor of Upminster existence itself, so that man could no more be considered as in the county of Essex, he could peacefully devote non-existent than a circle can be considered without radii or himself to his taste for mechanics and natural history. Besides a picture without features or proportions If the existence making studies of watch-making, and of fish, birds, and insects, of man was in man himself, he would then be an invariable published in part in the Transactions of the Royal Society, he being."** wrote several works on religious philosophy. The most important, which was popular for a long Mothe-Fenelon), time and was translated 41. "Fenelon (Francois de Salignac de la into French (1726), has as title 'Physico-Theology, bom at Chateau de Fenelon, Dordogne, France, August 6, or the Demonstration of the Existence and celebrated the Attributes of God, 1651, died at Cambrai, France, January 7, 1715. A by the Works of His Creation' (1713). He wrote French prelate, orator, and author. He became preceptor of as complement, in 1714, his 'Astro-Theology, or the Demonstration the sons of the dauphin in 1689, and was appointed archbishop of the Existence and Attributes of God by "" of Cambrai in 1695. His works include 'Les aventures de the Observation of the Heavens.' Telemaque* (1699), 'Dialogues des morts' (1712),, Traite de des I'education des filles' (1688), 'Explication des maximes 45. Rais, or Cardinal de Retz (1614-1679), was a French saints' (1697), etc. His collected works were edited by Le- politician and author. From his childhood he was intended M4» for clere (38 vols., 1827-1830).' the church. He took an active part in the movement against Cardinal Mazarin, and later became cardinal, but lost "Nieuwentyt (Bernard), a Dutch mathematician, bom his popularity, 42. and was imprisoned at Vincennes. After es- in Westgraafdak the tenth of August 1654, diet at Purmerend caping from there he returned to France and settled in Lor- the thirtieth of May, 1718. An unrelenting Cartesian, he raine, where he wrote his 'Memoires,' which tell of the court combated the infinitesimal calculus, and wrote a polemic life of his time." against Leibnitz, concerning this subject. He wrote a theo- logical dissertation translated into French under the title 46. Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694) was a renowned Italian "L'existence de Dieu demontree par les merveilles de la anatomist and physiologist. He held the position of lecturer nature' (Paris, 1725).'"* on medicine at Bologna in 1656, a few months later became professor at Pisa, was made professor at Bologna Nay, Basse-Pyre- in 1660, 43. "Abadie, James (Jacques), bom at went from there to Messina, though he later returned to Bo- nees, probably in 1654; died at London, September 25, 1725. logna. In 1691 he became physician to Pope Innocent XH. theologian. He went to Berlin A noted French Protestant Malpighi is often known as the founder of microscopic anat- about 1680 as minister of the French church there, and thence omy. He was the first to see the marvelous spectacle of the minister of the French to England and Ireland; was for a time circulation of the blood on the surface of a frog's lung. Killaloe He church in the Savoy; and settled in Ireland as dean of discovered the vesicular structure of the human lung, the in 1699. His chief work is the Traite de la verite de la reli- structure of the secreting glands, and the mucous character «"Man More than a Machine," pp. 71 and 72. "Quoted from the Century Dictionary, Vol. IX. •Quoted from the Century Dictionary, Vol. IX. "Translated from La Grande " Translated from La Grand* Encyclopidie, Vol. 34. Encyclopedie, Vol. 14 "Condensed from the Century Dictionary, Vol. X. / APPENDIX. 193 192 MAN A MACHINE. the first to 49. Desbarreaux (Jacques Vallee). A French writer, bom of the lower stratum of the epidermis. He was accurately at Paris in 1602, who died at Chalon-sur-Saone the ninth of undertake the finer anatomy of the braifl, and he May, 1673. He wrote a celebrated sonnet on penitence, but described the distribution of grey matter, and of the fibre (Bologna, was rather an unbeliever and sceptic than a penitent Guy tracts in the cord His works are: "De pulmonibus Car. Fracas- Patin, hearing of his death, said: "He infected poor young 1661), "Epistolae anatomicae narc. Malpighi et Structura" (London, people by his licence. His conversation was very dangerous sati" (Amsterdam, 1662), "De Viscerum Structura and destructive to the public."" 1669), "Anatome Plantarum" (London, 1672), "De Glandularum conglobatarum" (London, 1689).