William William M . . Healy Healy

Mariko Mariko Yamasaki Yamasaki

Richard Richard M. M. DeGraaf DeGraaf

Report Report NE - 118 118 Carl Carl H. H. Tubbs Tubbs

General General Technical Technical

Experiment Experiment Station Station

Northern Northern Hardwoods Hardwoods

Northeastern Northeastern Forest Forest

Forest Forest Service Service Management Management in in New New England England

Agriculture Agriculture

Guide Guide to to Wildlife Wildlife Tree Tree Department Department of of

United United ~ ~ States States

ogy. ogy. l o h t i Orn of of Laboratory Laboratory ll ll Corne the the for for Hopiak Hopiak

e e

Mik by by

Photographed Photographed

familiaris). familiaris). a a hi Cert ( creeper creeper Brown Brown - PHOTO. COVER COVER

1986 1986 r r e

mb e t Sep 5 5 publication publication for for ved ved i rece Manuscript Manuscript

. . and l Eng

New New and and

Virginia Virginia

West West

in in

habitat habitat dlife dlife il w forest forest on on research research cted cted u cond has has He He

tts. tts.

se

hu sac Mas , , rst e

Amh

, ,

tion

Sta

nt nt e im Exper est est r Fo Northeastern Northeastern t, t, i un rch rch a rese

habitat habitat

wildlife wildlife

the the

with with

biologist biologist fe fe li d l wi h h researc s a a s i EALY EALY H M. M. WILLIAM WILLIAM

England. England.

New New in in hip hip s tion a l e r e e ildlif w - r e timb n n o research research

and and

System System

Forest Forest National National

e e th

on on t t s i olog i b as as work work es es lud c in background background Her Her

e. e.

Hampshir New New , ,

Durham

ion, ion, Stat

nt nt e rim Expe Forest Forest Northeastern Northeastern t, t, i un research research

hardwood hardwood

northern northern the the

ith ith w

biologist biologist e e wildlif rch rch esea r s a a s i I I YAMASAK MARIKO MARIKO

Hampshire. Hampshire. New New

of of

Mountains Mountains

e e

Whit

the the

in in

s s ion

associat at at habit e e ildlif w t t es for on on nd nd a t t eas North

the the

throughout throughout

habitat habitat wildlife wildlife

on on rch rch esea r nducted nducted co as as h e e H Massachusetts. Massachusetts.

Amherst, Amherst,

ion, ion,

Stat

ent ent im

Exper

Forest Forest Northeastern Northeastern , , unit h h c r esea r habitat habitat wildlife wildlife

the the

of of

eader eader l and and

biologist biologist e e wildlif

rch rch ea res l l cipa in pr s s i DEGRAAF DEGRAAF M. M. RICHARD RICHARD

and. and. l Eng New New in in nd nd a tates tates S Lake Lake the the in in forests forests

hardwood hardwood

northern northern

of of

logy logy

eco

and and

nt nt e m e manag e e th d d e tudi s s s ha e e H e. e. hir s mp a H

New New , ,

Durham

, ,

ion

Stat

Experiment Experiment Forest Forest rn rn e t eas North , , unit h h c r esea r wood wood

­

hard

northern northern

the the

of of

eader eader l and and forester forester rch rch esea r l l a ip princ s s i TUBBS TUBBS . . H CARL CARL

Authors Authors The The

987 987 1 August August

19008 19008 PA PA , , ll a m Broo , , Rd. Reed Reed 370 370

tion tion a t S nt nt e rim Expe Forest Forest Northeastern Northeastern

s. s. ion

situat

forestry forestry

common common in in

trees trees wildlife wildlife ulturing ulturing c and and ing ing s hoo c for for provided provided

are are key key

a a

and and

objectives objectives

habitat habitat

ed ed implifi S . . presented e e r a mast mast of of nt nt ageme man

and and

culture culture

for for

guides guides

and and , ,

discussed s s i production production mast mast soft soft and and Hard Hard t. t. a habit

wildlife wildlife

as as

trees trees

of of

value value the the

enhance enhance to to procedures procedures l l a ultur c for for and and tuations tuations i s

common common

of of

variety variety

a a

for for

trees trees of of

numbers numbers the the g g in choos for for made made are are ons ons i Suggest

. .

production

timber timber

on on

impact impact e e

th timating timating es for for and and tats tats i ab h dlife dlife il w for for trees trees

suitable suitable

most most the the

choosing choosing

for for

provided provided s s i information information Background Background ngland. ngland. E New New

in in

types types

associated associated

and and hardwood hardwood

northern northern e e th in in habitat habitat wildlife wildlife of of

components components

as as

value value

have have

that that

trees trees

of of management management and and culture culture the the on on information information Presents Presents Abstract Abstract

Regenerating Regenerating even-aged even-aged stands stands ...... 14 14 . . . . three three species - form form groups groups ...... 29 29

Silvicu ltur e ...... 14 14 . . Appendix Appendix 11. -C rown rown cover cover percentage percentage tables tables for for

Choosing Choosing the the number number of of trees trees ...... 13 13 Method Method Two Two ...... 28 28

production production

potential potential ...... 13 13 Method Method One One ...... 27 27

Id entification entification of of individu al al trees trees with with steady steady seed­ northern - hardwood hardwood stands. stands...... 27 27

Species Species characteristics characteristics ...... 12 12 . . . . Appendix Appendix 1. - Two Two methods methods for for estimat ing ing cull cull in in

Bio logy logy of of Seed Seed Production Production ...... 12 12 ...... Literature Literature Cited Cited ...... 25 25

How How much much will will it it cost? ...... 8 8 Acknowledgments Acknowledgments ...... 25 25

Using Using cull cull classes classes to to choose choose potential potential cavity cavity trees trees . . . . . 7 7 . Wildlife Wildlife Tree Tree Recommendations Recommendations ...... 23 23

Choosing Choosing

the the number number of of cavity cavity trees trees ...... 2 2 . . recommendations recommendations ...... 19 19 . .

Cavity Cavity dwellers ...... 2 2 Key Key to to common common stand stand conditions conditions and and management management

E lement s s of of wildlife wildlife habitat. habitat...... Management Management 1 1 Implications...... 18 18

Background Background ...... Regeneration Regeneration of of difficult difficult species species ...... 17 17 . .

Introduction Introduction ...... Regeneration Regeneration of of uneven - aged aged stands. stands...... 16 16

Contents Contents

Northern Northern Hardwoods Hardwoods

Management Management in in New New England England

Guide Guide to to Wildlife Wildlife Tree Tree

wildlife wildlife habitat habitat value . .

guide guide can can also also be be used used to to identify identify and and tend tend trees trees with with high high

small small

properties properties

consisting consisting of of one one or or several several stands, stands, this this

ence ence

use use

by by wildlife. wildlife.

tural tural

activites activites

are are conducted conducted

within within

individual individual

stands. stands.

On On

discuss discuss

easily easily

recognized recognized

elements elements

of of a a

stand stand

that that influ­

achieve achieve

wildlife wildlife

habitat habitat

objectives objectives

and and goals goals as as

other other cul ­

needs needs of of

groups groups of of spec

ies ies with with

similar similar

requirements, requirements, and and

lines lines of of

existing existing

management management

plans plans

to to help help

foresters foresters

most most

managers managers

and and landowner

s. s. We We

will will consider consider

the the

guide guide

is is intended intended

to to supplement supplement

the the

timber timber

marking marking

guide ­

scope scope

of of

this this

paper paper

and and

probably probably

beyond beyond

the the

interests interests of of

On On

large large

tracts tracts of of public public

and and

industrial industrial

forest forest

land, land, this this

with with habitat habitat on on a a species-by - species species basis basis is is beyond beyond the the

provide provide

habitat habitat

for for several several

hundred hundred

wildlife wildlife species . . Dealing Dealing

and and illustrate illustrate

the the uses uses

of of the the

information information

in in the the guide. guide.

reference reference

to to individual individual

species. species.

Northern Northern

hardwood hardwood forests forests

planning planning

and and

practices practices are are

made made

for for

common common

situations situations

way, way, habitat habitat

requirements requirements

only only can can be be

defined defined precisely precisely in in

wood wood

type type

for for wildlife wildlife

purposes

. . Recommendations Recommendations

for for

Although Although

the the

term term wildlife wildlife

habitat habitat

is is

used used often often in in a a general general

for for tending tending the the major major tree tree species species of of the the northern northern hard ­

Elements Elements mation mation of of and and Wildlife Wildlife techniques techniques Habitat Habitat for for overcoming overcoming deficits deficits as as well well as as

wildlife wildlife tree tree

habitat. habitat.

The The

guide guide presents presents silvicultural silvicultural infor­

birch birch

(Eyre (Eyre

1980). 1980).

fying fying

areas areas

that that will will become become

deficient deficient

in in

some some

aspect aspect of of

birch, birch, sugar sugar

maple, maple,

beech-sugar beech-sugar

maple

, , aspen, aspen,

and and paper paper

provide provide

general general principles principles

and and

information information for for use use in in identi­

cover cover

types types are are

also also included: included:

sugar sugar

maple

- beech-yellow beech-yellow

Instead, Instead,

the the information information

presented presented

here here is is intended intended

to to

hophornbeam hophornbeam

(Ostrya (Ostrya virginiana). virginiana).

Thus Thus the the following following

forest forest

make make

specific specific

recommendations recommendations

for for

each each possibility . .

americana), americana),

red red

spruce spruce

(Picea (Picea

rubens), rubens), and and

eastern eastern

for for recreational recreational

uses. uses.

These These

factors factors

render render it it impractical impractical

to to

strobus), strobus),

balsam balsam fir fir (Abies (Abies

balsamea), balsamea),

American American

elm elm (Ulmus (Ulmus

uses uses as as

well well as as

for for

the the conservation conservation

of of soil soil

and and

water water and and

lenta), lenta),

northern northern

red red

oak oak (Quercus (Quercus

rubra), rubra),

white white

pine pine (Pinus (Pinus

succession. succession.

Also, Also,

trees trees are are

grown grown

for for a a

variety variety of of timber timber

americana), americana),

basswood basswood

(Tilia (Tilia

americana), americana),

sweet sweet birch birch (B. (B.

types types

that that represent represent

different different sites sites

and and

stages stages

of of plant plant

rubrum), rubrum),

hemlock hemlock

(Tsuga (Tsuga

canadensis), canadensis),

white white

ash ash (Fraxinus (Fraxinus

ety ety

of of sites; sites;

tree tree species species

are are

grouped grouped

in in

a a number number of of cover cover

northern northern

hardwood hardwood

communities communities

are are

red red

maple maple

(Acer (Acer

species species grow grow

in in northern northern

hardwood hardwood

stands stands

on on a a wide wide

vari­

tolerant tolerant

northern northern

hardwoods. hardwoods.

Other Other

important important

associates associates in in

in in different different

ways ways

during during

different different

seasons. seasons.

Dozens Dozens

of of tree tree

cutting. cutting.

Over Over time time

they they

are are usually usually

replaced replaced

by by more more shade shade

More More than than

a a hundred hundred

wildlife wildlife

species species

utilize utilize standing standing trees trees

mixtures mixtures after after major major disturbances disturbances such such as as fire fire or or clear­

pioneer pioneer

species species in in these these forest forest types, types, usually usually developing developing in in

specific specific

stand stand

conditions. conditions.

birch birch (B. (B.

populifolia), populifolia),

and and black black cherry cherry

(Prunus (Prunus serotina) serotina)

are are

in in devising devising

silvicultural silvicultural

techniques techniques

and and

prescriptions prescriptions for for

(P. (P.

grandidentata), grandidentata),

paper paper

birch birch (Betula (Betula

papyrifera), papyrifera),

gray gray

silviculture silviculture

and and management management

of of individual individual

trees, trees, especially especially

site. site.

Quaking Quaking

aspen aspen

(Populus (Populus

tremuloides), tremuloides), bigtooth bigtooth

aspen aspen

Our Our goal goal

is is to to

aid aid planning planning

and and

decisionmaking decisionmaking

in in the the

yellow yellow birch birch (Betula (Betula alleghaniensis) alleghaniensis) is is characteristic characteristic of of the the

(Acer (Acer saccharum), saccharum), American American beech beech (Fagus (Fagus grandifolia) grandifolia)

and and

1985)

. .

New New England England

where where

some some

combination combination

of of sugar sugar

maple maple

cavity cavity

trees trees

for for

wildlife wildlife

in in

the the Northeast Northeast

(DeGraaf (DeGraaf

and and Shigo Shigo

The The information information

in in this this guide guide

applies applies

to to hardwood hardwood

stands stands in in

suitable suitable for for cavity cavity excavation excavation are are provided provided in in Managing Managing

Background Background natural natural cavities cavities and and decay decay patterns that that patterns produce produce conditions conditions

distribution distribution (DeGraaf (DeGraaf and and Rudis Rudis 1986). 1986). The The development development of of

vided vided in in New New England England Wildlife : : habitat, habitat, natural natural history history and and features . .

The The

habitat habitat

requirements requirements

of of the the

region's region's

wildlife wildlife are are pro­ ual ual trees trees with with good good potential potential for for producing producing these these habitat habitat

species species

will will help help the the

reader reader

apply apply the the

principles principles presented . . emphasizes emphasizes the the identification identification and and management management of of individ­

essential, essential,

familiarity familiarity

with with the the

habitat habitat

needs needs of of individual individual growth, growth, and and litter litter in in various various combinations . . This This guide guide

production. production.

Although Although

knowledge knowledge

of of

wildlife wildlife ecology ecology is is not not foliage foliage of of trees, trees, decayed decayed tree tree stems stems and and limbs, limbs, under­

related related

cover cover

types types that that

will will

also also

be be managed managed for for timber timber defects. defects. However , , wildlife wildlife need need seeds, seeds, buds , , twigs twigs and and

diverse diverse

wildlife wildlife

community community

in in northern northern hardwood hardwood and and wood wood stems, stems, free free of of rot rot and and other other stem stem and and branching branching

information information

needed needed

to to provide provide

individual individual tree tree

habitat habitat

for for a a they they usually usually emphasize emphasize the the production production of of high-quality high-quality hard ­

managers, managers,

this this publication publication

includes includes

forestry forestry and and wildlife wildlife wood wood forests forests recognize recognize forest forest stands stands as as wildlife wildlife habitat, habitat,

Intended Intended

for for

use use

in in New New England England

by by foresters foresters and and wildlife wildlife Although Although most most timber timber guides guides for for managing managing northern northern hard­ Introduction Introduction

- wood For For . . decay e e l suitab with with trees trees arge arge l relatively relatively in in nest nest

st st mu but but size, size, of of regardless regardless trees trees sound sound of of s s limb and and boles boles

the the over over forage forage birds birds nesting nesting - vity ca Many Many 1977). 1977). Tubbs Tubbs

1963, 1963, (Trimble (Trimble levels levels low low very very to to cull cull of of amount amount the the reduce reduce

can can 03824. 03824. period period 20-year 20-year to to 0- a 1 1 a over over management management timber timber

NH NH Durham, Durham, on, on, i

Stat nt nt e

im

Exper

Forest Forest

Northeastern Northeastern

and and

process, process, slow slow

a a

generally generally is is

formation formation ll ll Cu . . 1978)

p p i Fil

Serv1ce, Serv1ce, Forest Forest

USDA USDA at at file file

on on report report

Unpublished Unpublished

1964, 1964, (Cooley (Cooley management management timber timber

intensive intensive

increasingly increasingly

report. report. Final Final . . wood mixed mixed and and hardwoods hardwoods growth growth - old

under under stem stem upper upper and and crown crown the the of of

branches branches larger larger the the

in in structure structure stand stand on on habitat habitat of of Effects Effects . . 1985 B. B. W. W. Leak, Leak,

1 1

to to logs logs butt butt arge arge l from from shifts shifts cull cull rotten rotten distribution of of distribution The The

1946). 1946). Gevorkiantz Gevorkiantz and and Zillgitt Zillgitt 1963; 1963; (Trimble (Trimble volume volume total total

of of percent percent 65 65 to to 10 10 from from ranging ranging

imates imates

est with with

variable, variable,

oak. oak. and and beech beech as as h h suc cies cies

is is stands stands

unmanaged unmanaged in in

cull cull

rotten rotten

of of amount amount

The The

them. them.

spe­

mast mast hard hard

in in

and and

species species er er if con in in cient cient i def quently quently

ate ate limin e to to is is

stands stands

timber timber

managing managing in in

steps steps

first first the the

­ fre are are

es es it s

hardwood hardwood

good good Very Very stems stems h.) h.) b. b. d. d. inches inches . .

of of one one 1 usually usually and and

value, value, market market

minimal minimal

have have trees trees

Cull Cull

()24 ()24

large-diameter large-diameter very very of of proportion proportion al al i substant a a ing ing

cull. cull. rotten rotten as as it it to to

refer refer

managers managers

timber timber

boles, boles,

tree tree live live

produc­

of of

capable capable are are (1979) (1979) Leak Leak by by defined defined habitats habitats site site

in in extensively extensively occurs occurs decay decay

When When

1). 1).

(Table (Table present present

decay decay

­ il

so

14 14 of of 2 2

only only example, example, For For stands. stands. hardwood hardwood northern northern

with with trees trees g g in stand in in found found

ertebrates ertebrates inv

other other and and

insects insects

among among

varies varies particular, particular, in in trees, trees, cavity cavity and and ements ements l e

for for forage forage or or , , roost den, den,

nest, nest,

er er ith e

mammals mammals and and

birds birds

habitat habitat

wildlife wildlife produce produce to to capacity capacity the the because because guides guides

of of species species 41 41 , , forests hardwood hardwood

northern northern

England England

New New In In

these these g g lyin app in in help help will will quality quality site site total total of of ates ates im est

Dwellers Dwellers Cavity Cavity Such Such (1982). (1982). al. al. et et Barnes Barnes and and , , (1982) Jordan Jordan 1982), 1982), and and

1978, 1979, 1979, 1978, , ,

(1976 Leak Leak by by presented presented are are classifications classifications

mast. mast. of of

abundance abundance

and and

diversity diversity

useful useful of of

Examples Examples

elements. elements. habitat habitat produce produce to to ty ty li capabi

the the to to ly ly great

add add

can can

associates associates

other other

and and

hophornbeam, hophornbeam,

s s it of of

basis basis

the the on on l l

potentia habitat habitat wildlife wildlife site's site's a a ate ate lu eva

eastern eastern es, es, i cherr

the the oak, oak, red red

but but

hardwoods, hardwoods,

to to

used used be be

can can

relationships relationships vegetation vegetation and and s, s, il so andform, andform, l

northern northern in in mast mast of of

source source

major major a a is is Beech Beech

el. el. irr squ grey grey

on on

based based

classifications classifications Ecosystem Ecosystem . . Capability Site Site

and and turkey, turkey, bear, bear, black black deer, deer, white-tailed white-tailed for for component component

diet diet winter winter and and fall fall

important important an an s s i

nuts) nuts)

(tree (tree

mast mast

Hard Hard

stems. stems.

dead/dying dead/dying

diameter diameter er er ll sma to to ion ion addit in in stems stems

. . seeds

those those

of of

disseminators disseminators

important important are are

mammals mammals

and and

e e

liv

larger larger of of

portions portions upper upper

decayed decayed use use can can s s l squirre

birds birds Both Both

mammals. mammals. for for and and

birds birds resident resident

and and

migrating migrating

flying flying

and and , ,

nuthatches woodpeckers, woodpeckers, hairy hairy and and downy downy

for for source source food food

wildlife wildlife

important important

an an s s i

and and

shrubs shrubs

woody woody

as as

such such

species species ed ed i

bod

er er ll Sma 1). 1). (Fig. (Fig. time time present present the the

other other and and trees trees of of

seeds seeds

and and fruits fruits

the the to to

refers refers

Mast Mast

Mast. Mast.

at at stands stands hardwood hardwood northern northern in in mortality mortality natural natural from from and and

crowns crowns

tree tree

of of

portions portions upper upper the the in in regularly regularly expected expected be be

time. time. same same

the the

at at elements elements

habitat habitat five five l l al

can can

es es it s

nesting/roosting nesting/roosting diameter diameter small small and and sites sites foraging foraging

of of evels evels l high high produce produce seldom seldom stands stands

that that

note note to to

important important

Additional Additional

2). 2). (Table (Table acre acre per per tree tree 1.0 1.0 to to 0.1 0.1 from from range range

is is It It mast. mast. and and cavities cavities

more more

produce produce

stands stands

older older

while while

woodpecker woodpecker

pileated pileated and and fisher, fisher, raccoon, raccoon, as as such such es es i spec

crowns); crowns); er er if con and and -

density-brush

stem stem

woody woody (high (high

wildlife wildlife

dwelling dwelling - ity cav , , bodied larger larger of of populations populations for for

cover cover and and plants) plants) wood wood of of

leaves leaves and and

shoots shoots , ,

twigs , ,

(buds

sites sites

denning denning

or or roosting roosting and and breeding breeding provide provide to to required required

browse browse plants), plants), nonwoody nonwoody and and

(grasses (grasses

herbage herbage

abundant abundant

density density tree tree

en en /d cavity b.h.) b.h.) . d ches ches in (18 (18 large-diameter large-diameter

produce produce stands stands

ling ling sap and and

seedlings seedlings

general, general, In In ment. ment.

of of

estimates estimates Current Current Requirements. Requirements. Habitat Habitat Tree Tree Cavity-

­ manage timber/vegetation timber/vegetation with with ements ements l e habitat habitat wildlife wildlife

other other and and cavities cavities of of availability availability the the increase increase to to exist exist ties ties

. . objectives landowner landowner

opportuni­ but but cavities; cavities; with with

trees trees

nate nate

limi e to to

seeks seeks

ment ment

(6) (6)

and and

size, size, stand stand (5) (5) ength ength l cycle cycle - cutting and and ion ion rotat

­ manage timber timber e e

iv

ens

Int

es. es. i

spec

wildlife wildlife

many many for for s s ite s

(4) (4) , , ition

cond

tree tree and and structure, structure, composition, composition, stand stand rent rent

nest nest and and , , dens shelter, shelter,

provide provide

es es iti cav

Tree Tree

Cavities. Cavities.