** 50. Boindin (Nicolas), French scholar and author, bom the which arose in the latter twenty-ninth of May 1676 at Paris, where he died the thirtieth 47. Deism is a system of thought represen- of November 1751. He was in the army for a while, but re- part of the seventeenth century. Its most important Shaftsbury, tired on account of ill health. He then gave himself up to tatives in England were Toland, Collins, Chubb, and speech, literature, and wrote several plays. In 1706 he was elected and Tindal. They insisted on freedom of thought They Royal censor and associate of the Academy of Inscriptions. and claimed that reason is superior to any authority. and were His liberty, or, as it was then called, license of mind, shut the denied the necessity of any supernatural revelation, Partly be- doors of the French Academy to him, and would have caused consequently vigorously opposed by the church. argued his expulsion from the Academy of Inscriptions if he had of this opposition by the church, many of them cause 68 observance of not been so old. He died without retracting his opinions.' against Christianity, and tried to show that an for man. They moral laws is the only religion necessary since man is 51. Denis Diderot (1713-1784) was one of the leaders of taught that happiness is man's chief end, and that, gained by mutual the intellectual movement of the eighteenth century. He was a social being, his happiness can best be is the work at first influenced by Shaftsbury, and was enthusiastic in his helpfulness. Although they declared that nature of the support of natural religion. In his "Pensees philosophiques" of a perfect being, they had a mechanical conception later theists, (1746) he tries to show that the discoveries of natural science relation of CJod to the worid, and did not, like of nature." are the strongest proofs for the existence of God. The won- find evidence of God's presence in all the works ders of animal life are enough to destroy atheism "for ever. at Tau- Yet, while he opposes atheism, he also opposes vigorously the 48. "Vanini, Lucilio, self-styled Julius Csesar. Bom burned at the stake at intolerance and bigotry of the church. He claims that many risano, kingdom of Naples, about 1585 ; thinker, of the attributes ascribed to God are contrary to the very idea Toulouse, France, February 19, 1619. An Italian free studied of a just and loving God. condemned to death as an atheist and magician. He in Germany Later, Diderot was influenced by La Mettrie and by Hol- at Rome and Padua, became a priest, traveled but was bach, and became an advocate of materialism which he set and the Netheriands, and began teaching at Lyons, After his forth in "Le reve d'Alembert" and in the passages contributed obliged to flee to England, where he was arrested. at Tou- to the "Systeme de la nature." Diderot was the editor of release he returned to Lyons, and about 1617 settled condemned, the "Encyclopedic."" louse. Here he was arrested for his opinions, *Amphi- and on the same day executed. His chief works are: 52. Trembley. See note 27. theatrum aetemae Providentiae' (1615), *De admirandis na- "Translated and condensed from La Grande Encyclopedie, Vol. turae reginae deaeque mortalium arcanis* (i6i6).'"* 14. ••Translated and condensed from La Grande Encyclopedie, Vol. 7. * Condensed from the Encyclopaedia BrUannica, Vol. XV. •Condensed from F. A. Lange, "History of Materialism," Vol. II, Benn, "History of English Rationalism," Vol. I, Chap. «Cf. A. W. Chap. I, and from W. Windelband, "History of Philosophy," Part V, MI. Chap. I. . ^ ••Quoted from the Century Dictionary, Vol. X. :: \i 194 MAN A MACHINE. APPENDIX. 195 to happen,** 53. "Nothing which happens, could have failed An enunciation of the doctrine so insisted upon by Holbach. SS. 'Tucretius (Titus Lucretius Cams). Bom at Rome, probably "The whole universe shows us only an immense and un- about 96 B. C, died October 15, 55 B. C A celebrated interrupted chain of cause and effect."** "Necessity which Roman philosophical poet. He was the author of *De rerum natura,' a didactic regulates all the movements of the physical world, controls and philosophical poem in six books, treat- ing of physics, also those of the moral world."" of psychology, and (briefly) of ethics from the Epicurean point of view. committed He suicide probably in a Vi fit of insanity. According to a popular 54. "All these evidences of a creator, repeated thousands. . .of but doubtless erroneous tradition, times ...are self-evident only to the anti-Pyrrhonians." La Met- his madness was due to a love-phiUer administered t>n to him by his wife.' trie holds an opinion contrary not only to that of Descartes and Locke, but also to that of Toland, Hobbes, and Condillac. 56. "Lamy (Bernard) was born in Mans in the year 1640. Descartes, for instance, says : "Thus I very clearly see that the He studied first in the college of this city. later certitude and truth of all science depends on the knowledge He went to Paris, and at Saumar studied philosophy under Charles de la alone of the true God."" Hobbes asserts : "For he that from Fontenelle, and theology under Andre Martin and Le- any effect he seeth come to pass should reason to the next and Jean porc. He was at length called to teach philosophy immediate cause thereof, and from thence to the cause of that in the city of Angers. He wrote a great many books on theological cause, shall at last come to this, that there must be, as sub- jects. His philosophical works are: *L'art de parler' even the heathen philosophers confessed, one first mover, that (1675), Traite de mechanique, de I'equilibre, des solides et des li- is a first and an eternal cause of all things, which is that queurs* (1679), Traite de la grandeur en which men mean by the name of God."" Toland's words are general' (1680), 'Entretiens sur les sciences' (1684), 'Elements de "All the jumbling of atoms, all the Chances you can suppose geometrie/ (1685)."" their for it, could not bring the Parts of the Universe into present Order, nor continue them in the same, nor cause the 57. "The eye sees only because it is formed and placed as it Organization of a Flower or a Fly The Infinity of Matter is." La Mettrie doubts whether there is any purpose in the ....excludes an extended corporeal God, but not a pure world. Condillac, on the other hand, teaches that purpose first cause, and Spirit or immaterial Being."** Condillac writes : "A intelligence are shown forth in the universe. "Can we see the independent, unique, infinite, eternal, omnipotent, immutable, order of the parts of the universe, the subordination among intelligent, free, and whose providence extends over all things them, and notice how so many different things compose such that is the most perfect notion of God that we can form in a permanent whole, and remain convinced that the cause of this life."* Locke declares: "From what has been said it is the universe is a principle without any existence knowledge of its effects, plain to me we have a more certain knowledge of the '^v which without purpose, without intelligence, relates each being of a God than of anything our senses have not immediately to particular ends, subordinated to a general end?"" discovered to us. Nay I presume I may say, that we more certainly know that there is a God, than that there is anything 58. "Non nostrum inter vos tantas componere lites." Vergil, else without us."** Eclogue III, line 108. t\ ••"Syst^mc de la nature," Vol. I, Chap. I, p. 12. «/6»d.. Vol. II. Chap. XI,. Cf. Vol. I, Chap. VIL 59. "The universe will never he happy unless it is atheistic." ""Meditations," III and V. Although La Mettrie calls this a "strange opinion" it is clear •"Leviathan," Part I, Chap. XII. « Quoted •"Letters to Serena," V, p. 235. from the Century Dictionary, Vol. IX. •"Traiti des animaux," Chap. VI, p. 585. •Translated and condensed from the Dictionnatre des Sciences phiiO' •"Essay Concerning Human Understanding," Book IV, Chap. X. sophtques. Vol. Ill, Paris, 1847. • "Trait* des animaux," Chap. VI. I APPENDIX. 197 196 MAN A MACHINE. his life he held the position of Lumleian lecturer at the Col- that he secretly sympathizes with it. Holbach afltois this doc- lege of Physicians, and of physician extraordinary to James I. trine very emphatically. "Experience teaches us that sacred opin- His principal works are: "Exercitatio de motu cordis et evils of human beings. Ig- sanguinis" ions were the real source of the (1628), and "Exercitationes de generatione anima- norance of natural causes created gods for them. Imposture hum" (1651)." made these gods terrible. This idea hindered the progress of reason."^ "An atheist is a man who destroys chimeras 6^. Francis Bacon (1551-1626) was one of the first to re- the race, in order to lead men back to volt against scholasticism harmful to human and to introduce a new method into science nature, to experience, and to reason, which has no need of and philosophy. He claimed that >m to know reahty, and to explain the operations of nature. consequently to rfl«Qurse to ideal powers, gain new power over reality, man must stop studying conceptions, and study matter itself. Yet he did but empty word" Contrast not himself ^he soul is therefore an know how to gain a more accurate knowledge of certainly the ide* I nature, so tl!(k wiAi Descartes's statement: "And that he could not put into practice the method is incomparably more distinct which he himself hsiVe^OT th^^ffliman mind.... advocated. His works are full of scholastic corporeal object.*'" Compare this doc- conceptions, . than the idea of any though many of the implications of his system trine, also, with Holbach's assertion: "Those who have dis- are materialistic. Lange claims,^' indeed, that if Bacon had only distin- been tinguished the soul from the body seem to have more consistent and daring, he would have reached is the strictly guished their brains from themselves. Truly the brain materialistic conclusions. The account of the motion of the common center, where all the nerves spread in all parts of heart of the dead convict is found in "Sylva Sylvarum."" . . .The more This book, the human body, terminate and join together. published in 1627, a year after Bacon's death, con- tains the experience we have, the more we are convinced that the word account of Bacon's experiments, and of his theories it, in matters 'spirit' has no meaning even to those who have invented of physiology, physics, chemistry, medicine, and and can be of no use either in the physical or in the moral psychology. \ world."" 