Tree Tree

­ cur (3) (3) trees, trees, cavity cavity produce produce to to capability capability site site (2) (2) es, es, i spec

lling lling dwe - cavity of of requirements requirements habitat habitat (1) (1) on on depend depend will will

ecosystem. ecosystem.

area area

given given a a

in in retained retained be be to to trees trees cavity cavity of of number number The The

hardwood hardwood northern northern the the of of component component important important but but

small small a a are are Trees Trees cover cover and and Cavity Cavity food food of of for for used used Number Number trees trees the the Individual Individual Choosing Choosing stands. stands.

hardwood hardwood northern northern in in omass omass i b living living total total the the of of percent, percent,

. . time

over over

species species these these of of populations populations maintaining maintaining to to key key 1 1 than than ess ess l usually usually fraction, fraction, ll ll sma a a for for account account wildlife wildlife

the the

s s i period period rearing rearing breeding/young breeding/young the the during during needs needs tat tat and and plants plants understory understory The The 1974). 1974). al. al. et et Whittaker Whittaker 1979, 1979, ens ens

­ Habi

. . young bear bear they they when when and and winter winter in in lly lly especia , , dens Lik­ and and (Bormann (Bormann biomass biomass living living the the of of most most for for account account

secure secure need need Mammals Mammals season. season. breeding breeding the the of of onset onset the the trees trees of of parts parts woody woody the the and and stands, stands, hardwood hardwood northern northern in in

at at pair-bonding pair-bonding to to vital vital is is nest nest the the of of excavation excavation peekers, peekers, vegetation vegetation the the of of bulk bulk the the for for account account species species plant plant Woody Woody

3 3

Continued Continued

2 2 2 2 (S i R R a li a a F F sia 2 2 N N l is) is)

E. E. b l uebird uebird

(Troglodytes (Troglodytes trog 2 2 l odytes) odytes) N N

W i nter nter wren wren

(Trog l odytes odytes R R aedon) aedon) 2 2 F F N N 2 2 2 2

House House wren wren

(Certhia (Certhia americana) americana) R R F F 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 N N 2 2

Brown Brown creeper creeper

(S i tta tta caro li nensis) nensis) F F N R R N 2 2 2 2 2 2

Wh i te - breasted breasted nuthatch nuthatch

(Sitta (Sitta canadensis) canadensis) N R R N F F 2 2 2 2 2 2

Red-breasted Red-breasted nuthatch nuthatch

(Parus (Parus bico l or) or) N R R N 2 2

Tufted Tufted t i tmouse tmouse

(Parus (Parus hudsonicus) hudsonicus) N R R N

Boreal Boreal chickadee chickadee

(Parus (Parus atr i capi ll us) us) N R R N

Black-capped Black-capped ch i ckadee ckadee

(Myiarchus (Myiarchus crinitus) crinitus) N N 2 2 2 2

Great Great crested crested f l ycatcher ycatcher

(Picoides (Picoides pubescens) pubescens) F F N R R N p p

Downy Downy woodpecker woodpecker

(Pico i des des v ill osus) osus) F F N R R N p p

Hairy Hairy woodpecker woodpecker

(Sphyrapicus (Sphyrapicus varius) varius) F F N R R N p p

Ye l low - be lli ed ed sapsucker sapsucker

(Drycocopus (Drycocopus pi l eatus) eatus) R R F N N F (>18) (>18) p p

P il eated eated woodpecker woodpecker

(Colaptes (Colaptes auratus) auratus) F F N R R N p p

N . . f li cker cker

(Aego l ius ius acad i cus) cus) N R R N 2 2 2 2 p p

N. N. saw-whet saw-whet ow l l

(Strix (Strix varia) varia) N N 2 2 p p

Barred Barred ow l l

(Otus (Otus as i a) a) N R R N 2 2 p p

E. E. screech screech ow l l

(Cathartes (Cathartes aura) aura) N N 2 2 p p

Turkey Turkey vu l ture ture

(Mergus (Mergus merganser) merganser) N N 2 2

Common Common merganser merganser

(Lophodytes (Lophodytes cucu ll atus) atus) N N 2 2

Hooded Hooded merganser merganser

(Bucepha l a a c l angu l a) a) N N 2 2

Common Common go l deneye deneye

(A i x x sponsa) sponsa) N N

2c 2c

Wood Wood d u ck ck

W il d li fe fe species species <8 <8 F F N R R N 0 0 6-12 6-12 12-18 12-18 8-12 8-12 12-18 12-18 > > 18 18 > > 24 24 p p

OS OS DH DH DH DH LCD LCD LBTL LBTL LBTL LBTL Ho ll ow ow

U se se Tree Tree t y peb peb a a and and d . b.h. b.h. c l ass ass (inches ) )

(adapted (adapted from from DeGraaf DeGraaf 1984) 1984)

Table Table 1.- Types Types of of trees trees and and cavities cavities used used by by birds birds and and mammals mammals in in northern northern hardwood hardwood forests forests

4 4

user user cavity cavity secondary secondary 2 2 = =

excavators excavators cavity cavity primary primary 1 1 c c

limbs limbs and and tops tops broken broken Live, Live, - LBTL

decay decay l l centra Live, Live, - LCD

hard hard , , DH-Dead

soft soft DS-Dead, DS-Dead, b b

D-denning D-denning

g g in roost - A

N-nesting N-nesting

g g in ag r F-fo

ing ing P-perch a a

2 2 2 2 D D frenata) frenata) (Mustela (Mustela

weasel weasel iled iled Long-ta

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 D D eCI) eCI) in erm (Mustela (Mustela

Ermine Ermine

2 2 2 2 D D 1) 1) pennant (Martes (Martes

Fisher Fisher

2 2 2 2 D D cana) cana) i amer (Martes (Martes

Marten Marten

2 2

D D or) or) lot (Procyon (Procyon

Raccoon Raccoon

2 2 D D americanus) americanus) (Ursus (Ursus

bear bear ack ack l B

2 2 D D cinereoargenteus) cinereoargenteus) (Urocyon (Urocyon

fox fox ray ray G

2 2 2 2 D D dorsatum) dorsatum) (Erethizon (Erethizon

Porcupine Porcupine

2 2

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 D D sabrinus) sabrinus) (Giaucomys (Giaucomys

l l e quirr s flying flying Northern Northern

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 D D volans) volans) (Giaucomys (Giaucomys

squirrel squirrel flying flying Southern Southern

2 2 2 2 D D hudsonicus) hudsonicus) (Tamiasciurus (Tamiasciurus

squirrel squirrel Red Red

2 2 2 2 D D carolinensis) carolinensis) (Sciurus (Sciurus

squirrel squirrel Gray Gray

2 2 R R fuscus) fuscus) (Eptesicus (Eptesicus

bat bat brown brown ig ig B

2 2 2 2 R R noctivagans) noctivagans) (Lasionycteris (Lasionycteris

bat bat ed ed ir -ha lver Si

2 2 2 2 R R soda/is) soda/is) (Myotis (Myotis

myotis myotis Indiana Indiana

2 2 2 2 R R keeni1) keeni1) (Myotis (Myotis

myotis myotis Keen's Keen's

2 2 R R cifugus) cifugus) /u (Myotis (Myotis

myotis myotis brown brown Little Little

2 2 2 2 2 2 N R R N vulgaris) vulgaris) (Sturnus (Sturnus

tarling tarling s n n Europea

24 24 18 18 > > > > 18 18 12 12 - - 8 12

18 18 8 8 - < < 12 6-12 6-12 N R D D R N F F species species Wildlife Wildlife p p

Hollow Hollow LBTL LBTL LBTL LBTL LCD LCD DH DH DH DH OS OS

(inches) (inches) class class . . h . d.b and and typeb typeb Tree Tree Use

8 8

1.-Continued 1.-Continued Table Table

5 5

b i nat i ons ons across across a a management management area area than than large large areas. areas. The The

tunities tunities to to i ntersperse ntersperse habitat habitat in in desired desired patterns patterns and and com­

area area 3) (Fig. (Fig. . . Smal l l stands stands < < 30 30 ( ( acres) acres) present present more more oppor­

decrease decrease with with shorter shorter rotat i on on lengths lengths and and increasing increasing stand stand

foraging foraging habitat habitat adjacent adjacent to to proposed proposed f i na l l harvest harvest areas areas

Stand Stand Area. Area. Opportunities Opportunities to to juxtapose juxtapose cavity cavity sites sites and and

l oss oss from from morta l ity. ity. birch, birch, aspen, aspen, and and black black cherry. cherry.

1981 1981

). ).

Short Short

cutting cutting

cyc (5 (5 l es es 10 10 to to years) years) minimize minimize growth growth ye ll ow ow b i rch, rch, beech , , white white ash, ash, red red oak, oak, red red map l e, e, white white

foraging foraging

hab i tat tat

(Fig . . 2) 2) i n n managed managed stands stands (Crow (Crow et et al. al. assoc i ated ated species species fo ll owed owed by by red red spruce, spruce, sugar sugar maple, maple,

entries entries

15 15

() () years) years)

i ncrease ncrease the the avai l ab ili ty ty of of cav i t i es es and and ence ence is is i mportant, mportant, eastern eastern hemlock hemlock is is the the most most l ong- l ived ived

Longer Longer

cutting cutting

cyc

l es es or or

periods periods

between between subsequent subsequent stand stand Where Where choices choices are are avai l ab l e e and and length length of of time time of of ex i st ­

potential potential cavities cavities can can l i ve ve for for several several centur i es es i f f needed. needed.

popu

l at i

on on l evels. evels.

whi l e e an an eastern eastern hem l ock ock left left as as cover, cover, for for nesting nesting s i tes tes or or

den-dwe

lli

ng ng

spec

i es, es, though though not not necessar il y y at at max i mum mum stand stand wi ll ll be be of of value value through through the the pole pole stage stage of of the the stand stand

habitat element element habitat

and and support support populations populations of of large large cavity - or or left left for for mast mast after after thinning thinning a a sapling sapling northern northern hardwood hardwood

can can be be

expected expected

to to produce produce suffic i ent ent amounts amounts of of this this be be present present for for only only a a short short time. time. However, However, a a black black cherry cherry

the the l argest argest

cavity cavity

dwe

ll ers . . Rotations Rotations l onger onger 110 110 than than years years exist exist for for many many decades decades while while a a defective defective b l ack ack cherry cherry will will

support support

popu

l at i ons ons

of of most most cav i ty-dwe ll ing ing species, species, but but not not Other Other things things be i ng ng equa l , a a , defective defective eastern eastern hemlock hemlock will will

some some

sma

ll er er

diameter diameter

cavity cavity trees trees and and probably probably wou l d d the the l ength ength of of t i me me that that tree tree habitat habitat can can be be mainta i ned. ned.

Rotations Rotations

65 65 of of 100 100

to to

years years cou l d d be be expected expected to to produce produce Obviously, Obviously, the the inherent inherent l ongevity ongevity of of tree tree species species inf l uences uences

management management produce produce few few large-diameter large-diameter cavity cavity trees . .

ment ment

conditions. conditions.

Short Short

rotat

i

(60 (60 ons ons

( (

years) years) under under normal normal that that trees trees wi ll ll be be avai l ab l e e as as a a w il dlife dlife hab i tat tat e l ement. ement.

forag

i ng ng

s

i tes, tes,

and and

mast mast

product

i on on under under current current manage­ l umber umber va l ue ue i nfluence nfluence the the suitab i l i ty ty and and length length of of time time

factors factors

can can

combine combine

to to reduce reduce

the the avai l abi l ity ity of of cavities , , and and characterist i cs cs of of rot, rot, growing growing space space requirements, requirements, and and

affected affected

by by

rotat i on on

l ength ength and and

cutt i ng-cyc l e e length. length. These These Tree Tree Cond i tion tion Requirements. Requirements. Tree Tree species' species' l ongevity, ongevity, rates rates

tial. tial. The The ava il ab ili ty ty of of l arge-diameter arge-diameter trees trees is is espec i a ll y y

stands, stands, tree tree species species composition , , and and seed-bearing seed-bearing poten ­ cutting cutting area. area.

vests vests

(rotat

i ons ons or or

cutt

i ng ng cyc

l es) es) affects affects the the size size of of trees trees i n n rotation rotation l engths, engths, and and cutt i ng ng cyc l es, es, govern govern the the size size of of the the

Rotation Rotation

Length Length

and and

Cutting Cutting Cyc l e. e. The The t i me me between between har­ s i ze ze and and configuration configuration of of ecolog i ca l l s i tes, tes, timber timber va l ues, ues,

Large-diameter Large-diameter estimates estimates d d for for cavity-dwe l ling ling birds birds and and mammals mammals in in forested forested situations. situations.

Large - diameter diameter c c estimates estimates for for woodpeckers woodpeckers on l y . .

range. range.

b b Calcu l at i

ons ons assume assume an an average average 2.432 2.432 of of

ft /acre /acre for for 18-24" 18-24" the the d . b . h. h. range range 4 and and 948 948 . ft /acre /acre for for 26-34" 26-34" the the d.b . h . .

2

2

Foraging Foraging needs needs a a of of cavity - dwelling dwelling species species will will be be incomplete incomplete w i th th these these density density estimates. estimates.

Range Range 0.14-1 . 0 0 0.34-2.432 0.34-2.432

Titus Titus (1983)d (1983)d M i ssouri ssouri >19 >19 1.0 1.0 2.432 2.432

Thomas Thomas et et (1979)c (1979)c al. al. Northwest Northwest ~20 ~20 0.14 0.14 0.34 0.34

Conner Conner et et (1983) al. al. c c Texas Texas 18 18 ~ ~ 0 . 5 5 1.216 1.216

Evans Evans and and Conner Conner (1979r (1979r Northeast Northeast ~18 ~18 0 . 24 24 0 . 584 584

0.22 0.22 0 . 585 585

18-24 18-24 0 . 2 2 0.486 0.486

DeGraaf DeGraaf (1984) c c Northeast Northeast ~24 ~24 0.02 0.02 0.099 0.099

I nches nches tflacre tflacre

Author Author

area area stem stem size size (d.b.h.) (d.b.h.) per per acre acre Basa l l areab areab

Geographic Geographic M i nimum nimum No. No. stems stems

sitesa sitesa for for viable viable populations populations of of cavity-dwelling cavity-dwelling wildlife wildlife species species

Table Table 2.-Estimates 2.-Estimates of of large-diameter large-diameter cavity/den cavity/den tree tree densities densities per per acre acre required required to to provide provide cavity/den cavity/den

6 6

red red

oaks, oaks,

the the , ,

beech as as such such species species rooted rooted tap tap ; ; - sites low low identify in in useful useful be be should should list list following following The The . . e z si sawlog sawlog

­ shal on on

y y il eas most most

windthrow windthrow Hardwoods Hardwoods posed. posed. x e when when reaching reaching before before defective defective become become ll ll wi frequently frequently situations situations

y y il

eas

windthrow windthrow

, ,

pine white white for for cept cept x e and, and, rooted rooted - shallow such such in in maple maple red red sound sound even even because because tes tes i s ty ty i cav tial tial

are are fers fers i

Con

characteristics. characteristics. tree tree and and site site by by ­ poten determined determined provide provide will will stands stands hardwood hardwood - conifer mixed mixed in in maple maple

is is

Windfirmness Windfirmness

cutting. cutting. heavy heavy after after left left those those red red especially especially leaving leaving so so , , hardwoods in in than than preValent preValent less less is is ir) ir) f

periods periods

long long for for

landscape landscape the the of of part part a a be be to to trees trees ual ual balsam balsam for for (except (except fers fers i con in in Rot Rot quickly. quickly. characteristics characteristics

­ individ

of of

characteristic characteristic

important important another another is is Windfirmness Windfirmness present present lose lose will will trees trees such such that that expect expect can can manager manager forest forest

the the and and quickly quickly rot rot will will aspen aspen defective defective hand, hand, other other the the On On

. .

hemlock

eastern eastern and and

pine, pine, te te i wh spruce, spruce, than than faster faster . . period time time same same the the in in ctate ctate i d would would condition condition present present

rots rots

fir fir balsam balsam

areas, areas, hardwood hardwood in in encountered encountered conifers conifers ts ts i than than defective defective more more become become not not will will cumstances cumstances

Among Among

sites. sites.

hardwood hardwood

northern northern on on growing growing species species wood wood cir­ ar ar imil s in in left left maple maple sugar sugar a a while while ze ze i s pole pole reaches reaches

­

hard any any

than than

rapidly rapidly

more more rot rot probably probably aspens aspens The The oaks. oaks. stand stand surrounding surrounding the the before before defective defective highly highly become become

, , maple

sugar sugar , , elm

cherry, cherry, black black beech, beech, ash, ash, white white wood, wood, ordinarily ordinarily will will clearcut clearcut a a after after left left birch birch paper paper and and aspen aspen

­

bass

birch, birch, yellow yellow

birch, birch,

paper paper than than faster faster rots rots maple maple Red Red sound sound Scattered Scattered characteristics. characteristics. rotting rotting species species tree tree the the

of of estimate estimate an an requires requires dwellers dwellers cavity cavity for for suitable suitable be be will will

sites. sites. trees trees the the time time of of length length the the and and , , cavities for for trees trees dead dead ing ing

ity ity cav

for for

alternatives alternatives

evaluating evaluating and and opportunities opportunities ­ ing ing stand and and trees trees sound sound live live both both for for potential potential the the Assessing Assessing

1969). 1969). al. al.

et et Leak Leak and and 1967 1967 Marquis Marquis (from (from stands stands hardwood hardwood northern northern

1981). 1981). al. al. et et Crow Crow aged aged - (from (from even ed ed evels evels l ing ing unmanag stock in in time time residual residual over over acre acre 1.-Mortality 1.-Mortality igure igure F

per per feet feet square square 90 90 and and 70, 70, 50, 50, at at ength ength l e e l cyc cutting cutting by by

(Years) (Years) AGE AGE

STAND STAND

acre) acre) per per feet feet (square (square

mortality mortality

annual annual

-Average -Average . 2 Figure Figure 12!5 12!5 2!5 2!5 !50 !50 1!50 1!50 100 100 75 75

rs) rs) ea (Y CYCLE CYCLE UTTING UTTING C

20 20 1!5 1!5 10 10 !5 !5

~----~------~----~----~----~ ~----~------~----~----~----~ 0

-· -· · - · -·- 90

----- 70

''' ''' ' '' " "" " " " "" 0 5

ea ea ar l l sa a B

C( C(

z z

z z

......

::::) ::::)

1 1 . 0

:I: :I:

C( C(

0 0 ...J ...J

2 2 ::::) ::::)

::i ::i (/) (/)

---··-·--

C( C( 0 0 ......

...... / /

/_ /_ / /

z z

a: a:

0 0 ......

C( C(

/ / ......

:::i :::i

a: a: / /

......

/ / LLI LLI

~ ~ LLI LLI

e e

(/) (/)

/ /

......

3 3 "' "'

/ / 0 0 C( C(

/ /

0 0

.2 .2 0

0 0 a: a:

LLI LLI

0 0 / /

~ ~

/ /

0 0

/ / ~ ~

/ /

(,) (,)

.. .. / /

"i' "i' / /

/ /

/ /

/ /

3. 3. 0.

7 7

storm storm directions. directions. Wind Wind damage damage is is frequently frequently greatest greatest on on lumb er er value. value. Hardwood Hardwood trees trees with with three three or or more more major major

dles, dles,

over over ridges, ridges,

and and along along stand stand borders borders that that parallel parallel suitable suitable sites sites until until the the first first thinning thinning and and sti ll ll have have some some

• •

In In

rough rough

terrain, terrain,

accelerated accelerated winds winds funnel funnel through through sad­ s low low rot rot development development could could continue continue to to grow grow and and provide provide

overstory overstory is is removed, removed, trees trees of of longer longer lived lived species species with with

windfirm. windfirm.

a a new new stand stand i s s developing. developing. If If left left when when the the residual residual

following following

conditions conditions to to identify identify sites sites and and trees trees that that are are substrates substrates for for species species that that nest nest and and feed feed in in the the open open while while

acteristic acteristic

that that reflects reflects good good root root systems . . Consider Consider the the and and she lterwood lterwood cuts cuts can can provide provide cavities cavities and and foraging foraging

leaving leaving

trees trees with with greater greater than than average average stem stem taper, taper, a a char­ trees trees with with two two major major defects defects (cull (cull class class 3) 3) left left in in clearcuts clearcuts

than than windthrow . . Loss Loss of of liv e e trees trees can can be be minimized minimized by by tial tial cavity cavity sites sites in in managed managed stands . . For For example, example, hardwood hardwood

maple maple

(on (on deep deep soils), soils), and and aspens aspens usually usually break break off off rather rather Cull Cull classes classes 3 3 and and 4 4 sawlog-size sawlog-size trees trees can can provide provide poten­

dwelling dwelling habitat habitat in in northern northern hardwood hardwood stands stands (Appendix (Appendix 1) . .

tify tify and and subsequently subsequently provide provide suitab le le and and sufficient sufficient cavity­

needs needs of of wildlife wildlife biologists biologists and and foresters foresters who who need need to to iden ­

Gevorkiantz Gevorkiantz (1946) (1946) can can be be modified modified to to meet meet the the present present

The The cull cull class class estimation estimation procedures procedures of of Zillgitt Zillgitt

and and

selected selected rotation rotation lengths lengths of of 75, 75, 100, 100, and and 250 250 years. years.

percentage percentage of of area area in in suitable suitable habitat habitat conditions conditions

for for

(Kingsley (Kingsley 1976). 1976).

Figure Figure 3 .- Relationship Relationship between between average average stand stand size size

and and

hardwoods hardwoods a nd nd softwoods, softwoods, though though at at different different rates rates

STAND STAND

SIZE SIZE

(Acres) (Acres)

of of rotten rotten cull cull stems stems increases increases with with stem stem

diameter diameter for for

both both

30 30

60 60

90 90

softwood softwood stems stems of of similar similar size size (Fig . . 4), 4), and and the the frequency frequency

. . . .

I I ing ing s ites . . More More hardwood hardwood

stems stems are are rotten rotten cull cull than than are are

-

tops tops are are important important indicators indicators of of potential potential cavity cavity and and forag­

.....__.,,.., .....__.,,..,

rotten rotten

burls, burls, broken broken and and dead dead limbs, limbs, and and broken broken or or dead dead

......

......

Major Major visible visible

defects defects such such ...... as as butt butt rot, rot, large large holes, holes, cracks, cracks,

......

...... ' '

......

' ' stands stands . . ' '

' ' <( <(

alternatives alternatives for for providing providing cavities cavities

in in northern northern hardwood hardwood

...... (.) (.)

......

a:: a::

......

the the landowner landowner or or manager manager

a a choice choice of of possible possible le ast-cost ast-cost

LLJ LLJ

\. \.

rn rn cavity cavity habitat habitat production. production. Estimating Estimating

cull cull

volume volume affords affords

\. \.

0 0

habitat habitat potential potential of of cavity cavity -·- trees trees

and and the the wood wood volume volume lost lost to to

\ \

LL. LL.

Cull - class class estimation estimation

can can characterize characterize

both both the the wildlife wildlife \ \

<( <(

...... ~ ~

··... ··... \ \ Trees Trees ...... I I • •

Using Using \ \ Cull Cull Classes Classes to to Choose Choose Potential Potential Cavity Cavity ...... J ...J

<( <(

' ' \ \ ·. ·.

......

CD CD

...J ...J

·,, ·,,

\ \

LLJ LLJ

windfirm windfirm 2· 2· sites sites first, first, then then windfirm windfirm trees. trees.

I I

., .,

·.. ·.. ' '

• • Site Site i s s the the more more important important characteristic, characteristic, so so choose choose

\\ \\ \ \

crowns crowns and and sharply sharply tapering tapering stems). stems).

I:. I:. \ \ 4· 4·

crowns crowns showing showing signs signs of of free-to-grow free-to-grow conditions conditions : : {long {long \ \ \ \

• • The The most most windfirm windfirm

trees trees are are young young with with well-developed well-developed

6· 6· \:'. \:'. 0 0

0 0 •. •. • •

tible tible 8· 8· to to \:\ \:\ windthrow . . <( <(

. .

. .