64. Robert Boyle, one of the greatest natural philosophers of his 6i. William Cowper (1666-1709) was an English anatomist age, studied at Eton for three years, and then became the Dutch the private He was drawn into a controversy with Bidloo, pupil of the rector of Stalbridge. He traveled through physician, by publishing under his own name Bidloo's work France, Switzerland, and Italy, and while at Florence, bodies. His principal works are: studied the work of on the anatomy of human Galileo. He decided to devote his life "Glandularum de- to scientific work, "Myotamia reformata" (London, 1694) and and in 1645 became a member of a society of scientific men, scriptio" (1702)." which later grew into the Royal Society of London. His principal work was the improvement of the air- physician pump, and by 62. William Harvey (1578-1657), an English and that the discovery of the laws governing the physiologist, is renowned for his discovery of the circulation pressure and volume of gases. blood. was educated at Canterbury and Cambridge, Boyle was also deeply of the He interested in theology. He gave lib- erally for and took his doctor's degree at Cambridge in 1602. During the work of spreading C:hristianity in India and America, and by his will endowed the "Boyle Lectures" to ^ Systimc dc la nature," Vol. II, Chap. XVI, p. 451. » JWi.. Chap. XXVI, p. 485. Cf. Luzac's criticism in "Man More than a "Condensed from the Century Dictionary, Vol. IX. Machine, p. 94. " F. A. Lange, "History of Materialism," Vol. I, Sec. II, Chap. III. ""Meditations," IV. ""Sylva Sylvanim sive Historia Naturalis Latio Transcripta a 1. Gruteo. *^ '' " "Systcme dc la nature," Vol. I, Chap. VII, pp. 121-iaa. Lug. Batavos, 1648. Cf. Bk. IV. Experiment 400. ( *• Condensed and trantlated from La Grande Encyclopidii, Vol. 13. 198 MAN A MACHINE. APPENDIX. 199 where he demonstrate the Christian religion against atheists, theists, was under the protection of Christina, Queen of pagans, Jews, and Mohammedans.'* Sweden, and remained there until his death in 1679."* 65. Nicolas Stenon was born at Copenhagen, 163 1, and died |"For one order that the will gives, it bows a hundred at Schwerin in 1687. He studied at Leyden and Paris, jto the yoke." and Descartes, on the other hand, teaches that then settled in Florence, where he became the physician tht^oul has of the direct control over its voluntary actions and grand duke. In 1672 he became professor of thoughts, anatomy at and indirect control over its passions.** La Mettrie Florence, but three years later he gave up this goes further posiiton and than to limit the extent of the will, and questions entered the church. In 1677 he was made Bishop of Heliopolis whether it is ever free : "The sensations which affect us de- and went to Hanover, then to Munster, and finally cide the soul to Schwerin. either to will or not to will, to love or to hate His principal work is the these "Discours sur I'anatomie du cer- sensations according to the pleasure or the pain which veau" (Paris, 1669)." they cause in us. This state of the soul thus determined by its sensations is called the will."" Holbach insists on this 66. La Mettrie's account of involuntary point and movements is much contends that all freedom is a delusion: "[Man's] like that of Descartes. Descartes says: "If any one quickly birth depends on causes entirely outside of his power; it is passes his hand before our without eyes as if to strike us, we shut his permission that he enters this system where he our eyes, because the machinery has a of our body is so composed place; and without his consent that, from the moment that the movement of this hand of his birth towards our eyes excites an- to the day of his death, he is continually modified other movement in the brain, which controls by causes that the animal spirits influence his machine in spite of his will, modify in the muscles that close the his being, eyelids."** and alter his conduct. Is not the least reflexion enough to prove that the solids and fluids of which the body 67. "The brain has its is muscles for thinking, as the legs have composed, and that the hidden mechanism that he considers muscles for walking/' Neither Condillac independent of nor Helvetius go external causes, are perpetually under the in- so far. Helvetius explicitly states that it is an open question fluence of these causes, and could not act without them? Does whether sensation is he due to a material or to a spiritual sub- not see that his temperament does not depend on himself, stance.* that his passions are the necessary consequences of his tem- perament, that his will and his actions are determined by these 68. Giovanni Alfonso Borelli same (1608-1679) was the head of passions, and by ideas that he has not given to himself.? the so-called iatro-mathematical sect. He tried to apply mathe- ....In a word, everything should convince man that during ) matics to medicine in the same in every moment his way which it had been of life, he is but a passive instrument in the applied to the physical sciences. He was wise enough to hands of necessity."" restrict the application of his system to the motion of the muscles, but his followers tried to extend its \7o. The ^^^^^y oi animal application and NL.. ^ spirits, held by Galen and elab- were led into many absurd oratetHjy conjectures. Borelli was at first Descart§§^ that the nerves are hollow tubes con- professor of mathematics at Pisa, taining a v^Hatile and later professor of medi- liquid, the animal spirits. The animal spirits cine at Florence. were He was connected with the revolt of Mes- supposed to circulate from the periphery to the brain sina and was obliged to leave Florence. He retired to Rome, " Condensed from the Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. IV. *• Condensed from the Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. IV. " "Les passions de I'ame," Part I, Art. *• Translated 41. and condensed from La Grand* Encyclopidie, Vol. 30. naturelle de I'ame," Chap. XII, p. 164. Cf. Chap. XII. » "Les passions de I'ame," Part I, Art. 13. p-le'r^*"'*"**'^ « "Essays on the Mind/' Essay I, Chap. I, « "Systime pp. 4^. de la nature," Vol. I, Chap. VI, pp. B9S, 200 MAN A MACHINE. APPENDIX. 201 He was twice dean of the faculty of Paris. In he be- and back again, and to perform by their action all the func- 1727 tions of the nerves. came the physician of the religious Carmelites of the suburb of Saint Jacques, and remained their physician for thirty- two years." 71. Berkeley uses the fact that the color of objects varies, as one argument for his idealistic conclusion." 77. The quotation: "All men may not go to Corinth!* is It is translated from Horace, Ep. i, 36. "Non cuivis homini 72. hard to tell what Pythagoras himself taught, but it 19, is certain that he taught the kinship of animals and men, and contigit adire Corinthum." upon this kinship his rule for the abstinence from flesh was probably based. Among the writings of the later Pythagoreans 78. Hermann Boerhaave was born at Voorhout near Leyden, on December 1668. father, we find strange rules for diet which are plainly genuine 31, His who belonged to the cler- ical profession, destined his taboos. For example they are commanded "to abstain from son for the same calling and so gave him a liberal education. At the University of Leyden, beans, not to break bread, not to eat from a whole loaf, not to eat the heart, etc"" he studied under Gronovius, Ryckius and Frigland. At the death of his father, Boerhaave was left without any provision and supported himself by teaching mathematics. 71. Plato forbade the use of wine in his ideal republic." Vandenberg, the burgomaster of Leyden, advised him to study medicine, and he decided to devote himself to this profession. In 74- "Nature's first care, when the chyle enters the blood, is 1693 he received his degree and began to practice medicine. In to excite tn it a kind of fever." Thus, warmth is the first 1701 he was made "Lecturer on the Institutes of Medicine" at necessity for the body. Compare with this, Descartes's state- the University of Leyden. Thirteen years later he was ap- ment: "There is a continual warmth in our heart,. .. .this fire pointed Rector of the University, and the is the bodily principle of all the movements of our members."* same year became Professor of Practical Medicine there. introduced This is one of the many instances in which La Mettrie's ac- He into the university the system of clinical instruction. Boerhaave's count of the mechanism of the body is similar to that of Descartes. merit was widely recognized, and his fame attracted many medical students from all Europe to the University of Leyden. Among these was La Mettrie whose whole philosophy 75. "Stahl (George Ernst), bom at Ansbach, Bavaria, Oc- was profoundly influenced by the teaching of Boerhaave. In tober 21, 1660; died at Berlin, May 14, 1734. A noted German 1728 Boerhaave was elected into the Royal Academy of Sciences of chemist, physician of the King of Prussia from 1716. His Paris, and two years later he was made a member of the works include: Theoria medica vera' (1707), *Experimenta Royal Society of London. In 1731 his health compelled him to resign et observationes chemicae' (1731), etc."** the Rectorship at Leyden. At this time he delivered an ora- tion, "De Honore, Medici Servitute." died after 76. Philip Hecquet (1661-1737) was a celebrated French He a long illness on April 23, 1738. The city of Leyden erected a monu- physician. He studied at Rheims, and in 1688 became the ment to him in the Church of St. Peter, and inscribed on it: physician of the nuns of Port Royal des Champs. He re- "Salutifero Boerhaavii genio Sacrum." turned to Paris in 1693 and took his doctor's degree in 1697. Boerhaave was a careful and brilliant student, an inspiring ""Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous," I, Open Court edition; teacher, and a skilful practitioner. There are remarkable ac- pp. 27, 2%, 29. Cf. "Principles of Human Knowledge," par. 10, 15. w counts of his skill in discovering Quoted from J. Burnet, "Early Greek Philosophy," Chap. II. symptoms, and in diagnosing "Republic III, 403. diseases. His chief works are: "Institutiones Medicae" (Ley- » 'Les passions de Tame," Part I, Art. VIII. •* Translated and condensed from La Grande Encyclopidie, Vol. " Quoted from the Century Dictionary, Vol. X. 19. \> \ 202 MAN A MACHINE. APPENDIX. 