(.) (.) characterized characterized by by smaller smaller than than normal normal crowns crowns are are suscep­ 1 1 a:: a:: :\ :\ 10 10

• • Individual Individual trees trees with with butt butt

rot rot and and shallow shallow root root systems systems w w I I :. :.

:\ :\ ~ ~

0 0 .. .. windthrow. windthrow.

LLJ LLJ : \ \

• • Shallow-rooted Shallow-rooted tree tree .. .. species species are are

most most susceptible susceptible

to to

(.) (.) J J ~ ~ 250-·-·-·- 25· 25·

i i ~ ~

IOQ IOQ

LLJ LLJ ......

......

. .

hardpans hardpans

near near the the soil soil surface). surface).

75--- -

\ \ soils soils with with high high water water tables, tables, and and soils soils with with fragipans fragipans and and

ble ble

to to windthrow windthrow (this (this includes includes soils soils shallow shallow to to bedrock, bedrock, 50. 50. \ \ (Years) (Years)

• • Trees Trees

on on soils soils that that promote promote shallow shallow rooting rooting are are suscepti­ ROTATION ROTATION LENGTH LENGTH

75·, 75·,

greatest greatest force force and and turbulence. turbulence.

100. 100.

the the leeward leeward side side of of clearcuts clearcuts where where the the wind wind has has the the

8 8

on on i classificat The The se. se. u tree tree fe fe i wildl future future nd nd a present present both both

of of probability probability the the in in primarily primarily interested interested re re a trees trees fe fe li wild

of of markers markers , , However . . cordwood and and ogs ogs l saw for for suitable suitable

sections sections bole bole in in rot rot ates ates im est only only technique technique this this because because

underestimated underestimated be be will will trees trees wildlife wildlife such such in in Rot Rot trees. trees.

ty ty i cav wildlife wildlife ing ing choos when when disregarded disregarded be be should should crook) crook)

nd nd a (sweep (sweep factors factors cull cull Sound Sound . . together averaged averaged are are trees trees

ties. ties. i cav tree tree utilize utilize that that dlife dlife l wi of of 50 50 or or 40 40 when when mes mes lu vo ll ll cu estimating estimating in in accurate accurate most most

needs needs the the meet meet to to modifications modifications l l silvicultura using using products products is is and and stands stands sawlog sawlog cruising cruising for for oped oped l deve was was method method

wood wood for for able able it su trees trees provide provide to to is is l l goa management management The The s s i Th species. species. hardwood hardwood other other for for used used be be can can but but maple maple

stems. stems. e e l merchantab in in occur occur they they when when volume volume timber timber of of sugar sugar for for developed developed was was system system assification assification l c cull cull The The

oss oss l a a nt nt represe ly ly ous i obv es es iti Cav Value. Value. Lumber Lumber on on Effect Effect

base. base. crown crown high high a a have have they they if if stage, stage,

e. e. lif wild or or tion tion ecrea r for for e e l po the the l l unti regeneration regeneration stand stand on on effect effect little little have have would would

owned owned properties properties unmanaged unmanaged hitherto hitherto on on harvesting harvesting timber timber trees trees ameter ameter i arge-d l such such removal, removal, overstory overstory an an following following

e e includ may may returns returns the the and and time, time, planning planning the the ly ly on s s i eft eft l If If . . value er er lumb ed ed limit have have but but trees, trees, live live in in use use ity ity cav

habitat habitat providing providing of of cost cost the the stances, stances, in many many In In plan. plan. ment ment of of ility ility probab highest highest the the provide provide 4) 4) ass ass l c (cull (cull defects defects

­ manage forest forest a a of of life life the the for for habitat habitat e e lif wild creasing creasing in or or

maintaining maintaining of of means means effective effective most most the the of of ce ce i cho a a permit permit

and and s s ndition co habitat habitat c c i specif of of use use e e lif d il w e e ib descr

3 3 and and 1 1 Tables Tables . . trees e e ldlif wi individual individual eaving eaving l of of impact impact

e e th ing ing assess for for humb humb -t f es-o rul nd nd a methods methods e e impl s

1976). 1976).

e e m so present present s s tion sec t t ex n The The nt. nt. e m

age n a m

timber timber

Kingsley Kingsley (from (from ampshire ampshire H New New and, and, l forest forest l l a i commerc on on

with with management management habitat habitat e e ildlif w e e

lud

c

in to to

be be

will will

returns returns

) ) es i spec l l ercia m com non > > of of cull cull rotten rotten percent percent 50 50 ( ( rotten rotten

the the

what what and and cost cost will will it it much much how how

know know

to to

want want

Foresters Foresters

nd nd a rough rough as as classified classified trees trees of of age age nt ce r -Pe . 4 Figure Figure

Cost? Cost? It It Will Will Much Much How How

(Inches) (Inches) CLASS CLASS b.h. b.h. . D

30 30 28 28 22 24 26 26 24 22 20 20 18 18 16 16 14 14 12, 12, 10 10 6 8 8 6 4 4 2 2

e. e. wildlif for for e e l ab it su lly lly a i potent and and otten otten r is is volume volume

tree tree the the of of percent percent 60 60 about about indicate indicate limb limb dead dead arge arge l a a and and

top, top, broken broken , , hole arge arge l together-a together-a percentages percentages or or umes umes

. . ' '

__ __

vol­ defect defect the the ing ing add imply imply s by by obtained obtained / / u u beyond that that beyond rot rot

,-.._,_,.- '-, '-,

::;) ::;)

/' /'

...J ...J

of of amount amount the the ease ease incr defects defects e e Multipl ze. ze. i s at at th of of ty ty cavi ---- r--

\, \, ...J ...J

----

a a for for l l a i potent e e th creates creates thus thus and and log, log, 14·inch 14·inch a a in in rot rot

\\ \\

•..._/ •..._/ 1-

-----

a: a:

\ \ /' /'

'-... '-...

w w

of of t t ee f cubic cubic 4 4 ut ut abo with with ated ated i assoc s s i defect defect a a h h

c u S e. e. lif

.....-· .....-· \ \

w w

\ \

\ \ / /

Vl Vl

\ \ d­ l wi by by se se u for for ea ea r a

arge arge l ly ly e iv at l re a a present present ogs, ogs, l large large

25 25

0 0

z z in in and, and, rot rot percent percent 20 20 as as much much as as

with with ated ated i assoc be be can can \ \

/ / \ \

u u

/ / diameter diameter in in \ \ inches inches \ \ 6 6 over over bs bs lim Dead Dead

birds. birds. insectivorous insectivorous

0 0

:I :I

other other nd nd a woodpeckers woodpeckers for for food food of of source source a a as as or or nesters nesters

:I :I

w w

cavity cavity by by used used be be can can top top the the , , value er er lumb on on effect effect minor minor a: a: II II

\ \

(3 (3

< < a a have have may may them them with with ated ated i I I assoc ll ll cu the the although although and, and, \ \

...J ...J

hardwoods hardwoods arge arge l in in common common are are tops tops dead dead nd nd a Broken Broken f2 f2

a: a: '\ '\

;· ;·

I I w

Vl Vl

crease. crease. in would would use use e e ldlif wi

50 50 1-

future future of of ility ility probab the the though, though, ze ze i s n n i creases creases in tree tree

...J ...J < <

z z the the As As use. use. fe fe li wild of of probability probability low low a a and and rot rot of of feet feet c c i b u c

Q Q

~ ~ 2 2 only only in in conta end end ll ll 8 8 sma the the t t a es es h c in g g lo a a in in defect defect

I I

imilar imilar s a a comparison, comparison, ~ ~ By By es. es. i spec wildlife wildlife of of variety variety a a for for i i

., .,

'E 'E

space space est est n or or den den e e l amp is is which which , , rot of of feet feet c c i cub 7 7 about about I I

i i

has has e e hol a a such such with with end, end, small small the the at at ameter ameter i d in in inches inches

I I

14 14 og og l occurs-a occurs-a it it which which in in volume volume log log the the third third - one

east east l at at of of rot rot with with associated associated s s i hole hole large large a a example, example, For For

I I

75 75 ----- ll ll cu Softwood Softwood

I I

--·-­ l cul Hardwood Hardwood

I I

er. er. lumb and and habitat habitat wildlife wildlife as as value, value, future future and and present present of of

ations ations im est to to tion tion addi in in use, use, probable probable of of ation ation im est ck ck i qu

a a allow allow can can gment, gment, jud marker's marker's a a with with ther ther toge defects, defects, of of

9 9

Continued Continued

Chestnut - sided sided warbler warbler

Yellow Yellow warbler warbler

Northern Northern parula parula

Tennessee Tennessee warbler warbler

Golden - winged winged warbler warbler

Blue - winged winged warbler warbler

Ph il adelphia adelphia vireo vireo

Solitary Solitary vireo vireo

White-eyed White-eyed vireo vireo

European European star ling ling

Cedar Cedar waxwing waxwing

Bohemian Bohemian waxwing waxwing

Brown Brown thrasher thrasher

N. N. mockingbird mockingbird

Gray Gray catbird catbird

American American robin robin

Wood Wood thrush thrush

Hermit Hermit thrush thrush

Swa in son's son's thrush thrush

Gray - cheeked cheeked thrush thrush

Veery Veery

E. E. bluebird bluebird

Ruby-crowned Ruby-crowned kinglet kinglet

Brown Brown creeper creeper

White-breasted White-breasted nuthatch nuthatch

Red-breasted Red-breasted nuthatch nuthatch

Tufted Tufted titmouse titmouse

Borea l l chickadee chickadee

B l ack-capped ack-capped chickadee chickadee

American American crow crow

Blue Blue jay jay

Gray Gray jay jay

Tree Tree swa llow llow

E . . kingbird kingbird

E. E. phoebe phoebe

N. N. flicker flicker

Hairy Hairy woodpecker woodpecker

Yellow-bellied Yellow-bellied sapsucker sapsucker

Red-bellied Red-bellied woodpecker woodpecker

Red-headed Red-headed woodpecker woodpecker

Yellow - billed billed cuckoo cuckoo

Black-billed Black-billed cuckoo cuckoo

Mourning Mourning dove dove

Wild Wild turkey turkey

Ruffed Ruffed grouse grouse

Mallard Mallard

American American black black duck duck

Wood Wood duck duck

Common Common Name Name F lower lower buds buds Fru it s / Seeds Seeds Hard Hard mast mast

Rudis Rudis 1986) 1986)

and and seeds seeds and and hard hard mast mast (adapted (adapted from from DeGraaf DeGraaf and and

Table Table 3.-New 3.-New England England wildlife wildlife species species using using flower flower buds, buds, fruits fruits

10 10

Continued Continued

bear bear Black Black

fox fox Gray Gray

x x fo Red Red

Coyote Coyote

Porcupine Porcupine

mouse mouse jumping jumping Woodland Woodland

mouse mouse jumping jumping Meadow Meadow

vole vole Woodland Woodland

vole vole red-backed red-backed S. S.

mouse mouse footed footed - White

mouse mouse Deer Deer

squirrel squirrel flying flying N. N.

squirrel squirrel flying flying S. S.

el el irr squ Red Red

l l re ir squ Gray Gray

pmunk pmunk i ch . . E

opossum opossum Virginia Virginia

grosbeak grosbeak g g in Even

dfinch dfinch l go ca ca i Amer

siskin siskin e e in P

l l redpol Hoary Hoary

redpoll redpoll Common Common

crossbill crossbill White-winged White-winged

l l crossbil Red Red

ch ch in f e e l Purp

grosbeak grosbeak e e in P

oriole oriole . . N

oriole oriole Orchard Orchard

grackle grackle Common Common

junco junco Dark-eyed Dark-eyed

sparrow sparrow throated throated - White

sparrow sparrow Song Song

sparrow sparrow Fox Fox

sparrow sparrow g g in Chipp

sparrow sparrow tree tree American American

towhee towhee Rufous-sided Rufous-sided

grosbeak grosbeak Rose-breasted Rose-breasted

l l a in card N. N.

tanager tanager Scarlet Scarlet

chat chat breasted breasted - w lo Yel

warbler warbler 's 's Wilson

redstart redstart can can i Amer

warbler warbler ll ll Blackpo

warbler warbler lm lm Pa

er er l warb Pine Pine

er er l warb e e iri Pra

warbler warbler green green Black-throated Black-throated

warbler warbler rumped rumped - ow ll Ye

er er l warb blue blue throated throated - Black

er er l warb a a i Magnol

mast mast Hard Hard Fruits/Seeds Fruits/Seeds buds buds Flower Flower Name Name Common Common

3.-Continued 3.-Continued Table Table

11 11

small. small.

new new stand stand will will be be sma ll , , and and the the effect effect on on them them also also will will be be

l ess ess than than 15 15 feet feet so so that that the the number number of of affected affected trees trees in in the the

so, so, the the spacing spacing after after the the unmanageable unmanageable first first thinning thinning through through in in pole pole the the stands stands presence presence is is not not of of excess iv e e cu ll. ll.

growth growth on ly ly after after the the ning ning new new cyc stand stand l e e because because reaches reaches the the pole pole stand stand s i ze. ze. will will Even Even eventua lly lly become become

high; high; single single trees trees of of this this trees trees s i ze ze cannot cannot may may be be begin begin added added to to suppress suppress in in each each succeeding succeeding height height cutting cutting or or thin­

Hardwoods Hardwoods over over 19 19 inches inches of of the the d.b.h wildlife wildlife . . are are tree. tree. usua Equa lly lly 80 80 lly lly to to obvious obvious 110 110 feet feet is is that that this this number number of of

regeneration regeneration can can be be minimi z ed ed further further except by by leaving leaving ion a l l timber timber tall tall trees. trees. value , , and and this this may may outweigh outweigh the the value value

50 50 percent percent of of the the total total height height of of the the any any tree; tree; stand, stand, so, so, the the a a tree tree effect effect may may on on adverse ly ly affect affect an an adjacent adjacent stem stem of of

height height of of crown crown base base stand, stand, in in forest forest a l so so grown grown will will not not hardwoods hardwoods affect affect gross gross i s s about about timber timber yields. yields. Obviously, Obviously, in in

until until regeneration regeneration i s s in in total total the the does does sap ling ling not not stage. stage. exceed exceed The The 10 10 average average or or 15 15 square square feet feet per per acre acre for for the the

crowns crowns 20 20 or or more more feet feet (poles, (poles, above above sma the the ll , , medium, medium, ground ground have have and and littl l arge arge e e effect effect saw log s), s), so so long long as as the the

1.3 1.3 feet feet per per diameter diameter l eav in ch. ch. ing ing However, However, 20 20 percent percent trees trees more more with with basal basal main main area area in in any any one one size size class class

than than average average crowns crowns ab and and l e e effect effect the the r atio atio on on of of gross gross this this timber timber spec i es es yields. yields. can can be be In In uneven - aged aged stands, stands,

other other hardwoods hardwoods of of equa ual ual stand stand l l d.b.h by by . , , while while 10 10 to to beech beech 15 15 square square have have feet feet wider wider will will not not have have a a measur­

suppress suppress reproduction reproduction over over an an area area Genera of of 1/2 1/2 to to lly 1/3 1/3 , , l eav l ess ess in g g than than trees trees that that would would incr ease ease the the total total resid­

and and sma ll - crowned crowned hardwoods, hardwoods, such such as as ash ash and and basswood, basswood,

crown - stem stem ratio ratio for for sive sive most most opening opening saw log -size -size of of the the hardwoods). hardwoods). stand. stand. Conifers Conifers

about about 1 1 foot foot for for each each are are inch inch removed removed of of diameter diameter or or may may (approximately (approximately degrade degrade surrounding surrounding the the trees trees from from exces­

press press substant reproduction reproduction i a l l log in in g in a a g g circ damage damage l e e around around to to adjacent adjacent them them with with stems stems a a radius radius when when of of they they

that that are are factors factors l eft eft depends depends become become on on important. important. the the type type Such Such of of tree large large . . Wolf Wolf trees trees trees trees may may sup cause cause ­

Effects Effects ting ting on on the the cyc l Surrounding Surrounding es. es. When When trees trees Stand approach approach . . The The effects effects 30 30 inches inches of of live live d . b trees trees . h., h., other other

yields yields in in stands stands c lo se se to to recommended recommended stocking stocking and and cut ­

account. account. uneven-aged uneven-aged stands stands will will not not measurably measurably affect affect growth growth or or

Changes Changes in in tree tree or or log log grades grades must must a l so so be be taken taken into into harvest; harvest; but but adding adding two two trees trees to to the the l arge arge saw log log class class of of

residual - stocking stocking density density affects affects diameter diameter growth growth as as single single well. well. 20 - inch inch tree tree may may represent represent 10 10 percent percent of of the the next next

cutting cutting cyc l es es improve improve diameter diameter growth growth but but feet feet per per acre . . In In a a we ll ll managed managed uneven-aged uneven-aged stand, stand, a a

grow grow f aster aster than than those those l eft eft in in a a stand of of . . In In the the stands, stands, basal basal area area s hort hort of of an an even - aged aged stand stand that that i s s 70 70 square square

value value growth. growth. Trees Trees l eft eft in in the the open, open, as as in in a a clearcut, clearcut, However, However, will will a a single single 20- inch inch tree tree represents represents about about 3 3 percent percent

of of 2 2 percent. percent. Judgment Judgment i s s requ ir ed ed in in making making estimates estimates trees trees of of l ess ess than than 5 5 inches inches d.b.h. d.b.h. are are generally generally disregarded. disregarded.

The The net net gain gain is is $5 . 50 , , which which equals equals an an annual annual interest interest rate rate growth growth or or yield. yield. For For this this reason , , in in uneven-aged uneven-aged stands, stands,

board board feet , , and and it s s value value at at present present prices prices will will be be $15 area area . 25. 25. per per acre acre so so l eaving eaving them them will will have have negligible negligible effect effect on on

ume ume will will be be 471 471 board board feet, feet, the the net net volume volume will will be be 305 305 of of this this s i ze ze would would represent represent about about 1 1 percent percent of of the the basal basal

will will have have grown grown 3.3 3.3 inches inches in in diameter diameter and and the the gross gross vol ­ percent percent of of a a stand stand of of 70 70 square square feet feet per per acre, acre, and and 10 10 trees trees

net net volume volume (195 (195 board board feet) feet) i s s $9. $9. 75. 75. In In 20 20 years , , the the tree tree example, example, a a 5 - in ch ch d.b.h . . tree tree represents represents le ss ss than than 0.2 0.2

the the stumpage stumpage value value is is $50 /M /M bf. bf. The The present present value value trees trees of of the the in in l arge arge s i ze ze c l asses asses has has the the greatest greatest effect. effect. For For

l eft eft for for 20 20 years. years. The The gross gross board-foot board-foot volume volume is is 300 , , and and the the relationship relationship is is more more comp l ex, ex, but, but, in in general, general, le aving aving

class class 3 3 (two (two major major defects) defects) with with a a grade grade 3 3 butt butt log log will will tree tree be be basal basal area area to to stand stand basal basal area . . In In uneven-aged uneven-aged stands, stands,

trees trees with with cull, cull, assume assume that that an an 18 - inch inch sugar sugar maple maple sta in in nd cull cull s s is is generally generally in in direct direct proportion proportion to to the the ratio ratio of of the the

As As an an example example of of the the timber timber value value involved involved in in le av ing ing line line The The competitive competitive effect effect of of one one tree tree on on another another in in even-aged even-aged

Moose Moose

White-tailed White-tailed deer deer

Striped Striped skunk skunk

Fisher Fisher

Raccoon Raccoon

Common Common Name Name Flower Flower buds buds Fruits/Seeds Fruits/Seeds Hard Hard mast mast

Table Table 3.-Continued 3.-Continued

12 12

. . zes

i s ll ll

sma and and

ages ages y y

l ear at at

seed seed

bear bear crowns crowns for for ve ve li birch birch yellow yellow and and , , beech , , maple sugar sugar , , hemlock

exposed exposed th th i

w

Conifers Conifers . .

producer

sporadic sporadic

most most the the is is eastern eastern , , spruce red red e, e, in p White White . . sites forest forest most most on on

which which

pine, pine,

white white

and and

spruces, spruces, the the r, r, i f

balsam balsam

by by

followed followed years years 75 75 than than less less is is span span life life maximum maximum average average whose whose

ers ers if

con

common common

among among

producers producers

seed seed

prolific prolific

most most the the species species ed ed liv short- ely ely iv relat are are birch birch white white and and , , aspen

are are

occidentalis) occidentalis) (Thuja (Thuja

cedar cedar

white white

and and

hemlock hemlock

astern astern E fir, fir, sam sam l Ba . . mid-age at at productive productive seed seed most most are are Trees Trees • •

. .

sites

poorer poorer or or average average . . year every every bearing bearing

on on

zes zes i s g g

lo saw ll ll

sma

through through pole pole

arge arge l

at at seed seed and and seed seed for for potential potential the the have have species species hardwood hardwood Northern Northern • •

catkins catkins of of productive productive most most is is birch birch White White seed. seed. and and catkins catkins

both both of of

amounts amounts

high high

produce produce

birch birch

yellow yellow Sawlog-size Sawlog-size site. site. and and biology, biology, species species ons, ons, iti cond

. .

seed of of crops crops

large large

producing producing of of e e l

capab

are are

, , exposed atic atic im cl in in variations variations ith ith w ly ly annual produced produced seed seed of of

fully fully

birch, birch,

b.h.) b.h.) . d es es

inch 4 4

to to (2 (2

ze ze i -s

ling

Sap

stage. stage. ling ling sap amount amount the the in in vary vary species species same same the the of of trees trees of of Stands Stands

­

ling

seed

the the in in

seed seed

viable viable

producing producing of of

capable capable are are . . year every every nearly nearly ion ion product good good has has aspen aspen quaking quaking

and and

fall fall

the the

in in s s

in catk

male male

develop develop irch irch

b white white

and and llow llow Ye while while years, years, 8 8 as as long long as as be be may may production production seed seed nigra) nigra)

(Fraxinus (Fraxinus ash ash black black good good between between interval interval the the e, e, l examp

uncommon. uncommon. is is r r Fo potential. potential. production production seed seed in in vary vary Species Species stand. stand.

stands stands

in in

seeds seeds

some some

produce produce

to to

Failure Failure

age. age. of of

years years 6 6 as as the the in in ion ion cat lo or or l l contro genetic genetic of of result result a a as as intervals intervals

ly ly

ear

as as seed seed

bear bear

can can

growth growth sprout sprout

maple maple Red Red . . ily stead engthy engthy l at at ly ly on produce produce others others while while frequently frequently seed seed

and and

prolifically prolifically seed seed

produce produce s s

rown

c full full

with with trees trees

exposed exposed produce produce trees trees individual individual few few a a stand, stand, a a Within Within maples. maples.

Fully Fully

trees. trees.

dominant dominant

ze ze i s - sawlog

by by

borne borne

are are crops crops ar ar ug s and and red red e, e, l examp for for femaleness, femaleness, and and ness ness

largest largest

the the but but

d.b.h., d.b.h.,

ches ches in 5 5

when when

stands stands

even-aged even-aged male­ of of degrees degrees varying varying have have tree) tree) same same the the on on flowers flowers

in in

seed seed

some some

bearing bearing

begin begin

maple maple

sugar sugar

grown grown - Forest female female and and male male both both have have that that (those (those es es i spec cious cious

Monoe­ seed. seed. produce produce ill ill w females females the the only only and and another) another)

. .

uncommon

are are

areas areas

arge arge l over over failures failures on on flowers flowers female female and and tree tree one one on on flowers flowers male male s, s, i (that (that

but but

common, common,

are are s s

tand s

in in

es es ilur a f

Seed Seed

seed. seed. some some bear bear oecious oecious i d are are aspens aspens nd nd a ash ash white white as as such such Species Species

will will

> > percent) percent)

80 80 ( (

trees trees

overstory overstory most most

nd nd a

crops, crops, good good potential. potential. production production seed seed their their in in vary vary trees trees Individual Individual • •

bear bear will will beech beech the the f f l ha over over year, year, seed seed good good a a In In seed. seed.

some some bear bear b.h.) b.h.) . d inches inches 4 4 to to (3 (3 gs gs lin

sap

arge arge l exposed, exposed, e. e. ur s

when when

However, However, trees. trees.

dominant dominant

ze ze

i -s

log saw by by borne borne expo­ of of regardless regardless crown crown the the of of portion portion upper upper the the in in rily rily

are are crops crops

arge arge l

and and

d.b.h. d.b.h.

es es

inch

8 8 to to

5 5

until until

seed seed r r bea prima­ seed seed produce produce ers ers i conf Many Many s. s. n crow tree tree of of tops tops

to to

begin begin

ldom ldom se

trees trees

Forest-grown Forest-grown

hardwoods. hardwoods. northern northern in in the the on on produced produced only only s s i seed seed stands, stands, even-aged even-aged stocked stocked

s s

ie spec

g g

in bear -

nut

common common st st

mo e e

th

s s i

beech beech American American fully fully in in and and seed, seed, or or owers owers l f few few produce produce trees trees ry ry sto

er­ Und . . rown c the the of of

portion portion exposed exposed

the the on on produced produced Characteristics Characteristics Species Species

s s i seed seed most most The The 1963). 1963). hews hews att (M production production greatest greatest

the the for for potential potential the the offer offer crowns crowns tree tree exposed exposed ully ully F • •

excessive. excessive. becomes becomes tality tality

mor­ before before

ees ees tr

ze ze i -s

log

saw in in acre acre per per feet feet square square

90 90

trees. trees. ll ll sma

than than seed seed

more more

produce produce trees trees

Large Large

• •

of of excess excess in in have have may may stands stands maple maple sugar sugar but but e e r ac per per

feet feet square square 60 60

over over is is

sawlogs sawlogs of of stocking stocking and and es es inch 18 18

management: management:

wildlife wildlife

over over

s s i

d.b.h. d.b.h.

when when great great is is

mortality mortality Beech Beech

e. e. larg s s i

size size

and and timber timber for for both both

useful useful

are are

that that

able able il

a v a are are

principles principles

e e

tre

imum imum x

ma

and and

dense dense are are stands stands

when when e e

iv

excess

general general some some es, es, i spec

hardwood hardwood ern ern

north

many many for for

ing ing

ck la

be be

may may

trees trees

overstory overstory of of Mortality Mortality

1953). 1953). llgitt llgitt

Zi and and

s s i on on i product seed seed about about

ation ation

inform

ific ific

spec

though though l

A

Eyre Eyre ( acre) acre) per per feet feet square square 70 70 than than ess ess (l ng ng i stock and and

d.b.h.) d.b.h.) es es

inch

20 20 than than (less (less ze ze i s moderate moderate of of are are trees trees

area. area.

unit unit and and

tree tree

per per

est est larg

whose whose

stands stands

as as seeds seeds of of number number the the

twice twice

duce duce

produced produced seed seed of of

amounts amounts

total total

the the

ease ease

incr

to to nd nd

a

ages ages

­

pro can can

trees trees

large large

of of nds nds sta Dense Dense

ease. ease.

incr

acre acre

per per

early early at at on on i product

seed seed

encourage encourage

to to

possible possible s s i it it

, , r

eve

area area l l

basa

age age

ver a

and and

diameter diameter age age r ave as as

eases eases incr

How­ old. old. decades decades several several are are

trees trees

the the

until until seed seed

duce duce

production production

seed seed , , hardwoods

northern northern

of of

stands stands

In In

• •

­ pro to to begin begin not not do do hardwoods hardwoods forest-grown forest-grown general, general, In In

species. species.

catkin-producing catkin-producing n n commo are are spp.) spp.)

et. et. i d

their their

(Alnus (Alnus alders alders

and and ), ), .

spp

(Gory/us (Gory/us hazels hazels

aspens, aspens,

birches, birches,

to to addition addition nutritious nutritious a a as as

seed seed

e e z

utili

others others

while while

seed seed on on

llow llow e

y

and and

e e

Whit . . es i spec

wildlife wildlife

some some by by

ht ht

soug

ily ily eav h depend depend s s ie spec the the

of of

Some Some

Northeast. Northeast. the the in in

cies cies

are are that that s s

tkin

ca male male

produce produce es es i spec of of

number number

A A

• •

spe­ wildlife wildlife 90 90 over over by by eaten eaten nuts nuts seeds and and seeds of of quantity quantity

and and variety variety the the crease crease in to to is is

production production

seed seed

of of

object object

The The

r. r. e long much much for for e e iv surv

may may s s individual Production Production and and Seed Seed of of average average the the on on Biology Biology years years 300 300 to to 200 200

13 13

tion . . There There should should be be more more than than three three regularly regularly spaced spaced ning ning schedules. schedules.

have have little little probability probability of of pollination pollination and and good good seed seed produc­ tion tion in in stocking, stocking, species species frequency, frequency, size size c asses, asses, l and and thin ­

Trees Trees spaced spaced at at more more than than 150 150 feet feet apart apart in in forest forest stands stands ment ment is is required required in in thinning thinning because because of of the the endless endless varia ­

stands stands containing containing several several individuals individuals of of the the same same species . . increasing increasing tree tree size size up up to to 25 25 in ches ches d . b . h . . at at east. east. l Judg ­

Trees Trees to to be be re eased eased l for for seed seed production production shou ld ld be be in in oak oak species species continue continue to to increase increase seed seed production production with with

duction duction declines declines in in trees trees larger larger than than 20 20 inches inches d . b.h . . Other Other

variable variable seed seed production. production. ages ages and and smaller smaller sizes . . In In some some areas, areas, red red oak oak seed seed pro­

climatic climatic factors factors such such as as spring spring frost frost frequency frequency also also l ead ead to to fir , , white white birch, birch, and and the the aspens aspens drops drops off off quickly quickly at at young young

of of trees trees and and the the location location of of trees trees with with respect respect to to micro ­ duction duction of of shorter shorter liv ed ed species species such such as as red red oak, oak, balsam balsam

distance distance is is slim . . Variations Variations in in the the maleness maleness or or femaleness femaleness several several hundred hundred years years old. old. On On the the other other hand, hand, seed seed pro ­

substantial substantial amounts amounts of of pollination pollination among among trees trees beyond beyond this this to to bear bear apprec i ab e e l amounts amounts of of seed seed until until the the trees trees are are

within within 50 50 to to 100 100 feet feet from from a a tree tree so so that that the the chance chance of of white white pine, pine, sugar sugar maple, maple, yellow yellow birch, birch, and and beech beech continue continue

mission mission

of of

pollen pollen

within within

a a crown. crown.

Most Most

pollen pollen

is is

deposited deposited Long-lived Long-lived species species such such as as eastern eastern hemlock, hemlock, red red spruce , ,

currents currents or or insect insect activity activity may may not not be be suitable suitable for for the the trans ­

flowering flowering in in the the crown crown reduces reduces self-pollination self-pollination and and wind wind

tivity tivity of of other other trees trees through through shad ing ing or or crowding. crowding.

same same species. species. Often, Often, location location of of flowers flowers and and the the timing timing of of

may may not not contr ibu te te much much seed seed and and may may reduce reduce the the produc ­

as as stead ily ily or or prolifically prolifically as as when when growing growing in in groups groups of of the the

cannot cannot be be expanded expanded on on at at least least three three sides, sides, however, however, it it

Trees Trees isolated isolated from from their their own own species species may may not not bear bear seed seed

trees trees of of other other species species around around the the group. group. If If a a tree's tree's crown crown

ered ered as as a a s in gle gle tree tree if if all all crowns crowns would would benefit benefit by by thinning thinning Choosing Choosing Th e e Numb e r r of of Tree s s

crown-thinned. crown-thinned. Groups Groups of of two two to to four four trees trees can can be be consid­

ate ate or or young young age . .

crowned crowned hardwood hardwood such such as as basswood basswood or or ash ash can can be be

be be improved improved by by cultural cultural practice practice when when trees trees are are of of moder ­

trees. trees. Conifers Conifers in in conifer conifer

stands stands

or or stands stands

of of

narrow­

produce produce ess ess l seed. seed. Trees Trees with with less less desirable desirable attributes attributes can can

ping ping trees trees and /o r r the the two two or or three three most most severe ly ly competing competing

crowns crowns or or trees trees with with shorter shorter than than average average crowns crowns may may

conifer conifer crowns crowns in in hardwood hardwood stands stands shou ld ld remove remove overtop

­

are are likely likely to to be be the the best; best; trees trees with with extreme ly ly spreading spreading

of of exposure exposure to to the the rest rest of of the the crown. crown. Thinning Thinning to to release release

by by crown crown condition; condition; that that is, is, trees trees with with full, full, rounded rounded crowns crowns

produce produce most most seed seed in in the the crown crown top top regardless regardless of of degree degree

the the first first criteria criteria are are large large size size and and moderate moderate age, age, followed followed

crowns crowns are are narrower narrower and, and, except except for for eastern eastern hemlock, hemlock,

ronmenta l l factors factors can can influence influence crown crown shape, shape, however, however, so so

sized sized trees . . Conifers Conifers need need much much less less space space because because the the

in in the the forking forking of of seed-bearing seed-bearing branches . . A A number number of of envi­

space space for for a a substantia l l time, time, perhaps perhaps 20 20 years years for for sawlog

­

of of whose whose reproductive reproductive biology biology and and branch branch structure structure results results

of of the the hardwood hardwood tree tree to to be be released released will will provide provide growing growing

should should be be especially especially true true of of sugar sugar and and striped striped maple, maple, each each

crowns crowns are are overtopping overtopping or or within within a a foot foot or or so so of of the the crowns crowns

relatively relatively steady steady production production will will have have rounded rounded crowns . . This This

the the crown. crown. Crown-thinning Crown-thinning that that removes removes trees trees whose whose

The The literatur e e suggests suggests that that individual individual hardwood hardwood trees trees with with

tally tally and and receive receive full full light light in in at at least least the the upper upper portion portion of of

free free to to grow grow vertically, vertically, and and the the With With crown crown Steady Steady can can expand expand Seed-Production Seed-Production horizon­ Potential Potential

Identification Identification of of Individual Individual Trees Trees crown. crown. Trees Trees should should be be crown - thinned thinned so so that that the the tree tree is is

development development and and maintain maintain full full light light in in the the upper upper half half of of the the

wood) wood)

to to

many many years years

(cherries) (cherries)

in in the the duff . .

Groups Groups of of The The Trees. Trees. goal goal is is to to promote promote maximum maximum crown crown

and and cherry cherry

seeds seeds

will will

remain remain

for for 2 2 years years

(ash (ash and and

bass­

Incr easing easing Seed Seed Production Production of of Individual Individual Trees Trees and and Small Small

seed seed in in the the crown crown over over the the winter winter months. months. Ash, Ash, basswood, basswood,

spr ing . . Yellow Yellow birch, birch, basswood, basswood, and and hemlock hemlock retain retain some some

resu lt lt in in nut nut production production nearly nearly every every year. year. the the fall fall and and li es es over over winter winter before before germinating germinating in in the the

ple, ple, mixtures mixtures of of red red and and white white oaks oaks and and beech beech should should after after falling. falling. Most Most other other species species produce produce seed seed that that ripens ripens in in

probability probability of of some some seed seed production production every every year. year. For For exam­ and and the the seed seed of of these these species species usually usually germinates germinates soon soon

are are uncommon, uncommon, mixtures mixtures of of species species shou ld ld increase increase the the Red Red maple maple and and elm elm spp.) spp.) (Ulmus (Ulmus seed seed ripens ripens in in the the spring, spring,

Because Because years years with with good good seed seed production production by by all all species species

aspens, aspens, birches, birches, and and ashes. ashes.

composed composed occupy occupy of of spec warm, warm, i es es dry dry with with exposures exposures thin thin foliaged foliaged or or inclusions inclusions crowns crowns such such of of coarse coarse as as the the soil. soil.

overstory overstory drained drained density density portion portion may may of of be be a a spruce-fir spruce-fir decreased decreased area when when ; ; beech beech overstories overstories or or red red are are oaks oaks may may

overstories overstories woods, woods, and and or or hardwoods hardwoods arge arge l crops crops may may in in full full be be sun numerous numerous light. light. The The on on effect effect the the better better of of

berry berry hemlocks hemlocks (Rubus (Rubus spp.) spp.) may may bushes bushes lin e e a a water water bear bear small small course course crops crops through through under under a a stand stand closed closed of of hard­

and and patterns patterns beaked beaked hazel hazel of of disturbance (Gory/us (Gory/us . . For For example, example, cornuta). cornuta). Raspberry Raspberry spruces, spruces, and and firs, firs, black­ or or

as as do do species species shrubs shrubs occurrence occurrence such such as as hobblebush hobblebush is is often often related related to to (Viburnum (Viburnum soil soil conditions conditions a lnifolium), lnifolium), or or

individuals individuals of of the the same same when when species species sapling sapling are are common common size size or or sma because because ller ller if if exposed exposed to to direct direct sun light , ,

striped striped increase increase maple maple the the chance chance (Acer (Acer of of pensylvanicum)-bear pensylvanicum)-bear good good seed seed production. production. good good seed seed Groups Groups crops crops of of

hand, hand, having having the the same same number number (Prunus (Prunus of of trees trees pensy/vanica), pensy/vanica), in in a a group group chokecherry chokecherry will will (P. (P. virginiana), virginiana), and and

trees trees per per acre acre to to ensure ensure The The seed seed sma production. production. ll ll trees-ironwood trees-ironwood On On the the other other (Ostrya (Ostrya virginiana), virginiana), pin pin cherry cherry The following suggestions will help in treating trees for Lengthening the time that a tree or group of trees remain in mast production: the stand will increase seed production and the size and quality of trees harvested, but net volumes will be reduced. • Release codominant or small er hardwood stems by On the other hand, gains in diameter growth from early and crown-thinning on at least three sid es. frequent thinning will tend to reduce rotation lengths. Some increase in the development of a tolerant understory wil l • Do not, unless special circumstances2 warrant, treat occur with frequent or heavy thinning. beech over 18 inches d.b.h. in the beech-Nectria zone, or red oak over 20 inches d.b.h., or shorter lived species Yellow birch, a species of intermediate tolerance, is some­ such as white birch or balsam fir over 10 in ches. Such what adversely affected by heavy thinning throughout a trees may be retained for other wildl ife values (cavities) rotation. Heavy thinning in the sapling stage produces or timber uses. Release con ifers by removing the two or misshapen trees and high mortality on some sites. Heavy three most severe competitors. thinning in pole and sawlog stands produces ep icormic sprouts a few feet below the crown, reducing upper log • Release small trees and shrubs, such as hawthorn, quality and merchantability to a degree, but value reduction ald er, hazel, elderberry, striped and mountain maple, is slight. eastern hophor11beam, juneberry, and flowering dogwood by removing ovE)rtopping trees and those trees that will Timber quality of white birch and aspen are least affected overtop before the next thinning cycle. by heavy thinning at any size class.

Heavy thinning increases the total amount of seed pro­ Silviculture duced per tree. However, loss of quality in oak species especially and in surrounding trees is a result of heavy Northern hardwood forests are managed for timber prod­ crown-thinning. Removing overtopping trees and one or ucts under either even-age or uneven-age silvicultural two of the most severe competing trees will allow crown systems. The availability of wildlife trees in managed for­ development, good growth, maintenance of the species in ests is restrained by: the type of management or the stand, and reduce quality loss. Heavy thinning is more silvicultural system, which affects species composition and appropriate for the less tolerant species though very open the distribution of tree sizes; the intensity of management, birch may be seriously damaged by sapsuckers and be which affects the number of trees, logs, and slash suitable subject to insect attack. for wildlife; the stage of development of stands, which affects the size of trees available; the site, which affects Epicormic sprouting after heavy thinning in sawlog stands tree and shrub species composition, and, as discussed is greatest on oaks and birches. Reduce epicormic sprout­ previously, timber goals that influence the size of harvested ing by heavily thinning only those trees with well-developed area and final size of tree. crowns. Sawlog-size sugar maple usually sprouts only in the crown; so, heavy or frequent thinning in sawlog stands Providin g wildlife trees in common timber management has little effect on present quality. Crowns will be set, situ ations requires a knowledge of the consequences of however, and further increases in merchantable length will management as well as planning ahead. Wildlife tree man­ be slow or will cease. Severe damage to crowns results in agement can also include the use of silvicultural tech­ epicormic sprouting of all species. niques to enhance and maintain desirable wildlife qualities of trees and to increase the time of their usefulness. It is Quality and merchantability loss following heavy thinning well to note that on larger properties, both even-age and wil l be greater in the tolerant hardwoods, sugar maple and uneven-age si lviculture will be needed to ach ieve or main­ beech, than in other northern hardwood species. Heavy tain the full range of community diversity. sapling thinning will have more effect on merchantability Regenerating Even-aged Stands than will heavy thinning in poles. Avoid thinning in sapling stands of tolerant hardwoods to reduce adverse impact on Clearcutting. Clearcutting in northern hardwoods in the timber quality, but consider thinning along permanent Northeast provides a mixture of long-lived tolerant and openings; that is, roads, streams, marsh edges, and log shorter lived intolerant tree species. The relative propor­ landings. tions of species change with clearcut size; clearcuts of 20 acres or more produce conditions for large proportions of 2 Special circumstances that may occur include the use of intolerants while patches or narrow strips produce more the tree for purposes other than seed production; that is, moderately tolerant and tolerant species than intolerant den or nesting tree, shelter, or esthetic purposes. tree species. All trees over 1 or 2 inches d.b.h. are removed or killed in clearcutting in intensive management.

14

15 15

suppressed. suppressed. The The small small trees, trees, striped striped maple , , mountain mountain

aid aid in in calculating calculating the the area area in in wh i ch ch reproduction reproduction will will be be

develop develop into into wolf wolf trees-the trees-the crown crown area area tables tables (Appendix (Appendix II) II)

Hardwood Hardwood sap li ngs ngs or or po l es es left left in in c l earcuts earcuts usually usually

then then windf i rm rm tree tree characteristics. characteristics. is is used used as as the the first first step step in in three - cut cut shelterwoods . .

mises mises should should favor favor windfirm windfirm topograph i cal cal pos i tions tions and and years years or or less. less. The The latter latter crown crown cover - 70 70 percent-usually percent-usually

not not be be possible possible to to fu l f ill ill all all these these requ i rements, rements, shelterwoods shelterwoods compro­ whose whose overstories overstories will will be be removed removed in in 10 10

on on deep deep soils soils wil l l also also add add to to windfirmness. windfirmness. Because Because the the first first it it two two will will crown-cover crown-cover levels levels are are associated associated with with two-cut two-cut

windthrow. windthrow. Leaving Leaving trees trees with with open-grown open-grown characterist i cs cs that that have have inadequate inadequate advanced advanced regeneration. regeneration. Generally , ,

sha l low low soi l s, s, r i dges, dges, and and sadd l es es wi ll ll help help avoid avoid over over areas areas to to be be regenerated regenerated to to tolerant tolerant species species i n n stands stands

Leav i ng ng trees trees on on the the windward windward side side of of c l earcuts earcuts away away from from advanced advanced tolerant tolerant regeneration; regeneration; or or 70 70 percent percent crown crown cover cover

white white or or yellow yellow birch; birch; 50 50 percent percent crown crown cover cover over over

well-developed well-developed crowns crowns and and no no i nd i cations cations of of advanced advanced 50 50 percent percent age. age. crown crown cover cover over over areas areas to to be be reproduced reproduced with with

sure; sure; po l e - s i ze ze and and l arger arger hemlock hemlock and and spruce spruce She should should l terwood. terwood. have have She l terwood terwood harvests harvests commonly commonly leave leave 30 30 to to

Balsam Balsam fir fir and and large large eastern eastern hem l ock ock often often die die after after expo ­

ments. ments.

re l atively atively short-l i ved. ved. to to leave leave a a few few live live ones ones to to fulfill fulfill wildlife wildlife tree - habitat habitat require ­

rema i n n standing standing for for decades, decades, but but other other con i fer fer snags snags are are taining taining substantial substantial numbers numbers of of aspens, aspens, it it may may be be des i rable rable

equa

l l d i ameter ameter (Appendix (Appendix II). II). Dead Dead snags snags of of wh i te te pine pine so so on . . On On the the other other hand , , when when clearcutting clearcutting stands stands con ­

or or

three three conifers conifers is is rough l y y equal equal to to that that of of a a hardwood hardwood of of tree tree species species could could provide provide foraging , , perching , , cavit i es, es, and and

the the probabil i ty ty of of windfirmness . . The The space space occupied occupied by by two two small small aspen aspen component component in in the the regeneration regeneration stand; stand; other other

and and

a l though though not not predictable, predictable, leav i ng ng a a group group may may add add to to red red maple maple stand stand on on a a coarse-textured coarse-textured soi l l would would result result i n n a a

a a group group will will help help ensure survival; survival; ensure root root grafting grafting is is common, common, local local situation. situation. For For example, example, clearcutting clearcutting a a mature mature beech­

latter latter

trees trees have have better better root root systems. systems. Several Several stems stems left left in in clearcutt i ng ng depends depends on on the the wildlife wildlife goals goals for for the the area area and and

present present less less surface surface than than those those w i th th large large crowns, crowns, the the of of aspen aspen reproduction reproduction by by cutting cutting all all aspen aspen stems stems during during

shou l d d be be windfirm. windfirm. While While sma ll -crowned -crowned con i fers fers may may more more by by leaving leaving aspen aspen stubs stubs or or by by increasing increasing the the amount amount

and and exposure . . Consequently, Consequently, indiv i dua l l conifers conifers to to be be l eft eft diseased . . Whether Whether the the value value to to wildl i fe fe wou l d d be be enhanced enhanced

hemlock hemlock is is especially especially sensitive sensitive to to h i gh gh soil soil temperatures temperatures quickly, quickly, but but remain remain a li ve ve for for fairly fairly long long per i ods ods unless unless

sub j ect ect to to w i ndthrow ndthrow after after l eaf eaf fa ll. ll. I n n add i t i on, on, eastern eastern i ng. ng. Aspen Aspen stems stems l eft eft after after cutting cutting norma ll y y deter i orate orate

sure sure

all all year year l ong ong in in contrast contrast to to hardwoods hardwoods that that are are l ess ess Leaving Leaving aspen aspen stems stems of of any any s i ze ze will will reduce reduce root root sucker­

Conifers, Conifers, in in general, general, present present a a large large surface surface for for wind wind pres­

make make sales sales more more attract i ve. ve.

which which trees trees to to leave leave for for w il d li fe fe in in c l earcuts. earcuts. because because such such trees trees will will produce produce sawlog sawlog material material that that may may

the the

probabi

li ty ty of of mortality mortality is is necessary necessary when when deciding deciding smaller smaller ash ash until until the the first first commerical commerical thinning thinning in in poles poles

ing ing

a a

few few trees trees for for cavities , , mast, mast, and and perches. perches. Assessing Assessing sugar sugar maples maples or or well-formed well-formed vigorous vigorous red red map l e e and and

More More

w i ldl i fe fe spec i es es can can be be attracted attracted to to clearcuts clearcuts by by leav­ Some Some timber timber advantage advantage may may be be ga i ned ned by by l eaving eaving w i ndf i rm rm

tain i ng ng p l ant ant and and an i mal mal d i versity versity i n n northern northern hardwoods. hardwoods. sugar sugar maple maple last last for for several several decades. decades.

by by w

il d l ife . .