203 den, 1708) ; "Aphorismi de cognoscendls et curandis Morbis" and astronomer. He is celebrated for the invention of the (Leyden, 1709), "Libellus de Materia Medica et Remediorum pendulum clock which could measure the movements of the Formulis" (Leyden, 1719), "Institutiones et Experimentae planets, for the improvement of the telescope, and for the Chemicae" (Paris, 1724)." development of the wave-theory of light. His principal work is "Horologium Oscillatorium" (1673).'* 79. Willis. (See Note 21.) 84. Julien Leroy (1686-1759) was a celebrated French watch- 80. Claude Perrault (1613-1688) was a French physician and maker. He excelled in the construction of pendulums and architect. received He his degree of doctor of medicine at of large clocks. Some have attributed the construction of the Paris and practised medicine there. In 1673 he became a mem- first horizontal clock to him, but this is doubtful. Among ber of the Royal Academy of Sciences. Ahhough he never many other inventions and improvements of clocks, he in- abandoned his vjrork in mathematics, in the natural sciences, and vented the compensating pendulum which bears his name.** in medicine, he is more noted as an architect than as a phy- sician or scientist. He was the architect of one of the colon- 85. Jacques de Vaucanson (1709-1782) was a French mech- nades of the Louvre, and of the Observatory." anist. From his childhood he was always interested in mech- anical contrivances. In 1738 he presented to the French 81. "Matter is self"moved" In "L'histoire naturelle de I'ame" Academy his remarkable flute player. Soon after, he made a (/ La Mettrie claims that motion is one of the essential properties duck which could swim, eat, and digest, and an asp which of matter. See "L'histoire naturelle de I'ame," Chap. V. could hiss and dart on Cleopatra's breast. He later held the position of inspector of the manufacture of silk. In 1748 he 82. "The nature of motion is as unknown to us as that of was admitted to the Academy of Sciences. His machines were matter." left in Unlike La Mettrie, Toland holds that it is possible to the Queen, but she gave them to the Academy, and I to know the nature of matterT^arRr declares that motion and the disturbances which followed the pieces were scattered and \o^<^'' matter can not be defined, because their nature is self-evi- lost. Vaucanson published: "Mecanisme d'un fluteur auto- dent.** 08 Holbach, resembling La Mettrie, teaches that it is mate" (Paris, 1738).' futile to seek to know the ultimate nature of matter, or the ^[T^^^S^skc^^nderstood animal nature; he was the first cause for its existence. "Thus if any one shall ask whence te completely that animals are pure machines" Contrast matter came, we shall say that it has alv/ays existed. If any this with La Mettrie's former reference in "L'histoire na- one ask, whence came movement in matter, we shall answer turelle de Tame" to "this absurd system *that animals are pure that for this same reason matter must have moved from eter- nity, machines.' Such a laughable opinion," he adds, "has never since motion is a necessary consequence of its existence, gained admittance among philosophers. .. .Experience does its essence, and of its primitive properties, such as extent, not prove the faculty of feeling any less in animals than in weight, impenetrability, shape, etc The existence of matter is fact men."" It is evident that La Mettrie's opposition to this a ; the existence of motion is another fact."* 'absurd system' was based upon his insistence on the similarity of men and animals. In "L'homme machine" he argues from 83. Huyghens (Christian) was born at The Hague, 1629, and the same premiss, that animals are machines, that men are died there in 1695. He was a Dutch physicist, mathematician, like animals, and that therefore men also are machines. •Condensed from the Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. III. ••Condensed from the Century Dictionary, Vol. IX. "Translated and condensed from La Grande Encyclopkdie, Vol. 26. •'Translated and condensed from La Grande Encyclopedie, Vol. 33. ^^ •"Letters to Serena," V. •• Translated and condensed from La Grande Encyclopidie, VoL 3U •» "Systeme de la nature," Vol. II, Chap. II, p. 32. ••"L'histoire naturelle de I'ame," Chap. VI. / (' I / . WORKS CONSULTED AND CITED IN THE NOTES. (An asterisk indicates the edition to which reference is made.) NOTES ON THE EXTRACTS FROM "L'HISTOIRE JULIEN OfFRAY de LA MetTRIE. NATURELLE DE UAME." 1745 "L'histoire naturelle de I'ame." The Hague. (This 87. Matter, according work appears as "Traite de I'ame" in to La Mettrie, is endowed with ex- La Mettrie's tensity, the collected works.) power of movement ,and the faculty of sensation. As La Mettrie 1748 "L'homme machine." Leyden. says, this conception was not held by Des- ,c^es, who "L'homme machine par La Mettrie, \)M thought that the essential attribute of matteT¥ avec une introduc- e^nsion. "The tion et des notes." Assezat. Paris, nature of body consists not in weight, hard- J. 1865. nessTcolor, and the like 1751 "CEuvres philosophiques." London (Berlin). but in extension alone—in its being a substance "'"» 1764 *"(Euvres philosophiques de extended in length, breadth and height. Hobbes's Monsieur de la Mettrie," conception Amsterdam. Besides ,lrt^ of matter is very similar to that of La MettrlT^e "L'homme machine" and "Traite specifically de Tame," the "(Euvres attributes motion to matter: "Motion and magni- philosophiques" contain the tude are the most following (dates of first publication common accidents of all bodies."'" He does added in paren- not name sensation theses) : as an attribute of matter, but he reduces sensation^o motion. "Abrege des systemes." "Sense is some internal motion in the sentient.