So, So, clearcutt i ng ng is is an an i mportant mportant tool tool for for ma i n­ species species are are genera ll y w y i ndfirm. ndfirm. Snags Snags of of yellow yellow birch birch and and

cherry, cherry,

b l ack ack

cherry, cherry, and and red red oak, oak, which which are are h eav il y y used used galleries, galleries, Ut i pe l/ a a canker, canker, root root rot, rot, and and V-shaped V-shaped forks. forks. Oak Oak

p r oduction oduction of of share share into l erant erant trees trees such such as as aspen, aspen, pin pin not not conducive conducive to to breakage breakage by by wind: wind: sugar sugar maple maple borer borer

stands. stands.

Clearcutting Clearcutting

is is

also also important important for for the the long-term long-term sugar sugar maple maple survives survives wel l i l f w f i ndfirm ndfirm and and if if the the defects defects are are

and and

part part

of of the the bird bird community community occurs occurs on l y y in in regenerating regenerating short short ex i stence stence i f f i nfected nfected by by Nectr i a - sca l e. e. Sawlog - size size

dant dant

i n n seedling seedling

stands stands

than than

i n n other other northern northern hardwoods, hardwoods, wet, wet, or or coa r se-textured se-textured so il s. s. Saw l og - s i ze ze beech beech w l i l l have have a a

New New

England England

cottontail. cottontail. Small Small mammals mammals are are more more abun­ die die w i th i n n a a few few years, years, especially especially on on poorer poorer s i tes: tes: shal l ow, ow,

ma i nta

i n n populat i ons ons of of ruffed ruffed grouse, grouse, snowshoe snowshoe hare, hare, and and Birches, Birches, when when l eft eft exposed exposed as as sawlog-size sawlog-size trees, trees, usually usually

cover cover prov i ded ded i n n regenerat i ng ng stands stands are are essentia l l to to

in in the the northern northern hardwood hardwood forests. forests. The The forage forage and and woody woody gory . .

leve l s s

of of

forage, forage,

understory understory

mast, mast, and and woody woody stem stem dens i ty ty Red Red oak, oak, paper paper b i rch, rch, and and yel l ow ow birch birch fall fall i nto nto this this cate­

grow grow

through through

the the

seedling seedling

stage, stage,

they they provide provide the the highest highest mature mature stands stands may may d i e e or or fa i l l to to develop develop after after c l earcutt i ng. ng.

overstory overstory

mast mast product

i on on are are elim i nated. nated. But, But, as as clearcuts clearcuts size size trees trees of of l ess ess to l erant erant spec i es es that that have have developed developed i n n

ting ting alters alters

the the

m i x x

of of

hab

i tat tat

e l ements. ements. Cavity Cavity trees trees and and sugar sugar map l e e surv i ve ve c l earcutt i ng ng well. well. Sap li ng ng and and pole­

of of w

il dlife dlife habitat habitat

management management

i n n New New England. England. Clearcut­ the the small small sawlog sawlog stage . . Sapling Sapling and and pole-size pole-size beech beech and and

Regenerating Regenerating

stands stands

by by clearcutting clearcutting is is an an i mportant mportant aspect aspect maple maple (Acer (Acer spicatum), spicatum), and and ironwood, ironwood, genera ll y y live live until until

16 16

. . sites ll ll a to to common common are are trees trees small small

and and shrubs shrubs Tolerant Tolerant ow. ow. ll a h s or or wet wet sandy, sandy, lly lly typica are are

which which sites, sites, hardwood hardwood poorer poorer the the on on common common are are conifers conifers

erant erant l To trees. trees. ze ze i og-s l saw small small and and poles poles of of proportion proportion . . trees

high high crop crop a a timber timber produce produce ly ly potential potential common also also areas areas usually usually are are such such ; ; lower are are producers producers mast mast areas areas yield; yield;

basal basal g g lo timber timber on on saw effect effect residual residual no no es, es, it have have s trees trees poorer poorer crop crop On On al. al. i timber timber with with substant be be compete compete

can can so so l a not not p p l pu and and that do do that logs logs trees trees small small Wildlife Wildlife . . from from cuts products products and and regeneration regeneration ble, ble, i in in feas trees trees ing ing

leav­ are are on on than than structure structure ings ings the the inn in in th during during Variations Variations . . trees trees on i leaving leaving product on on sawlog sawlog of of on on restrictions restrictions i port

­ pro fewer fewer higher higher are are a a to to There There leading leading ess. ess. l or or possible, possible, years years 10 10 are are ast ast l areas areas l l canopy canopy basa g g lo saw overstory overstory the the

in in openings openings residual residual high high because because cover cover grown; grown; be be can can understory understory ogs ogs l and and saw arge arge l browse, browse, tes, tes, i s forage, forage, best best the the

On On . . on on proportions effect effect varying varying in in transitory transitory pulp pulp and and and and modest modest ogs ogs l a a saw only only has has produce produce and and usually usually ning ning

es es i ­ in spec Th erant erant l to mast. mast. and and promote promote cavities, cavities, practices practices timber, timber, These These produce produce to to management. management. composition composition

es es i spec on on i tree tree ect l se and and or or structure structure uneven-age, uneven-age, stand stand age, age, - ll a regulating regulating ermed ermed for for t potential potential variously variously are are

ing ing cutt partial partial have have continual continual g g practices practices involvin These These . . practices practices stands g g lin sap in in Management Management practices practices mercial mercial

precom­ with with ng ng i beginn intervals intervals year year - 20 to to - 10 at at done done

Stands Stands

Uneven-Aged Uneven-Aged of of

Regeneration Regeneration

are are which which practices, practices, improvement improvement stand stand timber timber and and ning ning

­ hin t ncludes ncludes i s s nd sta -aged -aged n eve ing ing s. s. Tend in s. s. nd conta it it Sta wood wood Tending Tending usable usable

of of amount amount and and area area basal basal s s it to to proportional proportional be be ill ill w yield yield

and and growth growth stand stand on on effect effect s s it trees, trees, other other g g in ertopp v o not not . . stand ng ng i

s s i tree tree ­ the the as as surround long long the the So So on on trees. trees. nfluence nfluence i timber timber g g east east l in r the the ighbo e have have n to to will will bases) bases) injurious injurious wn wn cro

not not but but (high (high vigorous vigorous th th eng tree tree l the the clear clear ep ep ke to to s s tor eti considerable considerable mp with with co e e ees ees ver tr se ost ost Larger Larger m . . pine

white white the the and and of of two two oaks, oaks, or or the the one one maple, maple, removing removing sugar sugar by by are are time time tended tended be be ong ong l can can ely ely iv at l re trees, trees, Den Den

s s hi t for for e e iv surv to to y y l ke li most most es es i spec The The . . stands pole pole in in

thinning thinning

commercial commercial

first first

the the

to to on on i

reproduct from from

ranging ranging . . management timber timber ing ing affect without without component component

period period the the

for for

trees trees e e

liv

eave eave l

can can cut cut

removal removal final final The The snag snag the the to to add add nd nd a rotation rotation the the g g in dur die die will will normally normally

rot rot ial ial substant with with those those and and stems stems er er if con -crowned -crowned ll Sma

overstories. overstories.

erwood erwood lt she lighter lighter the the under under . . competitor severe severe most most the the g g vin emo r by by released released be be

es es i

spec tree tree

with with well well

compete compete

rry) rry) e rb

elde h, h, ebus {hobbl can can pine pine e e Whit s. s. wood ard h growing growing faster faster the the among among vival vival

shrubs shrubs

tolerant tolerant

and and

ironwood) ironwood)

maple, maple,

ped ped i (str trees trees ll ll Sma sur­ and and growth growth promote promote to to thinned thinned - crown be be hould hould s pine pine

s. s.

ut

earc

l c in in

left left are are

they they

when when as as

reproduction reproduction on on ence ence te te whi than than other other ers ers nif co ed ed r Scatte yield. yield. l l tota the the ease ease incr

­

influ

same same

the the

has has

shelterwood shelterwood a a of of

understory understory the the in in es es i c may may conifers conifers ving ving ea l so so stand, stand, the the of of yield yield and and tocking tocking s the the

spe­

tree tree

of of

poles poles ll ll

sma

nd nd a

s s ling sap ng ng

i Leav clearcuts. clearcuts. in in to to adds adds mply mply i s apparently apparently nd nd sta ardwood ardwood h a a of of component component

as as

practice practice

this this

in in considered considered

be be

ld ld shou

conifers conifers g g in eav l for for er er if con the the to to Adding Adding . . vity acti management management by by reduced reduced

characteristics characteristics

same same the the

However, However,

moderated. moderated. are are moisture moisture frequently frequently are are stands stands hardwood hardwood in in conifers conifers of of s s roportion P

and and temperatures, temperatures, soil soil wind, wind, in in extremes extremes because because earcuts earcuts l c

in in than than

overstories overstories wood wood er helt s er er vi ea h the the in in ion ion considerat

trees. trees. dead dead g g

in

stand

eave eave l not not does does

but but

causes causes

underlying underlying

a a

of of

ess ess l is is windfirmness windfirmness es, es, it s wet wet or or llow llow sha for for Except Except

other other have have may may that that windthrow windthrow of of result result the the usually usually s s i ity ity

­ mortal Natural Natural stands. stands. ze ze i s sawtimber sawtimber in in bole bole r r lowe the the

in in

clearcutting. clearcutting. for for recommendations recommendations

cull cull nd nd a mortality mortality

the the e e

reduc

can can

ces ces ti prac

thinning thinning

Normal Normal

the the follow follow hould hould s cut cut removal removal the the after after eft eft l trees trees wildlife wildlife

of of cs cs i st i character and and numbers numbers objective; objective; on on i regenerat

stands. stands. e e l po in in

low low

is is trees trees l l

individua in in

the the for for requirements requirements cover cover and and g g in spac by by only only ed ed in

constra

cull cull Rotten Rotten es. es. i spec t t eran intol in in more more few few a a

perhaps perhaps

and and

are are cut cut first first e e h t after after overstory overstory the the in in eft eft l trees trees

Wildlife Wildlife

es; es; i spec tolerant tolerant of of stands stands in in period period 15-year 15-year to to 10- a a over over

acre acre per per trees trees three three or or two two average average may may which which mortality, mortality,

stand. stand. a a form form to to enough enough e e v extensi are are

they they

ate ate limin e not not does does but but reduces reduces stands stands pole pole in in

g g innin

Th

where where poles poles or or saplings saplings of of thickets thickets eaves eaves l practice practice timber timber

normal normal below, below, from from generally generally s s i cutting cutting the the Although Although . . tics

1). 1). . . (Fig d.b.h.) d.b.h.) ches ches in 11 11 (> (> gs gs lo saw ll ll sma ­ characteris timber timber than than rather rather height height and and g g in spac of of s s i bas

200 200 to to trees trees of of number number the the reduces reduces stands stands pole pole in in ty ty li the the morta on on chosen chosen are are overstory overstory the the in in trees trees the the y, y, l Consequent

d.b.h.); d.b.h.); es es inch 9 9 to to 5 5 ( poles poles ll ll sma 600 600 or or 500 500 to to reduced reduced seed. seed. and and shade shade high high uniform uniform provide provide to to are are overstory overstory

are are acre acre per per s s ling sap 1,000 1,000 lly, lly, a ic Typ . . s nd sta g g lin sap terwood terwood l e h s the the of of functions functions management management er er imb e t e h T

unthinned unthinned in in on on i t i compet from from result result gs gs lin sap dying dying . . and and stand next next the the of of character character even-aged even-aged the the ering ering lt a without without

dead dead of of numbers numbers l l Substantia . . class size size stand stand by by varies varies years years 20 20 to to up up for for remain remain may may Trees Trees purposes. purposes. wildlife wildlife for for

trees trees defective defective e e liv and and dead dead ing ing stand of of ility ility ab il a v a The The trees trees provide provide to to system system this this within within st st i ex opportunities opportunities Many Many

17 17

bance. bance.

abi li ty ty to to co l onize onize sites sites rapid ly ly after after catastroph i c c distur ­

important important in in northern northern hardwood hardwood ecosystems ecosystems because because of of i ts ts

ruffed ruffed grouse. grouse. In In add iti on on to to its its value value to to wi l d lif e, e, aspen aspen i s s

c i a lly lly of of male male flowers) flowers) satisfactory. satisfactory. are are important important in in the the w int er er diet diet of of

growth, growth, although although tree tree provide provide two two soft soft or or three three snags snags sprouts per per sprouts and and cavit i es, es, stump stump and and are are the the a buds buds l so so (esp e ­

that that l eaves eaves food food one one source source sprout sprout of of per per deer, deer, stump stump moose resu , , hare, hare, lt s s in in and and maximum maximum beaver. beaver. Older Older aspen aspen

provide provide cover cover for for many many years years species, species, of of age age and and to to prevent prevent aspen aspen is is rot rot an an and and important important promote promote growth. growth. Thinning Thinning

aged aged Thinn and and unmanaged unmanaged in g g oak oak sprout sprout stands c l umps umps . . Regenerat should should in be be g g done done aspen aspen by by stands stands 5 5 to to 10 10

woods, woods, but but natural natural processes processes will will e limin ate ate it it in in both both man ­

Aspen Aspen Aspen . . is is a a common common assoc i ate ate in in northern northern h the the ard ­ area area marking marking guide. guide.

managed managed areas, areas, thinning thinning oak oak copp i ce ce shou l d d be be

a a part part of of

Regeneration Regeneration of of Difficult Difficult Species Species

enough enough so so that that the the coppice coppice will will grow grow well. well. In In inten s iv e ly ly

l opped opped and and scattered scattered slash slash rots rots faster. faster. to to 16 16 inches inches in in diameter diameter or or l ess ess in in groups groups or or patches patches l arge arge

poses poses fastest fastest when when in in contact contact with with the the mast mast ground ground is is the the so so primary primary that that object iv e, e, stems stems should should be be cut cut when when 12 12

pose pose in in 5 5 to to 8 8 years years (Eyre (Eyre and and Z illgi tt tt that that 1953) will will . . guara S l ash ash nt decom­ ee ee success success (Arend (Arend and and Scho l z z 1969) . . If If

remains remains after after 15 15 years years while while hardwood hardwood hardwood hardwood s l ash ash will will stands, stands, decom­ and and there there is is no no si lvi cu ltu ral ral techniques techniques

s maller maller logs . . S l ash ash of of easte rn rn hemlock hemlock Red Red and and oak other other . . I t t is is difficu conifers conifers l t t to to r egenerate egenerate red red oak oak in in northern northern

and and co l der der sites . . La r ge ge sawlog sawlog material material l asts asts l onger onger than than

l ast ast for for decades. decades. Logs Logs of of a ll ll species species tors l ast ast . . lon ger ger on on drier drier

most most lon g- l ast in g g habitat . . Down Down lo gs gs th of of inning inning eastern eastern and and hemlock hemlock removing removing a ll ll other other species species of of crown crown competi ­

ava il ab l e, e, consider consider the the tree tree species species and and be be to to s i te te prolong prolong to to provide provide the the existence existence the the of of aspen aspen stems stems by by crown ­

When When choices choices of of l ogs ogs and and s l ash ash dispo viable viable sa l l methods methods option option for for are are some some owners, owners, an an a lt ernate ernate practice practice would would

or or rough ly ly one-th ir d d of of an an acre. acre. Because Because this this may may not not be be a a

ings. ings. suckers suckers in in a a 20-foot 20-foot radiu s s requires requires a a 70 - foot foot radius radius group group

will will incr ease ease wildlife wildlife by by habitat habitat trees trees quality quality is is assumed assumed at at small small to to cost cost equa or or l l th a a e sav ir ir height, height, ­ to to fully fully expose expose

equa l s s or or is is c l ose ose to to production production costs a a -a rather rather nd nd unlop l a r ge ge ped ped group group s l ash ash around around aspen aspen stems. stems. If If the the shade shade cast cast

stands. stands. Leaving Leaving marg i na l l logs -t hose hose thinned, thinned, whose whose so so timber timber stimu value value l ating ating aspen aspen root root suckers suckers requires requires cutt i ng ng

even-age even-age or or all-age all-age management management in in hardwoods hardwoods northern northern hardwood hardwood normally normally are are about about 50 50 feet feet in in height height when when f ir st st

bers bers of of anima l s . . Few Few comb down down in log ed ed s s with with accumulate accumulate normal normal timber timber under under operations. operations. e i ther ther Po l e-size e-size northern northern

few few wildlife wildlife spec i es, es, such such habitat habitat i s s used used by by l a rg e e and and num 5 ­ 0 0 years years so so that that specia l l treatments treatments for for aspen aspen can can be be

Although Although down down l ogs ogs and and s l ash ash are are critica l l habitat habitat for for on ly ly a a ern ern hardwoods hardwoods usua ll y y occurs occurs when when stands stands are are between between 40 40

patches. patches. The The first first commer i ca l l thinning thinning in in even-aged even-aged north ­

an an env ir onment. onment. cutt ing ing aspen aspen at at l ess ess than than 50 50 years years in in relatively relatively large large

lo ngt im e, e, probably probably because because roots roots deteriorate deteriorate s lowly lowly aspen aspen in in such such on on the the better better northern northern hardwood hardwood sites sites will will requir e e

l eft eft standing standing dead dead in in permanently permanently flooded flooded areas areas l ast ast for for a a spec i es es are are relatively relatively short- liv ed ed on on any any s i te . . Maintaining Maintaining

shorter shorter per io ds. ds. Basswood Basswood and and ash ash are are int ermediate. ermediate. Trees Trees Aspen Aspen reproduction reproduction is is inhibited inhibited by by overhead overhead shade shade and and the the

spec i es . . Beech, Beech, white white b ir ch, ch, a nd nd red red maple maple stand stand dead dead for for

cha in saw saw girdling girdling can can be be used used to to produce produce snags snags of of these these cially cially on on better better s it es. es.

followed followed by by the the l arger arger branches branches and and the the tops. tops. Double Double stands stands of of aspen, aspen, rotations rotations must must be be about about 40 40 years , , espe­

decades. decades. After After death, death, sma ll ll twigs twigs and and branches branches fall fall first first ring ring on on the the drier drier exposed exposed s it es . . To To maintain maintain well well stocked stocked

the the oaks, oaks, and and white white pine pine common ly ly remain remain stand in g g for for maintain maintain some some aspen aspen on on any any site site with with more more aspen aspen occur­

Dead Dead snags snags of of saw lo g-size g-size yellow yellow birch, birch, sugar sugar maple , , e lm , , or or l ess. ess. S hort er er rotations rotations (about (about 70 70 y ears ) ) a r e e lik e ly ly to to

sma ll ll aspen aspen compone nt nt if if harvested harvested on on a a 1 1 00-year 00-year rotation rotation

a nt nt species. species. red red maple - beech beech sites sites (Leak (Leak 1978) 1978) usually usually maintain maintain a a

patches patches and and then then thinned thinned to to reduce reduce competition competition from from well well toler to to excess ­ ively ively well well drained drained a nd nd would would be be considered considered

species species suc h h as as aspen aspen have have to to be be regenerated regenerated in in groups groups other other species species or or by by the the end end of of the the pole pole stage . . Sites Sites that that are are

crown - thinned thinned if if mast mast i s s the the objective . . Oaks Oaks a nd nd intol ern ern erant erant hardwood hardwood sites sites where where they they die die from from competition competition w ith ith

se l ect iv e ly ly thinned thinned for for growth growth and and s urviv a l ; ; or or for for 4 0 0 to to 5 0 0 feet. feet. Aspens Aspens are are short- liv ed ed on on the the best best north ­

even-aged even-aged stands. stands. Desirable Desirable subdom in ant ant trees trees can can be be pro lifi c c within within 20 20 feet feet of of the the stem stem but but which which may may extend extend out out

variety variety of of sizes sizes on on an an acre acre i s s in creased creased in in comparison comparison to to the the main main stem stem st im u l ates ates root root sucker in g g which which is is most most

size size c l ass ass is is l ess ess than than in in even-aged even-aged stands stands though though the the suckering suckering which which is is suppressed suppressed by by the the main main stem. stem. Cutting Cutting

acre, acre, and and the the number number of of dead dead and and and and cu ll ll trees trees in in one one stands stands deter ior ate ate rapidly. rapidly. Aspen Aspen often often regenerates regenerates by by root root

Uneven -aged -aged stands stands conta in in a a variety variety of of size size classes classes on on 1 1 Aspen Aspen stems stems l eft eft in in otherwise otherwise c l earcut earcut northern northern hardwood hardwood

18 18

of of usefulness usefulness Maximum Maximum area. area. that that for for rotations rotations subsequent subsequent

two two or or one one for for harvest harvest final final to to ect ect j sub be be not not would would sions sions

­ inclu small small Such Such . . ength l rotation rotation the the mes mes i 3 t 3 to to 2 2 for for uncut uncut

n n i rema to to harvest harvest final final of of acres acres 15 15 to to 10 10 per per e) e) z si in in acre acre

1/3 1/3 to to 4 4 / (1 (1 inclusion inclusion ble ble za recogni a a designate designate could could gies gies

­ strate < < management management even-age even-age years), years), 60 60 ( ( Short-rotation Short-rotation

development. development. and and growth growth stand stand

to to cost cost no no at at sites sites foraging foraging as as n n i rema management management visual visual

or or safety safety for for cut cut not not are are that that stems stems Dead Dead sites. sites. g g in forag

and and es es i cavit perpetuate perpetuate to to standards standards ty ty i dens and and quality quality

. . branching encourage encourage to to off off n n i mainta and and recognize recognize to to need need managers managers operations, operations,

cut cut be be may may branches branches side side few few with with saplings saplings young young of of top top improvement improvement stand stand mber mber i t and and subsequent thinnings thinnings subsequent For For