*'"* Since "L'homme plante" (1748). motion is one of the attributes of matter, and since matter is **Les animaux plus que machines" the only reality in the universe, sensation (1750). must be attributed to matter. "L'Anti-Seneque" (1748). "L'art de jouir" (1751). Ul 88. La Mettrie *Systeme d'Epicure." always insists that matter has the power of movmg Itself, and resents any attempt to show \ J that the motion Elie Luzac. IS due to an outside 89. "This absurd system. 1637 "Essais philosophiques," including "Discours de la . .that animals are pure machines" me- (See Note 86.) thode. "The Discourse on Method," translated by John Veitch. »«> "Principles of Metaphysics," Part II, Prop. 4. Open Court Publishing Co., 1903. - >« "De Corpor-," Part III. Chap. XV. 1641 "Meditationes de prima philosophia." ^Ibid.. Part IV. Chap. XXV. (a). . 206 MAN A MACHINE. APPENDIX. 207 1644 "Principia philosophiae." "The Meditations and Selections from the Principles of C. A. Helvetius. Philosophy," translated by John Veitch. Open Court 1758 "De I'esprit." Paris. Publishing Co., 1905. "De I'esprit, or Essays on the mind and its several facul- 1650 "Les passions de Tame/* ties," translated from the French by Wiliam Mulford. "(Euvres de Descartes," Vol. IV. Edited by Victor Cou- London, 1810. sin, Paris, 1824. 1772 "De I'homme, de ses facultes, et de son education." 2 vols. London. John Toland. Faculties His "A Treatise on Man ; His Intellectual and 1704 "Letters to Serena." London. Printed for Bernard Education," translated from the French, with notes, Lintot. by W. Hooper, M. D., 1810. Thomas Hobbes. Frederick the Great. 1650 "Human Nature or the Fundamental Elements of Poli- "(Euvres de Frederic II., Roi de Prusse, publiees du cie." London. vivant de I'auteur." Berlin, 1789: "Eloge de Julien 1651 "Leviathan; Or the Matter, Form, and Power of a Com- Offray de la Mettrie," Vol. Ill, pp. IS9 ff- monwealth, Ecclesiastical & Civil." London. 1655 "Elementorum Philosophiae Sectio Prima: De Corpore." Francis Bacon. London. "Sylva Sylvarum, sive Historia Naturalis," transcripta English Works edited by Sir William Molesworth, 1839- a J. Grutero Lug. Batavor. 1648. 45- Volume III. Leviathan. Volume IV. Human Nature. F. A. Lange. "History of Materialism," translated by Ernest Chester John Locke. Thomas, Boston, 1877. 1690 "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. London. Edition of Books II and IV (with omissions) preceded W. Windelband. by the English version of Le Clerc's "Eloge historique "History of Philosophy," translated by J. H. Tufts, New de feu Mr. Locke," ed. M. W. Calkins. Open Court York, 1898. Publishing Co., 1905. A. W. Benn. Etienne Bonnot de Condillac. "History of English Rationalism in the Nineteenth Cen- 1754 "Traite des sensations." Paris and London. tury." London, 1906. 1755 "Traite des animaux." Paris and London. Sciences, 'Xa Grande Encyclopedic . Inventaire Raisonne des "(Euvres completes," 23 vols. Edited by Guillaume Ar- des Lettres, et des Arts, par une Societe de Savants et de noux and Mousnier. Paris, 1798. Vol. III. "Traite de Lettres." Paris, 1885- 1903. des sensations. Traite des animaux." Gens WT" Baron P. H. D. von Holbach. The Encyclopaedia Britannica. A Dictionary of Arts, Sci- ences, and General Literature." Ninth Edition. 1770 "Systeme de la nature," par M. Mirabaud [really Von Holbach] "The Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia." New York. Nouvelle edition avec des notes et des corrections par Psychology," edited by M. Diderot. Paris, 182 1. "Dictionary of Philosophy and J. Baldwin. London and New York, 1901. INDEX OF NAMES AND TITLES. (Italicised numerals refer to pages of the French text.) Abadie, James (Jacques), 51, 123, "Astro-Theology," by Derham, 190. 191. "Abr^ge des systemes philoso- phiques," by La Mettrie, 165, Bacon, Francis, 57, sg, 129, 130, 166, 170, 205. 197. 207. Academy of Berlin, 176, 182. Baldwin, J. M., 181, 187, 207. Academy of Inscriptions, 193. Basle, 185. Academy of Sciences at Paris, Bavaria, 176, 200. 186, 203. Bayle, Pierre, 39, 63, no, 133, Academy of Surgery at Paris, 183. 187-188. "Adversus (Rentes," by Arnobius, Benn, A. W., 192, 207. x88. Berkeley, George, 200. America, 197. Berlin, 9, 190, 200. Amman, Johann Conrad, ^p, 50, Bidloo, Nikolaus, 196. 100, 101, 102, 185. Blois, 24^ 96. "Amphitheatrum aeternae Provi- Blondel, Frangois, 62. dentiae," by Vanini, 192. Boerhaave, Hermann, 4, 5, 24, ($7, Amsterdam, 185. 74t 96, 138, 182, 201-202. "Anatome Plantarum," by Mal- Boindin, Nicolas, 53, 124, 193. pighi, 192. Bologna, 191. Angers, 195. Borelli, Giovanni Alfonso, 63, 133, Ansbach, 200. 198. "Ante-Nicene Christian Library," Boyle, Robert, 58, 129, 197. 188. Brittany, 4, 176. Anthropological Society, 178. Burnet, J., 200. Anti-Pyrrhonians, 5^, 125, 194. •'Aphorismi de cognoscendis et cu- Caen, 3, 176. randis Morbis," by Boerhaave, 5, Calkins, M. W., iv, 206: 303. Calvinists, 8. "Aphrodisiacus," by Boerhaave, 4. Cambrai, 190. Aristotle, 40, iii. Cambridge, 185, 196. I! Arnobius the Elder, 42, 113, 188. Canterbury, 184, 196. Arnoux, Guillaume, 206. Carlat, 187. "L'art de jouir," by La Mettrie, Carmelites, 201. 205. Cartesians, 13, 39, 68, 85, in, 138- "L'art de parler," by Lamy, 195. 139, 155. 159, 182, 188, 190. Assezat, J., 176, 178, 205. Catholics, 8. ) / 210 MAN A MACHINE. INDEX. 211 Catius, 22, 94. ««i "Dissertatio de Loquela," De Corpore." by Hobbcs, 167, by Am- Euripides, 40, iii. "Century Dictionary," 182, man, 185. 184, 204, 206. Europe, 29, 100, 201. »9o, 191, 19a, i97i aoo, ««i Don Quixote, 6. 19s. De I'esprit," by Helvetius, 307; "Exercitatio de motu cordis et san- ao3, 207. Dordogne, 190. ; see "Essays on the Mind." guinis," by Harvey, 197. Chaila, Viscount of, 8. Dreano, Louise "De I'homme, de ses facultes, Charlotte, 9. "Exercitationes de generatione Chalons, ct de Maid of, 47, u8. Duras, Duke of, 8. son education," by Helvetius, animalium," by Harvey, 197. Chalon-sur-Saone, 193. 207; see "A Treatise on Man." "L'existence de Dieu demontree Champagne, 118. "Early Greek Philosophy," "De pulmonibus," by Malpighi, by Bur- par les merveilles de la nature," Charles II of net, England, 185. 192. 200. by Nieuwentyt, It 190. Charp, 72, 143. Eclogues," by Vergil, "De rerum natura," by Lucretius, u 195. "Experimenta et observationes che- Chartres, jj, 104. 'Elementorura Philosophiae, Sec- micae," by Stahl, 200. Charybdis, 7%, 146. tio Prima," by Hobbes, "De Structura Glandularum con- 206. See "Explication des maximes des Chateau de Fenelon, 190. "De Corpore." globatarum," by Malpighi, 193. saints," by Fenelon, 190. Chazelle-sur-Lyon, 182. "Elements de geometric," by Lamy, "De Viscerum Structura," by Mal- "Chemical Proceedings," 195- by Boer- pighi, 192. P'allope (Fallopius or Fallopio) haave, 5. Elis, Pyrrho of, 187. Deism, 192. Gabriello, 74. "Chemical Theory," by "Eloge historique de feu Boerhaave, Deists, 5/, 123, 124. Mr. Fenelrn, Francois de Salignac de 5- Locke," by Le Clerc, 206. Democritus, 8, 181. la Mothe, 51, 123, 190. Chiverny, Chancelor, "Eloges des academiciens," 24, 96. Derham, William, by Fon- Florence, 197, 198. Christ 5/, 123, 191. Church, Oxford, 184. tenelle, 184. Desbarreaux, Jacques Vallee, Florentine Academy, 179. Christianity, 5J, 75, yi^ 87, 121, "Encyclopaedia Britannica," 179, I'ontenelle, 197. 124. 193- Bernard de, 27, 33, 39, Christians, 5/, 123. 181, 184, 185, Descartes, 188, 192, 198, 199, 99. 104, no, 184, 186. R^n6, 13, 17, j8, 40, 51, Christina, Queen 202, 207. of Sweden, 199. 7S, Fontenelle, Charles 7 Haller, Albrecht von, 7J, 143. "Horologium Oscillatorium," by Lcibnizians, 13, 32. 63, Hanover, 198. Huyghens, 203. <«,. 85, 103, Mans, 195. Harcourt, ^33, 138. College of, 4. "Human Nature," by Hobbes, 206. j Marcus Aurelius, 180. "Harmonie I^Porc, Jean, 195. des Psaumes et de Hunault, 4, 5. Maria Theresa, 176. "Le reve d'Alembert," by rEvangile," by Pluche, 178. Huyghens, Christian, 202. Diderot, Martin, Andr6, 70, 140, 193. 195. Hartsoeker, Nicolas, Mary 74. Lcroy, II, of England, 185. Julien, 70, 140, 203. Harvey, William, 57, 129, 196. India, Materialists, 58, 197. *'Lcs 166, 167, 173. animaux plus que machines," Hecquct, Philip, 67, 137, aoo. Innocent XII, Pope, 191. "Materia Medica," by Boerhaave, r:#i by La Mettrie, 5. Heliopolis, 205. Bishop of, 198. "Institutiones et Experimentae «(i Maupertuis, Pierre Louis *Les aventures de Tel^maque," Moreau Helvetius, Claude Adrien, 170-172, Chemicae," by Boerhaave, 202. by dc, 24, 96, 182. Fenelon, 190. 173, 187, 189, 198, 307. "Institutiones Medicae," by Boer- "-A^i 214 MAN A MACHINE. INDEX. 215 "CEuvres philosophiques de la Met- Pyrrhonian, jp, 55, 110, 127. Sheldon, Gilbert, Archbishop of Tirconnel, trie," 205. Milord, 9. Pyrrhonism, 187. Canterbury, 184. Toland, John, 166, Orleans, Gaston of, 118. 168-170, 192, 47, Pythagoras, 64, 134, 200. Sicca, Venerea, 188. 194, 202, 204, 206. "Ortus medicinae," by van Hel- Pythagoreans, 200. Scdobre, 5. Torricelli, mont, 182. Evangelista, id, 88, 179. "Singularites physiologiques," Toulouse, Oxford, Christ Church, 178. 192. 184. Quepat, N., 176. Smith, G., 205. "Traite de la divinite de notre Socrates, Padua, 64, 135. Seigneur Jesus Christ," by Aba- 192. Rais, or Cardinal de Retz, 57, 123, Sophocles, 40, III. die, 191. Paris, 4. 5, 154, 178, 183, 186, Westminster Abbey, 184- Wiltshire, 184. White Hall. 94. Windelband, W., 193, 207. William of Orange, 185. Wlttighofen, Steigner de, «, 94. Willis, Thomas, 27, 68, 98, 99, 138, WolflF, Christian, 17, 90. 184, ao2. 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