The The fruit. fruit. g g in bear are are these these because because branches branches arger arger l the the

of of sides sides the the on on grow grow that that branches branches spur spur short short the the remove remove · · . . units te te i s il il so many many

not not Do Do suckers. suckers. vertical vertical or or branches branches de de i s the the of of each each on on trees trees fe fe li d il w large large of of level level recommended recommended e e h t provide provide

from from feet feet 2 2 or or 1 1 Prune Prune branches. branches. of of sters sters lu c thick thick up up open open could could acres acres 15 15 to to 10 10 per per acre acre an an of of 1/3 1/3 to to 1/4 1/4 of of area area uncut uncut

to to attempting attempting growth, growth, live live the the of of third third - one about about Remove Remove an an hardwoods, hardwoods, northern northern ngland ngland E New New In In . . distribution and and

component component habitat habitat of of type type this this provide provide to to ways ways n n i managed managed

opening. opening. an an of of edge edge the the on on or or open open the the in in s s i it it if if bluebirds bluebirds and and identified identified easily easily be be and and intervals intervals ar ar l regu at at treatment treatment

or or woods, woods, the the in in s s i tree tree the the if if flycatchers flycatchers crested crested great great for for thout thout i w eft eft l be be d d l cou areas areas trees, trees, arge arge l e e l sing g g in eav l to to

es es it s est est n are are s s tub s These These s. s. ub st branch branch main main horizontal horizontal e e iv alternat an an As As ed. ed. llow a be be ld ld cou acres acres 10 10 per per stems stems tive tive

fairly fairly hollow, hollow, e, e, larg except except branches branches dead dead ll ll a Remove Remove ­ defec d.b.h.) d.b.h.) ches ches in (>24 (>24 large large l l era v se but but es, es, it s good good on on

ze ze i s tree tree mum mum i x ma for for d.b.h. d.b.h. inches inches 24 24 to to 20 20 suggest suggest mally mally

ovement. ovement. impr for for stem stem vigorous vigorous most most argest, argest, l ­ nor hardwoods hardwoods northern northern aged aged - uneven in in es es id gu Marking Marking

next next the the ect ect l se broken, broken, or or weak weak is is stem stem argest argest l the the If If e. e. l b

­ possi as as ground ground the the to to se se lo c as as off off them them cutting cutting by by others others area. area. l l basa

the the emove emove r and and vigorous vigorous most most and and argest argest l the the ect ect l se stem, stem, stand stand to to area area basal basal tree tree of of io io rat the the culating culating l ca by by ated ated im est

one one than than more more s s i there there If If stem. stem. one one than than more more of of presence presence be be can can effect effect l l theoretica The The yield. yield. and and growth growth volume volume

the the and and branches branches dead dead noting noting tree, tree, the the e e in exam lly lly Carefu on on effect effect measurable measurable no no have have will will hardwoods hardwoods northern northern

of of stocking stocking the the to to additions additions small small Such Such 2). 2). (Table (Table acre acre

trees. trees. e e l app improve improve per per feet feet square square 2.43 2.43 to to 34 34 . 0 from from > > range range d.b.h. d.b.h. es es h c in 18 18

ing ing z rtili e f and and liming, liming, uning, uning, Pr tree. tree. the the of of e e id s uth uth so the the trees trees den den and and vity vity ca of of area area l l basa of of estimates estimates Minimum Minimum

toward toward lly lly a i espec es, es, id s three three east east l at at on on trees trees overtopping overtopping

arge arge l of of removal removal the the and and tree, tree, e e i <.•p the the of of e e lin drip drip stands. stands. managed managed

the the to to back back s s ub shr and and trees trees ll ll a utting utting c equires equires r ease ease l Re in in damaged damaged were were . . d.b.h es es h c in 12 12 than than greater greater stems stems

l l dua i res the the of of percent percent 12 12 that that reported reported (1971) (1971) l l Gabrie and and

ty. ty. i ngev lo and and Nyland Nyland trees. trees. cavity cavity ameter ameter i large-d l l a i potent of of source source ous ous

ty, ty, vi producti vigor, vigor, crease crease in to to eased eased l re be be can can They They trees. trees. ­ continu a a creates creates this this , , however stands; stands; managed managed n n i e e l ab

overtopping overtopping of of shade shade the the in in vigor vigor in in decline decline openings openings or or unavoid­ is is jury jury in Logging Logging 1978). 1978). Filip Filip , , 1964 (Cooley (Cooley time time

fields fields old old of of edges edges invading invading Those Those trees. trees. overtopping overtopping or or ing ing over over present present decay decay butt-log butt-log arge-diameter arge-diameter l the the of of h h muc

crowd­ of of because because vigor vigor ack ack l wild wild growing growing trees trees e e l app Most Most remove remove can can cutting cutting e e iv select se se u beca management management l l tiona

­ inten involve involve must must trees trees dlife dlife il w ameter ameter i -d large g g in Provid

. . sapsuckers bellied bellied

­ llow e y wintering wintering for for food food and and flycatchers, flycatchers, ested ested r c great great birds. birds. er er ll sma

and and es, es, iol or northern northern , , s robin bluebirds, bluebirds, eastern eastern for for es es it s for for trees trees ameter ameter i -d ll sma with with es es it s foraging foraging / g llin -dwe ity cav

nest nest provide provide so so l a trees trees e e l app d d Wil twigs. twigs. the the on on browse browse g g in creat ps, ps, lo deve rot rot and and broken broken routinely routinely are are s s n crow

s s il cottonta and and are are h snowshore snowshore es; es; l app on on feed feed readily readily tree tree dual dual i res in in branches branches Large Large . . mber i sawt diameter diameter - large

grouse­ ruffed ruffed and and deer deer tailed tailed - e it s-wh l a im an Game Game of of production production the the to to devoted devoted < < ( ( stands stands in in .) .) h . b . d ches ches in 18 18

and. and. l Eng New New in in wildlife wildlife for for nest-sites nest-sites and and plants plants food food tant tant trees trees diameter diameter - ll sma of of supply supply steady steady a a de de i prov to to continue continue

mpor­ i are are orchards orchards abandoned abandoned or or trees trees e e l app Wild Wild e. e. l App will will damage damage logging logging and and , , ld sunsca ice, ice, wind, wind, on, on, i petit

com­ tree tree as as such such factors factors ronmental ronmental i Env . . managers cerns cerns

1969). 1969). Scholz Scholz and and (Arend (Arend ow ow l s is is oak oak ed ed r planted planted of of growth growth con­ greatly greatly stands stands hardwood hardwood northern northern managed managed in in tes tes i s

height height ly ly ear the the because because necessary necessary be be will will weeding weeding and and foraging foraging and and cavities cavities for for trees trees ameter ameter i arge-d l g g in Provid

g g in ean l c but but l, l, ccessfu u s be be so so l a can can es es it s good good to to medium medium

Implications Implications Management Management

on on areas areas cut-over cut-over on on stock stock oak oak red red /0 /0 2 or or /0 /0 1 g g in Plant

19 19

ne eded eded but but m ay ay reduce reduce or or eliminate eliminate some some tr ee ee spec i es . .

tre e e size size objectives objectives produce produce many many of of the the wildlife wildlife trees trees

Long Long rotations , , l ong ong cutting cutting cyc l es, es, and and l a rge rge ma x imum imum

(hardwoods (hardwoods or or conifers), conifers), or or in in some some i nstances , , one one species. species.

Intensive Intensive t i mber mber management management may may develop develop one one tree tree typ e e

possib ili ty ty of of large large trees trees and/or and/or destroying destroying tolerant tolerant it. it. long - li ved ved trees . .

mum mum tree tree d i ameter ameter objectives objectives tions tions where where on on it it larger larger is is desirable, desirable, areas areas reduce reduce th e e recommendation recommendation th e e i s s to to avo i d d

of of wi l dlife dlife trees. trees. For For example, example, vegetation vegetation short short so so when when rotation rotation herbaceous herbaceous or or sma l l l ma material material x i ­ occurs occurs in in situa­

not not genera ll y y produce produce is is the the very very desired desired li tt l e e informat numbers numbers i on on and and for for use use conditions conditions i n n contro ll ing ing th i s s type type of of

them them on on sites sites where where Ground Ground " norma l l cover cover timber timber objectives objectives management" management" include include wou herbaceous herbaceous l d d plants . . There There

wishes wishes to to provide provide trees trees for for w i ldlife ldlife wou l d d focus focus on on growing growing

forest forest type -s i te te forag i nteract i ng, ng, i roost ons . . i Consequently, Consequently, ng, ng, or or perching perching a a sites sites manager manager for for a a who who var i ety ety of of w i ld li fe. fe.

hab i tat tat users users because because in in time of of . . management management If If not not excavated, excavated, procedures procedures they they will will or or at at s i least least te te and and provide provide

mon mon forest forest management management by by woodpeckers woodpeckers prov i des des and and incomplete incomplete then then prov i de de wild hab l ife ife i tat tat tree tree for for secondary secondary

The The genera externa l l princ l l i ndicators ndicators i ple ple that that of of under i nterna li es es l l rot rot th i s s are are key key likely likely is is that that to to com­ be be excavated excavated

trees trees in in time . . Smal l l and and medium medium sawlog-sized sawlog-sized

trees trees w i th th

and and

Management Recommendations Recommendations Management

w i th th sma ll ll ho l es es are are quite quite li ke l y y to to develop develop into into

large large hol l ow ow

Key Key

to to

Common Common

Stand Stand

Conditions Conditions

hab i tat tat over over l ong ong per i ods ods of of time. time. Eight-inch Eight-inch d.b.h. d.b.h. trees trees

have have been been chosen chosen to to help help ensure ensure the the presence presence of of su i table table

must must

be be

considered considered

when when

providing providing

w il dlife dlife trees. trees. The The characteristics characteristics of of l iving iving trees trees left left for for w il d li fe fe habitat habitat

techn i ques, ques, and and var i ous ous vegetative vegetative management management practices practices

site site

relationships, relationships,

tree tree

species species

characterist

i cs, cs, silvicultura l l are are the the most most w i de l y y used used indiv i dual dual tree tree habitat habitat component. component.

mast mast

for for

many many

others. others.

Wi l dlife dlife

hab

i tat tat

requ i rements, rements, soi l ­ ment ment act i v i t i es es are are restr i cted cted to to l arge arge defect i ve ve trees, trees, which which

such such

habitat habitat

i n n New New

England, England,

and and

to to produce produce fru i t t and and very very desirable desirable for for timber timber products, products, and and wildl i fe fe ­ manage

foraging foraging

habitat habitat

for for

the the 41 41 wi l

d l ife ife

species species

dependent dependent on on or or w il d li fe . . For For example, example, the the wh i te te ash-sugar ash-sugar map l e e type type is is

produce produce

a a

suff

i c i ent ent

and and cont

i nuous nuous

supp

l y y of of

cav i t i es es and and of of the the type type and and ref l ect ect the the desirab il ity ity of of the the type type for for timber timber

opportunities opportunities

to to manipulate manipulate

managed managed

stands stands

and and areas areas to to types types also also take take into into account account the the wildlife wildlife hab i tat tat lim i tat i ons ons

Northern Northern

hardwood hardwood

forest

s s offer offer

resource resource

managers managers many many ondary ondary but but necessary necessary objective . . The The objectives objectives within within cover cover

other other emphasizes emphasizes wildlife wildlife with with timber timber products products as as a a sec­

on on sma

ll ll

wood

l ots. ots.

products products with with wildlife wildlife as as a a secondary secondary objective objective and and the the

owners owners

may may

find find

such such

techniques techniques

effective effective

and and appl i cab l e e i ntens i t i es es are are i nc l uded , , one one wh i ch ch emphasizes emphasizes timber timber

of of

pub

li c c

and and pr

i vate vate l ands ands

at at

the the present present time, time, but but l and­ treatments treatments in in po l e e and and sawlog sawlog stands. stands. Two Two management management

cav i ty ty ho

l es es

in in li ve ve

stems stems

have have

lim

i ted ted use use on on large large tracts tracts Table Table 5 5 provides provides the the same same ob j ectives ectives for for intermediate intermediate

mum. mum. Cultura l l treatments treatments such such as as girdling girdling and and bor i ng ng

treatments treatments

to to remove remove stand stand mortal i ty ty are are kept kept to to a a m i ni­ of of those those species . .

areas-are areas-are

poss

i ble ble in in

a ll ll management management

strategies strategies if if cu l tural tural beech beech and and red red maple maple cannot cannot produce produce large large diameter diameter trees trees

ble ble to to

equ

i pment, pment,

and and

min

i mum mum

vegetat

i

on on management management s i tes tes that that are are present l y y populated populated with with h i gh gh proport i ons ons of of

or or

l andscapes, andscapes,

survey survey

and and

boundary boundary

trees, trees, areas areas

inaccessi­ wh i te te ash ash and and sugar sugar map l e e usual l y y have have few few conifers, conifers, but but

S i te-specific te-specific

opportun

i ties-such ties-such

as as water water

i nfluence nfluence zones zones for for example, example, northern northern hardwoods hardwoods with with high high percentages percentages of of

t i es es of of the the cover cover types types to to provide provide certain certain k i nds nds of of habitat; habitat;

cycles, cycles,

regard l ess ess

of of rotation rotation

l ength. ength. able able habitat habitat for for wildlife. wildlife. The The objectives objectives reflect reflect the the capabili­

t i me, me,

and and

in in intensively intensively

managed managed

areas areas

on on short short cutt i ng ng d i stribut i on on of of both both dead dead and and live live tree tree boles boles that that are are desir­

l arge arge

cont i guous guous

areas areas

(

>5 0 0

acres) acres)

are are

treated treated

at at the the same same methods, methods, the the ground ground vegetat i on on that that is is desirab l e, e, and and the the

area area contro

l l

and and

distribution distribution

is is

useful useful to to consider consider where where typical typical canopy canopy closures closures for for the the three three general general regeneration regeneration

the the

loss loss of of net net

vo l ume ume

under under

most most

conditions. conditions. This This type type of of for for three three northern northern hardwood hardwood cover cover types. types. Table Table 4 4 shows shows

h i

gh gh grades grades

of of sound sound

trees trees

i

n n th ese ese inc l usions usions

wil l l ba l ance ance objectives objectives for for broad broad stand stand s i zes zes and and regeneration regeneration activity activity

ence ence

ind

i cates cates that that

increased increased va

l ue ue of of

large-d

i ameter ameter and and Tab l es es 4 4 and and 5 5 present, present, in in condensed condensed form, form, vegetat i on on

rot rot found found i n n northern northern hardwoods hardwoods in in New New Hampsh i re . . Exper i ­

(Leak (Leak et et al. al. 1969) 1969) and and assum i ng ng the the current current proport i ons ons of of more more s l owly. owly.

of of

the the

surrounding surrounding

stand, stand,

using using

stocking-leve

l l estimates estimates capab l e e of of growing growing to to large large sizes, sizes, but but defect defect develops develops

10 10

acres acres

i

f f

l eft eft

u ntreated ntreated

for for

severa

l l

subsequent subsequent

rotations rotations

On On these these s i tes, tes, con i fers fers may may be be re l at i ve l y y abundant abundant and and

have have 6 6 to to

10 10 l arge

- diameter diameter

defect

i ve ve

hardwood hardwood

stems stems per per hardwood hardwood stems stems grow grow l arger arger than than 24 24 inches inches in in diameter. diameter.

acres acres

of of f i

nal nal harvest harvest

on on

short short rotation rotation

cou

l d d be be

expected expected to to abundant abundant con i fers fers and and defective defective hardwood hardwood stems, stems, yet yet few few

1 1 / 3-acre 3-acre

i nclus

i on on

of of

to

l erant erant l ong-

li ved ved

spec

i es es per per 10 10 M i xedwood xedwood and and poorer poorer qua l ity ity hardwood hardwood sites sites may may have have

for for spec

i es es longevity longevity

and and

site site suitab

ili ty . . For For

examp

l e, e, a a lower lower probability probability of of either either conifer conifer or or mast mast tree tree occurrence. occurrence.

these these

small small

inc

l

us

i ons ons could could

be be gained gained

by by careful careful

se

l ection ection The The higher higher qual i ty ty northern northern hardwood hardwood s i tes tes tend tend to to have have a a

0 0 2

for for ducks ducks wood wood by by used used subsequently subsequently be be may may courses courses

water water along along trees trees such such limbs); limbs); or or tops tops . . (broken (broken production rot rot seed seed internal internal shrub shrub or or tree tree

of of ators ators in in indic l l creases creases in externa by by ibit ibit exh affected affected that that es es i spec d.b.h. d.b.h. of of 18 18 ches ches in number number the the than than ating ating im est

arger arger l trees trees in in of of s s assist assist vator ld ld exca shou st st li primary primary The The 3. 3. be be will will Table Table in in sted sted li e e r woodpeckers woodpeckers a ple, ple, source source food food

­ exam For For . . a a as as used seed seed and and and and ers ers developed developed low f be be utilize utilize will will it it that that how how and and mammals mammals and and provided provided birds birds The The

habitat habitat the the use use will will that that i es es spec of of number number the the estimate estimate to to

possible possible is is it it information, information, periods. periods. this this time time With With long long over over represent. represent. habitat habitat trees trees of of of of kind kind types types this this maintain maintain

l l severa to to that that habitat habitat courses courses of of water water type type the the long long a kept kept indicates indicates be be to to and and trees trees trees trees of of wildlife wildlife number number the the e e lat

of of kinds kinds calcu­ various various to to with with how how 25 25 show show 24 24 associated associated and and wildlife wildlife pages pages the the on on shows shows 1 1 tables tables e e l The The Tab nesting. nesting.

. . 2-3 2-3 years for for cover cover herb herb Temporary Temporary • •

X X X X X X X X fruit fruit and and Mast Mast

lection lection

se· se· group group X X if if only only X X X X X X X X X X pile pile lash lash S

X X X X X X X X X X X X inclusion inclusion Softwood Softwood

X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X material material Down Down

X X X X X X X X X X X X >24" >24" (hollow) (hollow)

X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X limb) limb) 18" 18" > > (broken (broken

X X X X X X X X X X X X X X limb) limb) 12-18" 12-18" (broken (broken

X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 8-12" 8-12" (hole) (hole)

Live Live

X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X -18" -18" 12

X X X X X X X X X X 12" 12" - 6

X X X X X X <6" <6"

Dead Dead

boles: boles: Tree Tree

X X X X X X >30 >30

X X X X X X X X X X X X <30 <30

Cover(%) Cover(%)

X X X X X X X X X X X X woody woody

X X X X X X X X X X X X herb* herb*

Composition Composition

: : vegetation round round G

X X X X X X ~70 ~70

X X X X X X 31-70 31-70

X X 16-30 16-30

X X X X ~15 ~15

(%) (%) closure closure Canopy Canopy

NH NH BR BR BR BR BR BR NH NH NH NH SA SA SA SA SA SA Component Component

lection lection erwood erwood lt Se She earcutting earcutting l C

(BR) (BR) maple maple beech-red beech-red and and (NH), (NH), beech-birch-maple beech-birch-maple (SA), (SA), maple-ash maple-ash sugar sugar hardwoods: hardwoods:

northern northern in in conditions conditions related related and and trees trees wildlife wildlife retain retain to to alternatives alternatives regeneration regeneration 4.- Three Three Table Table

2 1 1

t i ons ons are are i n n terms terms of of canopy canopy c l osure . .

c l earcuts earcuts and and shelterwoods shelterwoods especia ll y y where where recommenda ­

t i oning oning the the number number of of trees trees among among s i ze ze classes classes to to l eave eave in in before before prescriptions prescriptions are are made . .

tions. tions. Crown Crown cover cover tab l es es (Appendix (Appendix II ) ) are are usefu l l i n n appor­ the the Appendix Appendix tab l es es and and text text a l so so shou l d d be be consu l ted ted

to to provide provide adequate adequate habitat habitat under under a a variety variety of of forest forest condi­ a l ternat i ves, ves, the the suggestions suggestions are are generally generally illustrative, illustrative, and and

preceding preceding

text text suggest suggest the the numbers numbers of of such such trees trees to to lea v e e mendations mendations (see (see page page 23) . . Because Because of of the the l arge arge number number of of

18 18 inches inches d.b.h . . with with interna l l rot, rot, and and Tab l e e 2 2 and and the the hardwood hardwood stand stand conditions conditions and and li sts sts wi l d l ife ife tree tree recom ­

A A l arge arge number number of of wildl i fe fe species species is is associated associated w i th th trees trees The The fo ll owing owing key key characterizes characterizes the the most most common common northern northern

Mast Mast and and fruit fruit X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

S l ash ash p il e e

Softwood Softwood inc l usion usion X X X X X X X X

Down Down material material X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

< < 24" 24" (ho ll ow) ow) X X X X X X

> > 18" 18" (broken (broken top) top) X X X X X X X X

12 - 18" 18" (broken (broken limb) limb) X X X X X X X X

8 - 12" 12" (hole) (hole) X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Live Live

12 - 18" 18" X X X X X X

6 - 12" 12" X X X X X X X X X X

<6" <6"

X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Dead Dead

Tree Tree bo l es: es:

>30 >30

X X X X X X X X X X X X

<30 <30 X X X X X X X X X X X X

Cover(%) Cover(%)

woody woody X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

herb herb X X X X X X X X X X X X

Compos i tion tion

Ground Ground cover: cover:

~70 ~70 X X X X X X X X X X X X

31-70 31-70 X X X X X X X X X X X X

16-30 16-30

~15 ~15

Canopy Canopy closure closure (%) (%)

Component Component

NH NH SA SA NH NH BR BR SA SA NH NH BR BR NH NH SA SA SA SA BR BR BR BR

T-W T-W W-T W-T T-W T-W W-T W-T

Po l etimber etimber Sawtimber Sawtimber

maple-white maple-white ash ash (SA), (SA), beech-birch-maple beech-birch-maple (NH), (NH), and and beech-red beech-red maple maple (BR) (BR)

(T (T - W) W) and and under under management management to to favor favor wildlife wildlife (W- T) T) in in northern northern hardwood hardwood types: - sugar sugar

Table Table 5.-Wildlife 5.-Wildlife trees trees and and related related conditions conditions under under management management for for timber timber products products and and wildlif e e

22 22

10 10 8, 8, 6, 6, ...... diameter diameter stand stand

erage erage v a and and species species on on depending depending

16 16 ...... stand stand the the regenerates regenerates tion tion + + acre acre / 70 70 ft to to 50 50 from from vary vary ions ions t

2

- recommenda timber timber Common Common enda­ recomm stand stand Residual Residual . . harvests

size. size. economic economic provide provide to to stocked stocked enough enough

harvest harvest equals equals diameter diameter Stand Stand 2) 2) well well are are nds nds sta until until s s wait i on on mendat

17 17 ...... tices tices recom­ production production mber mber i t common common The The

- prac Improvement Improvement Stand Stand ber ber objective). objective). (all-age (all-age

­ im T and and g g in thinn include include tions tions acre acre / 100 100 ft than than less less or or objective) objective)

2

­ recommenda timber timber Common Common age age - (even line line - B than than less less Stocking Stocking 1. 1.

ze. ze. i s harvest harvest cesses). cesses).

than than s s les is is diameter diameter Stand Stand 1) 1) ­ pro utilization utilization average average the the with with lumber lumber

years). years). to to convert convert not not will will that that stem stem hardwood hardwood

120 120 > > ( ( objective objective sawlog sawlog Even-age Even-age . . b size size largest largest the the is is . . .b.h d ches ches in .5 .5 (9

17 17 16, 16, clearcut. clearcut. or or cut cut shelterwood shelterwood a a with with 8 8 ...... H.) . B . D

years years 00 00 1 1 at at stand stand the the regenerates regenerates INCHES INCHES 5 5 . 9 to to (4.5 (4.5 STANDS STANDS POLE POLE

recommendation recommendation timber timber Common Common

. . years) 6 6 5, 5, 4, 4, ...... overstory. overstory. the the removes removes mendation mendation

< < 120 120 ( ( objective objective sawlog sawlog Even-age Even-age . . a - recom production production timber timber common common The The

texture). texture). finer finer or or am am lo sandy sandy BA BA acre acre / ft

2

a a of of s s l soi < < well-drained well-drained to to drained drained - well 30 30 of of overstories overstories scattered scattered With With 2. 2.

moderately moderately present; present; ash ash white white and and

maple maple (sugar (sugar es es it s hardwood hardwood Better Better 1. 1. 8 8 ...... pine. pine. white white scattered scattered With With b. b.

H.) H.) . . B D. D. 8 8 ...... pine white white abundant abundant With With . . a

INCHES INCHES 9.5 9.5 > ( STANDS STANDS SAWLOG SAWLOG 7 7 ...... stands). stands). ling ling sap erant erant l to

(especially (especially ze ze i s pole pole are are stands stands when when

15 15 , , 14 h...... h...... d.b inches inches 10 10 than than less less ters ters review review and and nothing nothing do do or or maple) maple) red red

- diame stand stand average average with with ervals ervals int and and oak, oak, (basswood, (basswood, stumps stumps sprouting sprouting

60-year 60-year to to 40- at at occurs occurs clearcutting clearcutting and and series series birch birch thinning thinning by by tion tion

ean ean l C . . production fiber fiber zes zes i emphas ­ composi species species maintains maintains mendation mendation

objective objective management management timber timber ­ recom production production timber timber common common The The

usual usual The The types). types). forest forest birch birch and and overstories overstories Without Without . . 1 1

hardwoods, hardwoods, tolerant tolerant birch, birch, - aspen 9 9 ...... ) . H . D.B

hardwoods, hardwoods, aspen-northern aspen-northern . . (i.e INCHES INCHES 4.5 4.5 to to (1.5 (1.5 STANDS STANDS SAPLING SAPLING

rotation rotation hort hort s under under stands stands e e l Po . . b

6 6 5, 5, 4, 4, ...... 1977) Tubbs Tubbs 13 13 , , 12 . . stand. stand. pole pole the the thins thins ectively ectively l se

and and 1969 1969 al. al. et et Leak Leak (see (see e e l suitab and and material material sawlog sawlog chantable chantable

are are conditions conditions reproduction reproduction the the when when ­ mer retains retains recommendation recommendation

overstory overstory the the removes removes mendation mendation production production timber timber usual usual The The

­ recom production production timber timber common common The The objective objective age age - All 2) 2)

BA BA acre acre /

ft

6 6 5, 5, 4, 4, ...... stand. stand. pole pole 2

< < 40 40 of of overstories overstories with with Stands Stands 2. 2. the the thins thins and and overstory overstory the the kills kills

nd/or nd/or a removes removes recommendation recommendation

production production timber timber usual usual The The

3 3 2, 2, 1, 1, ...... years. years. objective objective Even-age Even-age 1) 1)

10 10 in in review review to to is is production production timber timber 13 13 11, 11, ...... overstories overstories log log saw

for for

recommendation recommendation common common The The < < /acre) /acre) 25 25 ( ( ft scattered scattered with with Stands Stands . . a

2

overstories overstories without without Stands Stands 1. 1. . . objective g g lo saw (all-age) (all-age)

< < H. H. . . B . . D INCH INCH 1 1

more more or or /acre /acre ft 100 100 or or objective) objective)

2

STOCKED STOCKED WELL WELL STANDS, STANDS, SEEDLING SEEDLING age age - (even e e lin B- than than more more ing ing Stock . . 2

s s ion dat Conditions Conditions Stand Stand dations dations s s ition Cond Stand Stand

Recommen- Recommen-

Tree Tree Wildlife Wildlife Tree Tree Wildlife Wildlife

23 23

should should have have defects defects such such as as broken broken tops tops and and limb s; s;

suitable suitable if if they they have have minor minor defects defects species species and and the the in in l arger arger thinning thinning trees trees activities. activities.

+ + 24 24 inches inches d . . b . . h . . The The smaller smaller trees trees are are especially especially trees trees 24 24 inches inches d.b.h . . Favor Favor conifers conifers and and mast - bearing bearing

(one (one per per 6 - in ch ch d.b . h. h. class) class) from from 6 6 inches inches d.b . h . . to to per per acre, acre, favoring favoring species species and and size size that that will will produce produce

tree tree habitat , , leave leave live live trees trees of of a a 11 variety variety . . Retain Retain of of s live live i ze ze sawlog sawlog classes classes trees trees not not to to exceed exceed 10 10 square square feet feet

Leave Leave any any standing standing

dead dead

trees. trees.

To To

maximi ze ze individual individual

10 . . Do Do nothing nothing now-review now-review in in 10 10 years. years.

for for 40 40 years. years.

ear li er er seed seed production. production.

tree tree per per acre. acre. The The tree tree shou ld ld be be capable capable of of surv ivin

g g

thinnings thinnings would would result result in in fuller fuller crown crown development development and and

live live defective defective tree tree per per 10 10

acres acres

or or a a maximum maximum

of of one one

area area (streamsides, (streamsides, l ake ake edges, edges, saddles, saddles, etc.); etc.); heavier heavier

4. 4. Leave Leave a a minimum minimum of of one one large large (18 (18 to to 24 24 inch es es d.b.h

. ) )

bearing bearing and and conifer conifer species species on on each each lin e e or or spec ifi ed ed

3. 3. Do Do nothing, nothing, review review when when stands stands are are conifers conifers sap ling ling at at s i ze the the . . same same int erva l s; s; or or to to includ e e all all mast ­

might might be be modified modified to to include include mast-bearing mast-bearing spec ie s s and and

bearing bearing

species species (oaks, (oaks, beech) beech) and and conifers. conifers.

the the

most most desirable desirable species species at at regular regular spac ing ing which which

2 . . Consider Consider

cleaning cleaning

and and weeding weeding of of seed lin g g mast ­

species species treated; treated; current current precommercial precommercial practices practices treat treat

to to add add to to the the total total area area treated treated or or add add to to the the number number of of areas areas to to prolong prolong the the existence existence of of the the patches . .

ab l e e species species composition. composition. Wildlife Wildlife objectives objectives might might be be raspberries raspberries and and sim il ar ar fruit - bearing bearing shrubs shrubs or or grassy grassy

production production i s s usually usually done done on on the the best best sites sites with with desir­ 1 . . Consider Consider c l ear in g g scattered scattered trees trees in in patches patches of of

timber timber production. production. Precommercial Precommercial thinning thinning for for timber timber

Wildlife Wildlife

Tree Tree Recommendations Recommendations

wildlife wildlife practices practices are are simi l ar ar to to those those commonly commonly used used in in

tices tices in in these these stands stands are are out - of-pocket of-pocket costs, costs, and and many many

22 22 roadside roadside sta nd s, s, and and so so on on ...... 9 . . Decisionmaking Decisionmaking in in seed ling ling and and sapling sapling stands . . Prac­

3. 3. Streamside, Streamside, water water influence influence zones, zones,

Release Release other other conifers conifers heavily. heavily.

21 21 objectives objectives ......

pine pine i s s scattered scattered and /or /or weeviling weeviling is is not not common . .

ing; ing; and and small small maximum maximum tree tree d.b.h. d.b.h.

lent lent and and where where pine pine is is common; common; release release heavily heavily where where

cycles; cycles; low low residual residual basal basal area area stock ­

8 . . Partially Partially release release white white pine pine where where weeviling weeviling is is preva ­

include include short short rotations rotations or or lon g g cutting cutting

Common Common timber timber recommendations recommendations con ife rs. rs.

2. 2. Mixedwood Mixedwood stands stands Favor Favor catkin-bearing catkin-bearing hardwoods hardwoods (birch (birch family) family) and and

20 20 b. b. Medium Medium and and poor poor sites sites ...... sprouts sprouts per per stump stump and and thin thin individu al al sap ling s s heavily. heavily.

a. a. 19 19 Good Good sites sites ...... flowering flowering and and fruiting, fruiting, thin thin sprouting sprouting stumps stumps to to 1 1 or or 2 2

s it es. es. 7. 7. To To promote promote plant plant species species diversity diversity and and stimulate stimulate early early

s it es es than than on on the the better better hardwood hardwood

add itional itional habitat habitat

for for the the

lon

gest gest

period period

of of

time. time.

Cutting Cutting cyc l es es are are longer longer on on these these

spec i es es habitat; habitat; the the

more more open open overstories overstories

will will

provide provide recommendations recommendations on on other other sites. sites.

understory understory

development development

will will promote promote addit ional ional wildlife wildlife < < tree tree d . b . h. h. ( ( 18 18 inches) inches) are are common common

harvest harvest

i s s possible

. . The The open open overstory overstory and and resultant resultant sawlog sawlog stocking stocking and and smaller smaller maximum maximum

objective, objective,

thin thin

to to

recommended recommended

levels levels if if economic economic sugar sugar maple/white maple/white ash ash stock in g. g. Lower Lower

mast mast

trees trees

and and

conifers

. . When When wildlife wildlife is is a a secondary secondary class class stocking stocking on on sites sites with with substantial substantial

than than

50 50 + +

square square

feet feet per per acre acre 5 5 inche s s d.b . h favor favor . ; ; 24 24 inches) inches) and and high high residual residual sawlog sawlog

6. 6. Where Where wildlife wildlife i s s the the

primary primary

objective, objective,

thin thin

to to

not not

l ess ess

develop develop stands stands with with large large d . b . h . . (up (up to to

1 . .

Common Common

timber timber

recommendations recommendations

< < cutting cutting cycles cycles ( ( 15 15 years) years) are are short. short.

SELECTION SELECTION STANDS STANDS

15 15 acres, acres, espec ially ially < < where where rotations rotations ( ( 100 100 years) years) or or

in in

groups groups

up up

to to

one

- third third of of an an acre acre

in in area area per per 10 10 to to

< <

100 100 years...... 18 18

5 . . Where Where

the the overstory overstory

i s s patchy, patchy, consider consider leaving leaving trees trees

sawlog sawlog rotation rotation objective objective is is

left. left. a a coarse coarse texture) . . Even-age Even-age

poorly poorly to to poorly poorly drained drained soils soils of of Appendix Appendix II II can can be be used used to to estimate estimate crown crown cover cover to to be be

shallow shallow soils soils depth; depth; somewhat somewhat provide provide adequate adequate wildlife wildlife tree tree habitat habitat requirements. requirements.

maple/white maple/white ash ash absent absent or or rare; rare; the the area area to to minimize minimize impacts impacts on on the the reproduction reproduction but but

3) 3) Med ium ium and and poor poor sites sites (sugar (sugar goal. goal. Canopy Canopy c lo sure sure should should be be 15 15 percent percent or or l ess ess of of

(beech (beech and and oak) oak) and and conifers conifers when when wildlife wildlife is is a a primary primary

Stand Stand Conditions Conditions dations dations wildlife wildlife spec ies ies (Table (Table 1). 1). Favor Favor hard-mast hard-mast producers producers

Recommen- trees trees will will provide provide habitat habitat for for the the greatest greatest number number of of

Wildlife Wildlife Tree Tree and and when when larg e e hollow hollow trees trees are are present, present, these these larger larger 12. Leave live, sawlog-size defective trees in amounts up 20. Favor long-lived tolerant conifers and hardwoods of to 10 square feet per acre and increase residual stock­ larger sizes other than beech which deteriorates rap­ ing by 10 square feet per acre. (Any number of dead idly. Conifers may attain the largest sizes on these trees can be left). Favor tolerant conifers and mast­ sites. bearing species in thinning activities. 21. Hardwoods are often defective; focus shou ld be on 13. Scattered aspen may be cut to provide patches of conifers for large-size wildlife trees. Windthrow is often reproduction. a problem in such stands and more attention to that 14. At harvest, leave the most tolerant and/or long-l ived factor is required. Other factors affect wildlife-tree species in numbers specifi ed in recommendations 4, 5 selection the same as in hardwood stands. and 6; or leave patches of 1/4 to 1/3 of an acre per 10 22. Perpetuation of higher densities of large-diameter to 15 acres. Aspen, aspen-birch, and birch mixtures cavity and den trees in water influence may be partially cut to encourage tolerant species in landscapes/riparian zones requires periodic treatment. these patches and the overstory left to deteriorate Where sufficient water influence landscape/riparian naturally. zone widths exist, all-age selection systems using low 15. Unlopped slash and cull logs can be left when they do q-values cou ld ensure a continual supply of large­ not constitute a hazard or encumbrance to logg ing or diameter trees with cavity/den tree habitat potential. site preparation. Piled or windrowed slash is also The following table (from Sm ith and Lamson 1982) acceptable. Combin at ions of piled and scattered slash provides a comparison of density estim ates of trees 18 lead to the most varied habitat. Burning slash is least to 30 inches d.b.h. per acre based on q-values in desirable. When cu ll sawlogs are to be converted to riparian corridors larger than 200 feet (1 /2 width): fiber products, consider leaving those logs which are at the break-even value on the ground. Residual basal area (ft2/ac) 16. Wildlife trees can grow over 24 inches d.b. h. on these Selected a-valu es 70 100 sites. Leave a distribution of windfirm, long-lived toler­ 80 90 ant species as Table 2 suggests. Individual trees that (Number of large trees/acre) remain shou ld be ab le to survive at least to the pole stage of the next rotation (that is, 40 to 50 years) . 1.7 5.7 6.5 7.3 8.1 1.5 Leaving small 1/4- to 1/3-acre patches per 10 to 15 9.0 10.3 11.6 12.9 1.3 13.4 15.3 17.2 19.1 acres is also su itable. Mast trees (beech and oak) and long-lived conifers will ordinarily be rare on these sites. Cull logs, tops, and slash can also be left. If the wildlife objective is to carry a higher density of cavity and den trees in these corridor situations, then cultural 17. Maintain den trees and cu ll class 4 trees in the densi­ activities need to focus on growing large-d iameter trees ties recommended in Table 2 during stand improve­ with a high potential for cavity- and den-tree habitat. Even ment and th inning activities. with large q-values of 1. 7 and res idual basal areas of 70 18. Favor conifers in hardwood stands but include long­ sqare feet per acre, there are sufficient numbers of large lived tolerant hardwoods of less than cul l class 4 or ( ~ 18 inches d.b.h .) stems with which to work. Favor con i­ cull stems of species of intermediate tolerance. Favor fers where possible. hardwoods in mixedwood stands but include conifers. Leave culls and cull class 4 hardwoods after harvest In those riparian corridors less than 200 feet (1 /2 width), it suggested in recommendation 4 and Table 2. In small is easier to think of densities of large( > 18 inches d.b.h.) sawlog stands, selectively thin suitable tolerant coni­ defective stems per 200 feet of corridor. If for purposes of fers and larger size tolerant hardwoods. Hardwoods th is exercise we use square acres (208. 7 ft. on a side), are likely to be defective on these sites, so size should then the following table describes possible distance options be a major criterion. between large cavity/den trees: 19. Favor long-lived tolerant hardwoods; cut or kil l when d.b.h. approaches 30 inches if wildlife tree will adversely affect the surrounding stand . Occasional conifers should be left without adjusting residual stand basal areas (up to a maximum of 15 sq uare feet per acre of conifers).

24 DeGraaf, R. M. Managing New England woodlots for Selected densities Variable spacing (ft) between wildlife that uses tree cavities. C-171. Amherst, MA: using the concept of large trees on riparian University of Massachusetts Cooperative Extension a square acre (approximately corridors less than 200 feet Service; 1984. 17 p. 200 feet per side) 1000' 100' 50' 20' DeG raaf, R. M.; Sh igo, A. L. Managing cavity trees for 0.2 trees/acre 1000 wildlife in the Northeast. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-1 01. 0.5 trees/acre 400 Broomall , PA: U.S . Department of Agriculture, Forest 1 .0 tree/acre 200 Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station; 1985. 2.0 trees/acre 100 21 p. 67 3.0 trees/acre DeGraaf, R. M.; Rudis, D. D. New England wildlife: habi­ 50 4.0 trees/acre tat, natural history, and distribution. Gen. Tech. Rep. 40 5.0 trees/acre NE-108. Broomall , PA: U.S. Department of Agricu lture, 20 10.0 trees/acre Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station; 1986. 491 p. Acknowledgments Evans, K. E.; Conner, R. N. Snag management. In: We thank Rodney D. Jacobs, Northeastern Area, State and DeGraaf, R. M. (tech. coord .) . Management of north Private Forestry, for his extensive review and comments on central and northeastern forests for non-game birds. Gen. Tech . Rep. NC-51 . St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department the manuscript; and Wi lliam H. Rivers and David A. of Agriculture , Forest Service, North Central Forest Richard, Massachusetts Department of Environment Man­ agement, Division of Forest and Parks, for their sugges­ Experiment Station; 1979: 214-242. tions and review . Eyre, F. H. (ed.). Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Literature Cited Foresters; 1980. 148 p. Arend, J. L.; Scholz, H. F. Oak forests of the Lake States Eyre, F. H.; Zillgitt, W. M. Partial CL!ttings in northern and their management. Res . Pap. NC- 31. St. Pau l, MN: hardwoods of the Lake States. Tech . Bull. 1076. Wash­ U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North ington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture: 1953. 124 p. Central Forest Experiment Station; 1969. 36 p. Fi li p, S. M. Impact of beech bark disease on uneven­ Barnes, B. V.; Pregitzer, K. S.; Spies, T. A.; Spooner, V. H. aged management of a northern hardwood forest. Ecological forest site classification. Journal of For­ Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-45. Broomall , PA: U.S. Department estry. 80:493- 498; 1982. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station: 1978. 7 p. Bormann, F. H.; Likens, G. E. Pattern and process in a forested ecosystem. New York: Springer-Verlag; 1979. Jordan, J. K. Application of an integrated land classifica­ 253 p. tion. In: Mroz, G. D.; Berner, J. F. (compilers). Proceed­ ings, Artificial regeneration of con ifers in the Upper Great Conner, R. N.; Dickson, J. G.; Williamson, J. H. Potential Lakes Reg ion; 1982; Houghton. Houghton: Michigan woodpecker nest trees through artificial inoculation Technological Un iversity; 1982: 65- 82. of heart rots. In: Davis, J. W.; Goodwin, G. A.; Ockenfels, R. A. (tech. coords.). Proceedings, Snag Kingsley, N. P. The forest resources of New Hampshire. habitat management symposium; 1983; Fort Collins, CO. Res. Bull. NE-43. Broomall, PA: U.S. Department of Gen . Tech. Rep. RM - 99. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Depart­ Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experi­ ment of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain ment Station; 1976. 71 p. Forest and Range Experiment Station; 1983: 68-72. Leak, W. B. Relation of tolerant species to habitat in the Cooley, J. H. The effect of selection cutting on cull in White Mountains of New Hampshire. Res . Pap. northern hardwoods. Journal of Forestry. 823-824; NE-351. Broomall , PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1964. Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station; 1976. 10 p. Crow, T. R.; Tubbs, C. H.; Jacobs, R. D.; Oberg, R. R. Stocking and structure for maximum growth in sugar Leak, W. B. Relationship of species and site index to maple selection stands. Res. Pap. NC- 199. St. Paul, habitat in the White Mountains of New Hampshire. MN: U.S. Department of Agricu lture, Forest Service, Res . Pap. NE- 397. Broomall, PA: U.S . Department of North Central Forest Experiment Station; 1981. 16 p. Agricu lture, Forest Service , Northeastern Forest Experi­ ment Station; 1978. 9 p.

25

26 26

p. p. 33 33

. . 1982 ; ; ion Stat Experiment Experiment Forest Forest Northeastern Northeastern Service, Service,

p. p. 7 7

1946. 1946. Station; Station;

ment ment

Forest Forest Agriculture, Agriculture, of of Department Department U.S. U.S. : : PA Broomall, Broomall,

Experi­ Forest Forest States States Lake Lake

Service, Service,

Forest Forest

Agriculture, Agriculture, of of

80. 80. -

NE Rep. Rep. Tech. Tech. Gen. Gen. cutting. cutting. selection selection for for guide guide

Department Department . . U.S : : MN

Paul, Paul,

St. St. . . 3 Pap. Pap.

. .

hardwoods

ern ern

a a trees: trees: residual residual of of Number Number I. I. N. N. , , Lamson C.; C.; H. H. Smith, Smith,

north­ in in cull cull Estimating Estimating R. R. S. S. Gevorkiantz, Gevorkiantz, .; .; M W. W. , , illgitt Z

p. p. 38 38 1971. 1971. Institute, Institute,

p. p. 1 1 . . 1946 Station; Station; iment iment Exper

Forest Forest

States States

Lake Lake

Research Research Forestry Forestry Applied Applied College College SUNY SUNY NY: NY: Syracuse, Syracuse,

Service, Service, Forest Forest Agriculture, Agriculture, of of

Department Department

U.S. U.S.

MN: MN:

5. 5. . . Rep . . Res State. State. York York New New in in stands stands hardwood hardwood cut cut

Paul, Paul, St. St. 255. 255. Note Note Tech. Tech. stands. stands. hardwood hardwood

northern northern

partially partially to to damage damage Logging Logging . . J W. W. Gabriel, Gabriel, D.; D.; . . R Nyland, Nyland,

in in cull cull estimating estimating for for method method quick quick A A . . M . . W , , illgitt Z

1963. 1963. 24(1):1-13; 24(1):1-13; . . Abstracts Forestry Forestry trees. trees. forest forest by by

1974. 1974.

44:233-254; 44:233-254;

seed seed of of production production the the affecting affecting Factors Factors D. D. J. J. Matthews, Matthews,

Monographs Monographs logical logical Eco production. production. and and biomass biomass

Forest Forest Study: Study: Ecosystem Ecosystem Brook Brook Hubbard Hubbard G. G. The The T. T. p. p. 13 13 1967. 1967. Station; Station; Experiment Experiment Forest Forest Northeastern Northeastern

Siccama, Siccama, ; ; . E G. G. Likens, Likens, H.; H.; F. F. Bormann, Bormann, H.; H.; R. R. Whittaker, Whittaker, Service, Service, Forest Forest Agriculture, Agriculture, of of Department Department U.S. U.S. PA: PA:

Darby, Darby, r r e Upp NE-85. NE-85. Pap. Pap. Res. Res. years. years. 30 30 after after Results Results

. . p

29 29 1977. 1977.

hardwoods: hardwoods: northern northern in in Clearcutting Clearcutting A. A. . . D Marquis, Marquis,

Station; Station; Experiment Experiment Forest Forest Central Central North North Service, Service, Forest Forest

Agriculture, Agriculture, of of Department Department U.S. U.S. MN: MN: Paul, Paul, St. St. NC-39. NC-39. p. p. 4 4 . . 1983 Station; Station; ment ment

. . Rep

Tech. Tech. Gen. Gen. States. States. Central Central North North the the in in woods woods ­ i Exper Forest Forest Northeastern Northeastern Service, Service, Forest Forest Agriculture, Agriculture,

hard­

northern northern for for handbook handbook Manager's Manager's H. H. C. C. Tubbs, Tubbs, of of Department Department U.S. U.S. PA: PA: Broomall, Broomall, . . NE-313 Note Note Res. Res.

England. England. New New in in system system shelterwood shelterwood the the applying applying

. . p 10 10

for for tables tables cover cover crown crown Percent Percent H. H. C. C. Tubbs, Tubbs,

B.; B.; . .

W Leak, Leak,

. . 1963 Station; Station; Experiment Experiment Forest Forest Northeastern Northeastern vice, vice,

Ser­

Forest Forest Agriculture, Agriculture, of of Department Department U.S. U.S. PA: PA: Darby, Darby, p. p. 34 34 1969. 1969. Station; Station;

Upper Upper

NE-10. NE-10. . . Pap Res. Res. . . stands hardwood hardwood of of agement agement Experiment Experiment Forest Forest Northeastern Northeastern Service, Service, Forest Forest ture, ture,

man­

all-aged all-aged

under under development development Cull Cull . . Jr R., R., . . G Trimble, Trimble, Agricul­ of of Department Department U.S. U.S. PA: PA: Broomall, Broomall, NE-143. NE-143. Pap. Pap.

Res. Res. Northeast. Northeast. the the in in hardwoods hardwoods northern northern for for guide guide

51-59. 51-59. 1983: 1983: Station; Station; iment iment

Exper

silvicultural silvicultural A A M. M. S. S. Filip, Filip, S.; S.; D. D. Solomon, Solomon, B.; B.; W. W. Leak, Leak,

Range Range and and Forest Forest Mountain Mountain Rocky Rocky Service, Service, Forest Forest

Agriculture, Agriculture, of of Department Department U.S. U.S. CO: CO: Collins, Collins, Ft. Ft. RM-99. RM-99. p. p. 28 28 1982. 1982. Station; Station; iment iment Exper

Rep. Rep. Tech. Tech. Gen. Gen. coords.). coords.). (tech. (tech. A. A. . . R Ockenfels, Ockenfels, Forest Forest Northeastern Northeastern Service, Service, Forest Forest Agriculture, Agriculture, of of ment ment

A.; A.; G. G. Goodwin, Goodwin, W.; W.; . . J Davis, Davis, In: In: . . process ­ souri-a souri-a Depart S. S. . U PA: PA: Broomall, Broomall, NE-496. NE-496. Pap. Pap. Res. Res. . . England

Mis­ in in trees trees den den and and snags snags of of Management Management . . New New R , , in in Titus interpretation interpretation and and mapping mapping Habitat Habitat B. B. W. W. Leak, Leak,

. . 60-77 : : 1979 Service; Service; Forest Forest Agriculture, Agriculture, of of Department Department p. p. 8 8 1979. 1979.

U.S. U.S. D.C.: D.C.: Washington, Washington, 553. 553. Handb. Handb. Agric. Agric. . . ington Station; Station; Experiment Experiment Forest Forest Northeastern Northeastern e, e, ic Serv Forest Forest

­ Wash and and Oregon Oregon of of Mountains Mountains Blue Blue - forests managed managed Agriculture, Agriculture, of of Department Department U.S. U.S. PA: PA: Broomall, Broomall, 452. 452. - NE

in in tat tat i hab Wildlife Wildlife ed.). ed.). (tech. (tech. . . W . . J Thomas, Thomas, : : In Snags. Snags. . . Pap Res. Res. Hampshire. Hampshire. New New of of Mountains Mountains White White

L. L. E. E. Bull, Bull, .; .; C Maser, Maser, G.; G.; . R Anderson, Anderson, W.; W.; J. J. the the Thomas, Thomas, in in productivity productivity stand stand on on habitat habitat of of Effect Effect B. B. W. W. Leak, Leak,

27 27

broken broken or or dead dead li mb , , slight slight crook crook or or sweep. sweep.

small small crack , , sma for for ll ll 4 scar - log log , , trees. trees. small small hole, hole, smal l l rotten rotten burl , , small small

Minor Minor

defects

: :

Ingrown Ingrown

bark, bark,

sterile sterile conk , , small small

seam , ,

decrease decrease i t t by by 1 1 0 0 percent percent for for 3 - log log trees, trees, and and by by one - fourth fourth 4 4

by by one - third third for for 1 - log log trees, trees, by by 10 10 percent percent for for 2 - log log trees; trees;

merchantable merchantable l ength. ength.

rate rate for for

trees trees

averaging averaging

2

- 1/2 1/2 logs. logs. Increase Increase

the the percentage percentage dead dead top, top, serious serious crook crook or or sweep, sweep, abnormally abnormally short short

The The cu ll ll percentage percentage obtained obtained by by this this rotten rotten method method burl, burl, is is l arge arge most most broken broken accu ­ or or dead dead limb limb or or fork , , broken broken or or

sp ir a l l seam, seam, l arge arge crack, crack, l arge arge scar , , l arge arge hole, hole, l arge arge

Major Major v i sib l e e defects : : Butt Butt rot, rot, conk, conk,

canker, canker,

l arge arge

or or

compensate compensate 3 3 for for hidden hidden defect. defect.

f. f. Always Always place place borderline borderline cases cases into into the the higher higher class class to to

Class Class 1-5; 1-5; c l ass ass 2 - 15; 15; class class 3-35; 3-35; class class 4 - 60 . .

following following percentage percentage deduct ion s s to to gross gross volumes: volumes: one one major major defect. defect.

3 . .

Compute Compute

the the cull cull volume volume of of each each tree tree by by app lyin g g the the major major defect defect in in loss loss of of sca l e e shou ld ld be be cons id ered ered as as

e . . Minor Minor defects defects so so numerous numerous or or extensive extensive as as to to equal equal a a

2 . . Determine Determine gross gross volume volume of of each each sample sample tree . .

sider sider as as one one defect . .

Class Class

4- Trees Trees with with three three or or more more major major defects. defects. d . . Where Where two two or or more more defects defects will will cut cut out out together, together, con­

Class Class 3 - Trees Trees with with two two major major defects . . cu ll s s the the section. section.

trees trees 15 15 inches inches d.b.h. d.b.h. and and l arger, arger, unless unless it it complete ly ly

C l ass ass 2 - Trees Trees with with one one major major defect. defect. c. c. Any Any defect defect in in the the top top lo g g should should be be considered considered minor minor for for

permitted . . as as two two defects ; ; i f f int o o three three log s, s, count count as as three three defects . .

C l ass ass

1 - Trees Trees with with no no major major defect, minor minor

defect

b. b. Consider Consider a a s in g l e e defect defect extending extending

into into two two 16 - foot foot

logs logs 3 3 4 4

b l e e effects. effects. two two defects. defects.

1. 1.

Record Record the the cull cull c l ass ass for for eac h h tree tree on on the the basis basis of of visi ­ a. a. Consider Consider a a sing l e e defect defect culling culling the the first first 16-foot 16-foot lo g g as as

cu ll ll percentage percentage can can be be obtained obtained by by the the following following method: method: To To increase increase the the accuracy accuracy of of the the appraisal : :

For For northern - hardwood hardwood sawt imb er, er, a a fair fair approximat ion ion of of

the the cull. cull.

individu a l l trees. trees. 5 . . Divide Divide the the cull cull volume volume by by the the gross gross volume volume to to determine determine

but but a l so so can can be be used used for for a a quick, quick, rough rough estimate estimate of of cu ll ll in in

The The method method out lin ed ed below below is is for for est im at in g g cu ll ll in in stands stands 4 . . Determine Determine gross gross volume volume and and cu ll ll volume. volume.

Method Method On e e (from (from Z illgitt illgitt and and Gevorkiantz Gevorkiantz 1946) 1946)

Cull Cull in in Northern - Hardwood Hardwood Stands Stands

Appendix Appendix 1. - Two Two Methods Methods for for Estimating Estimating

28 28

ontinued ontinued C

3 3 5 5 3 3 4 4 4 4 log log t t s ir F r.) r.) e cylind right right into into folded folded ark ark B (

bark bark Ingrown Ingrown

5 5 6 6 9 8 8 9 6 6 Small Small 2 2 Anywhere Anywhere lost.) lost.) log log of of 1/3 1/3 than than Less Less . . (Cavity

24 24 15 15 26 26 17 17 4 4 20 20 e e Larg lost.) lost.) log log log log of of first first 1/3 1/3 Above Above least least At At . . (Cavity

35 35 22 22 39 39 28 28 5 5 28 28 Large Large log log First First lost.) lost.) log log of of 1/3 1/3 least least At At . . (Cavity

Bole Bole

moderate moderate

6 6 9 8 8 9 6 5 5 6 2 2 to to Slight Slight log log Top Top lost.) lost.) volume volume 2/3 2/3 including including and and (To (To

11 11 13 13 3 3 17 14 14 17 20 20 Excessive Excessive log log Top Top lost.) lost.) volume volume 2/3 2/3 than than (More (More

moderate moderate log log

6 6 9 8 8 9 6 5 5 6 2 2 to to Slight Slight ate ate i Intermed lost.) lost.) volume volume 3 3 / 2 including including and and (To (To

log log

17 17 20 20 24 24 15 15 26 26 4 4 Excessive Excessive Intermediate Intermediate lost.) lost.) volume volume 2/3 2/3 than than (More (More

9 8 8 9 6 5 5 6 6 6 2 2 Slight Slight log log First First lost.) lost.) volume volume 1/3 1/3 than than (Less (Less

15 15 17 17 4 4 20 20 Moderate Moderate 26 24 24 26 log log First First lost.) lost.) volume volume 3 3 / 2 including including and and to to (1/3 (1/3

5 5 28 28 35 35 22 22 39 39 25 25 Excessive Excessive log log First First lost.) lost.) volume volume 3 3 / 2 than than (More (More

sweep sweep or or Crook Crook

6 5 5 6 6 6 8 8 2 9 9 2 Small Small Anywhere Anywhere lost.) lost.) log log of of 3 3 / 1 1 than than Less Less . . (Open

11 11 13 13 3 3 14 14 17 17 Large Large 20 20 log log first first Above Above lost.) lost.) log log of of 3 3 / 1 least least At At . . (Open

35 35 22 22 39 39 25 25 5 5 28 28 Large Large log log First First lost.) lost.) log log of of 3 3 / 1 least least At At . . (Open

Crack Crack

5 5 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 1 1 Sterile Sterile Anywhere Anywhere

15 15 26 24 24 26 17 17 4 4 20 20 Active Active log log first first Above Above

35 35 22 22 39 39 25 25 5 5 28 28 Active Active Conk Conk log log First First

6 6 5 5 6 6 9 8 8 9 2 2 Anywhere Anywhere tree.) tree.) standing standing

in in detected detected be be (Cannot (Cannot rot rot Hidden Hidden

20 20 15 15 26 24 24 26 17 17 4 4 Advanced Advanced og og l first first Above Above

50 50 32 32 56 56 36 36 6 6 41 41 Advanced Advanced og og l First First Canker Canker

35 35 22 22 39 39 25 25 5 5 28 28 Advanced Advanced blow.) blow.) by by log log First First detectable detectable visible, visible,

not not If If lost. lost. log log of of 1/3 1/3 least least (At (At rot rot Butt Butt

scale.) scale.)

17 17 11 11 20 20 13 13 3 3 14 14 in in loss loss indicate indicate to to ty ty li merchantabi

of of limit limit top top to to enough enough close close

rotten rotten or or (Broken (Broken top top dead dead or or Broken Broken

5 5 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 Small Small Anywhere Anywhere diameter) diameter) in in inches inches 6 6 than than (Less (Less

11 11 20 20 13 13 3 3 14 14 17 17 Large Large ameter) ameter) i n d n i Anywhere Anywhere inches inches 6 6 least least (At (At

limb limb dead dead or or Broken Broken

tree tree tree tree tree tree tree tree tree tree degree degree tree tree of of length length

4-log 4-log log log - 3 or or 2-log 2-log 2-log 2-log Class Class log log - 2112 merchantable merchantable Defect Defect

percenta percenta Cull Cull Condition Condition within within Position Position

bird. bird. or or animal animal ty-using ty-using i cav specific specific

a a of of need need the the ng ng i conisder when when useful useful be be may may this this defect; defect;

of of type type specific specific a a by by caused caused cull cull of of amount amount approximate approximate

the the cates cates i ind table table percentages" percentages" cull cull and and "defects "defects The The

1946) 1946) Zillgitt Zillgitt (from (from Two Two Method Method

29 29

Cont inu ed ed

26 26 6 6 11 11 17 17 23 23 28 28 34 34 40 40 46 46 63 63 51 51 57 57 68 68 74 74 80 80 86 86 91 91 97 97 104 104

24 24 6 6 17 17 12 12 39 39 35 35 23 23 46 46 52 58 58 52 41 41 64 64 70 70 75 75 93 93 81 81 87 87 104 104 100 100

22 22 6 6 12 12 18 18 35 35 24 24 30 30 47 47 53 53 41 41 59 59 64 64 77 77 71 71 88 88 83 83 94 94 100 100 106 106

20 20 6 6 12 12 18 18 37 37 24 24 30 30 55 55 43 43 49 49 61 61 67 67 73 79 79 73 85 85 92 98 98 92 110 110 104 104

6 6 18 18 13 13 19 19 25 25 32 32 38 38 50 50 57 57 44 44 63 63 69 69 88 88 76 76 94 94 82 82 101 101 107 107

6 6 16 16 13 13 20 20 26 26 32 32 39 39 46 46 52 52 58 58 65 65 72 72 84 84 91 91 78 78 98 98 104 104

14 14 7 7 14 14 20 20 27 27 34 34 41 41 48 48 54 54 61 61 68 68 75 75 82 82 88 88 95 95 102 102

12 12 8 8 30 30 15 15 38 38 22 22 45 45 60 60 68 68 52 52 90 90 75 75 98 98 82 82 105 105

8 8 10 10 16 16 24 24 32 32 40 40 63 63 47 47 55 55 79 79 87 87 71 71 95 95 103 103

8 8 9 9 18 18 27 27 53 53 36 36 44 44 62 62 71 71 80 80 89 89 98 98 107 107

6 6 32 32 11 11 21 21 43 43 54 54 86 86 64 64 75 75 96 96 107 107

4 4 15 15 30 30 60 60 45 45 89 89 74 74 104 104

2 2 32 32 95 95 64 64 127 127

( in ches) ches) 3 3 2 2 5 6 6 5 4 4 8 9 9 8 7 7 10 10 11 11 12 12 13 13 14 14 15 15 16 17 17 16 18 18

D . b . h. h.

Tree Tree count count

1 1 0-factor 0-factor prism . .

Cumulative Cumulative percentage percentage crown crown cover cover for for white white ash, ash, white white pine, pine, red red spruce, spruce, balsam balsam fir, fir, and and hemlock, hemlock,

Leak Leak and and Tubbs Tubbs 1983) 1983)

Appe ndi x x 11. -C rown rown cov e r r percent t a bl es es a f g o e e r r thr ee ee p s ec ie s- form form groups groups (from (from

a a C l ass ass averages. averages.

stra i ght ght

(Tight. (Tight. Less Less than than 6 6 feet feet l ong . ) ) Anywhere Anywhere Sma ll , , 2 2 9 8 8 9 6 6 5 5 6 6

stra ight ight

(Tight. (Tight. At At least least 6 6 feet feet long .) .) Anywhere Anywhere Large, Large, 3 3 20 20 17 17 14 14 13 13 11 11

Seam Seam (Open (Open or or tight.) tight.) Anywhere Anywhere Sp 6 6 ir a l l 56 56 50 50 36 36 41 41 32 32

(Less (Less than than 1/4 1/4 of of l og og affected.) affected.) Anywhere Anywhere Sma ll ll 9 9 2 2 8 6 6 6 6 8 5 5

(At (At l east east 1/4 1/4 of of lo g g affected . ) ) Anywhere Anywhere Large Large 4 4 26 26 24 24 20 20 17 17 15 15

Scar Scar

(Less (Less than than 1 / 4 4 of of log log affected.) affected.) Anywhere Anywhere Sma ll ll 5 5 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3

(At (At least least 1/4 1/4 of of log log affected.) affected.) Anywhere Anywhere Large Large 4 4 26 26 24 24 20 20 15 15 17 17

Rotten Rotten bur l l

length length of of tree tree degree degree tree tree tree tree tree tree tree tree tree tree

Defect Defect merchantable merchantable or or C l ass ass 2- log log 2- log log 2112 - log log 3-log 3-log 4-log 4-log

Position Position within within Condition Condition Cull Cull percenta percenta

Method Method Two - Continued Continued

30 30

7 7 03 •40 8-076 74 - 7 8 9 1 O. O. . .P G . . ,S U R

95 95 104 104 69 78 78 69 87 87 35 35 61 61 52 52 43 43 9 9 26 26 26 26 17 17

82 82 109 109 73 73 100 100 64 64 91 91 45 45 36 36 54 54 9 9 27 27 24 24 18 18

96 96 86 86 76 76 105 105 67 67 57 57 48 48 38 38 10 10 29 29 22 22 19 19

80 80 101 101 60 60 91 91 50 50 70 70 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 20 20

96 96 86 86 107 107 43 43 75 75 64 64 54 54 32 32 18 18 21 21 11 11

102 102 91 91 80 80 68 68 57 57 45 45 34 34 23 23 16 16 11 11

98 98 86 86 73 73 110 110 61 61 49 49 37 37 14 14 24 24 12 12

106 106 93 93 80 80 67 67 53 53 40 40 27 27 13 13 12 12

103 103 89 89 74 74 59 59 44 44 30 30 15 15 10 10

101 101 84 84 68 68 51 51 8 8 34 34 17 17

103 103 82 82 62 62 41 41 6 6 21 21

85 85 28 28 114 114 4 4 57 57

59 59 2 2 119 119

8 9 9 8 10 10 12 12 5 6 6 5 11 11 7 7 3 3 4 4 2 2 (inches) (inches)

b.h. b.h. . D

count count Tree Tree

prism. prism.

0-factor 0-factor 1 1 birches, birches, paper paper and and yellow yellow maples, maples, red red and and sugar sugar for for cover cover Cumulative Cumulative crown crown percentage percentage

76 76 107 107 61 61 91 91 46 46 30 30 15 15 26 26

93 93 108 108 62 62 46 46 31 31 77 77 15 15 24 24

63 63 94 94 78 78 110 110 47 47 31 31 16 16 22 22

95 95 80 80 64 64 48 48 111 111 32 32 16 16 20 20

65 65 98 98 49 49 81 81 114 114 33 33 16 16 18 18

83 83 100 100 50 50 33 33 67 67 17 17 16 16

86 86 69 69 103 103 51 51 34 34 17 17 14 14

90 90 36 36 72 72 107 107 54 54 12 12 18 18

95 95 57 57 38 38 76 76 114 114 19 19 10 10

62 62 103 103 82 82 8 8 41 41 21 21

93 93 70 70 117 117 6 6 47 47 23 23

118 118 89 89 59 59 30 30 4 4

105 105 52 52 2 2

4 5 5 4 6 7 7 6 2 3 3 2 (inches) (inches)

. . h . b . D

count count Tree Tree

. . m s pri factor factor - 0 1 1 beech, beech, for for cover cover crown crown rcentage rcentage e p Cumulative Cumulative

(Cont'd). (Cont'd). II. II. Appendix Appendix

for for choosing choosing and and culturing culturing wildlife wildlife trees trees in in common common forestry forestry situations. situations.

mast mast are are presented. presented. Simplified Simplified habitat habitat objectives objectives and and a a key key are are provided provided

mast mast production production is is discussed, discussed, and and guides guides for for cu ltur e e and and management management of of

procedures procedures to to enhance enhance the the value value of of trees trees as as wildlife wildlife habitat. habitat. Hard Hard and and soft soft

numbers numbers of of trees trees for for a a variety variety of of common common s itu ations ations and and for for cultural cultural

impact impact of of timber timber production . . Suggestions Suggestions are are made made for for choosing choosing the the

choosing choosing the the most most suitable suitable trees trees for for wildlife wildlife habitats habitats and and for for estimat ing ing the the

associated associated types types in in New New England . . Background Background information information is is provided provided for for

value value as as components components of of wildlife wildlife habitat habitat in in the the northern northern hardwood hardwood and and

Presents Presents information information on on the the culture culture and and management management of of trees trees that that have have

30 30 p. p.

of of Agriculture , , Forest Forest Service, Service, Northeastern Northeastern Forest Forest Experiment Experiment Station, Station,

hardwoods. hardwoods. Gen. Gen. Tech. Tech. Rep. Rep. NE-118. NE-118. Broomall, Broomall, PA: PA: U . S. S. Department Department

1987. 1987. Guide Guide to to wildlife wildlife tree tree management management in in New New England England northern northern

Tubbs, Tubbs, Carl Carl H . ; ; DeGraaf, DeGraaf, Richard Richard M .; .; Yamasaki, Yamasaki, Mariko; Mariko; Healy , , William William M. M.

20250. 20250.

DC DC

Washington, Washington, Agriculture, Agriculture, of of Secretary Secretary the the to to reported reported be be should should

and and

policy, policy,

agency agency

against against strictly strictly is is form form any any in in Discrimination Discrimination USDA. USDA. the the of of

services services

and and

programs, programs, facilities, facilities, all all enjoy enjoy and and use use to to welcome welcome are are condition condition ping ping

handicap­

any any

with with or or

religion, religion, age, age, sex, sex, origin, origin, national national color, color, race, race, any any of of Persons Persons

Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania. Warren, Warren, • •

University. University.

State State

Pennsylvania Pennsylvania the the with with cooperation cooperation in in Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania, Park, Park, University University • •

Syracuse. Syracuse.

University, University,

Syracuse Syracuse at at Forestry Forestry and and Sciences Sciences Environmental Environmental of of College College

York York

New New of of

University University State State the the with with cooperation cooperation in in York, York, New New Syracuse, Syracuse, • •

Virginia. Virginia. West West Princeton, Princeton, • •

Virginia. Virginia. West West Parsons, Parsons, • •

Orono. Orono.

Maine, Maine, of of University University the the with with cooperation cooperation in in Maine, Maine, Orono, Orono, • •

Morgantown. Morgantown.

University, University,

Virginia Virginia West West with with cooperation cooperation in in Virginia, Virginia, West West Morgantown, Morgantown, • •

University. University. Yale Yale with with cooperation cooperation in in Connecticut, Connecticut, Hamden, Hamden, • •

Hampshire. Hampshire.

New New of of

University University the the with with cooperation cooperation in in Hampshire, Hampshire, New New Durham, Durham, • •

Ohio. Ohio. Delaware, Delaware, • •

Vermont. Vermont.

of of University University the the with with cooperation cooperation in in Vermont, Vermont, Burlington, Burlington, • •

College. College. Berea Berea with with cooperation cooperation In In Kentucky, Kentucky, Berea, Berea, • •

. .

Massachusetts of of

University University the the with with cooperation cooperation In In Massachusetts, Massachusetts, Amherst, Amherst, • •

at: at: maintained maintained are are laboratories laboratories Field Field

Pa. Pa.

Broomall, Broomall, in in are are Station Station Experiment Experiment Forest Forest Northeastern Northeastern the the of of Headquarters Headquarters