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Home , Ernst May, Max Taut, Otto Haesler

111555th 5 th INTERNATIONAL PLANNING HISTORY SOCIETY CONFERENCE

TRADİCİONALİSMS AND MODERNİSMS İN THE RESİDENTİAL ARCHİTECARCHİTECTURETURE OF THE CİTY OF SÃO PAULO İN THE PERİOD 19301930----1955.1955.

JANJULIO, MARISTELA DA SILVA Address:Av. Trabalhador Sancarlense, 400 São Carlos, SP e-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT In the first decades of the twentieth century, several “Life Reform” movements emerge in Europe, especially in , in a reaction to overcrowded cities. Most of them inspired by the Garden City movement, which had arisen in England at the end of nineteenth century, as an alternative to the existing city . Within these movements, there is a discussion on housing, still taken by the traditional , where the domestic environment is considered as the locus where a new kind of life is promoted for a “new man”, healthy, connected to Nature and traditions such as the crafts. .From the 1920’s on, the Modern Movement is being constituted and its architecture will be dedicated to the rational “type-man”, man of science and technology, an abstract dweller. Conceptualizing modern and traditional , the contrasts are apparently striking. However, what should really be regarded as modern or traditional, conservative or revolutionary? In Brazil, these issues resonate as early as the 1920s. Here we also see the increasing dissemination of "modernity", which does not exclude the persistence of traditional architecture. The new language of the Modern Movement architecture will be appropriated by the minor architecture, which largely dispenses with the help of architects, but that is always present, forming the fabric of our cities.

EUROPE A key issue on traditional architecture is that it can’t be reduced to a style or to a simple formal system, It is the point of convergence of reflections, works and attitudes, in a conscious opposition to modernity. The forefront of modernity means "first of all an attitude of rejection, criticism of the procedures that had consolidated through a social accord, a subversion of languages that were widespread and stable. But on the other hand, it means proposing the new as horizon to drive consensus and collective acceptance, as the means to get rationality and efficiency (...)". (SOLA-MORALES, 1980, p.9) Dialectic between breaking with the past and constructing, between criticism and proposals, confronted by a reality of already established languages. (SOLA-MORALES, op.cit ., p.9-10) Cities, nations and regions in planning history

There is always some tension between the avant-garde of modernity, and the established language of traditional architecture. (SOLA-MORALES, op.cit ., p.15) Despite this tension, both modernity and traditionalism will always be inexorably linked, in a set of contrasts, where one can’t think of one without having the other. We conceptualize traditional and 1 clearly, but it’s difficult to define their works and countless times we find crosses between them. We cannot always put traditionalism and modernity on opposing sides. In the work of many architects, they are present and amalgamate, coexisting. An example of this "symbiosis" is the Dalcroze Institute, of , built between 1910 and 1912 in Hellerau, the first German garden city. The building shows a classic design in the central area and lateral wings, influenced by vernacular architecture, with large sloping roofs. Tessenow’s architecture is basic, with classical references, but most of all there’s a depuration of elements, a purity of form. (García Roig, 2002, p.85-89) Colquhoun, (2002, p.64) says that this aspect of Tessenow’s work, abstraction and pure forms, anticipates the work of Mies van der Rohe. The institute constitutes the most legitimate expression of community life expected in Hellerau. It incorporates the concept of Wolkshaus , or "house of the people", that had referred to. (GARCÍA ROIG, 2002, p.85-89) Some of the questions raised by Tessenow’s work is mass housing and the problem of standardization. He uses permanent elements that are above eras and styles. Many of his drawings show small “type” houses with their furniture and equipment . It’s a "minor" Architecture, housing for middle class. This class, for Tessenow, would be the foundation of German social order, housed in medium- sized cities between 20,000 and 60,000 inhabitants. (Colquhoun, 2002, p.61-2) Besides, in Tessenow’s work the Sachlichkeit (Objectivity), acquires a precise formulation in the architecture of the house. "(...) we must now consider the pure objectivity (die reine Sachlichkeit ) as authentic goal to achieve in the configuration of the house. (...) trying to express the feeling of each particular individual in the design of the house would be a chimera. This is not an individual work, but the collective work of many men (...) ". (TESSENOW, 1909, p. 9) The work of Heinrich Tessenow leads us to consider which really are the factors that must be analyzed in the conceptualization of modern or traditional, of conservative or revolutionary. Garcia Roig (2002, p.16) says that his "work can be considered rare for not joining an avant-garde experimentalism, technical-functional, (.. .) or a conservative traditionalism, as is the case of Schultze Naumburg (...). " Tessenow’s architecture is perhaps a path that could have been traversed towards an architecture for the modern age, other than that of the Modern Movement. The solutions he proposes - a return to craftsmanship, living in small towns -, are also common to a set of movements that search a reform of life, which take place in Germany before and after . The majority of these movements were

1 In this text, when referring to "modern architecture", we’re talking about the one that develops in the 1920’s, particularly in German and also the architecture of , both presented in the CIAMs and leading (though not only them) to the constitution of the "International Style".

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related to the ideals that supported the garden city movement. One of the aspects that these reformers advocated concerned physical activity, through farm work, house building and other tasks related to outdoor living. The search for a new man, "healthy". (GARCÍA ROIG, 2002, p.66-75) Such questions seem to conflict with natural course of events, they appear unsuitable for that historical period - from 1918 onwards, especially the years between 1922 and 1933 -, when Modern Movement is being constituted and later the "International Style" consolidates. (GARCÍA ROIG, 2002, p.56). It is an intense era. In 1918, following the war and the abdication of William II, many events take place. Workers, soldiers, intellectuals and artists participate actively: in the revolution, which explains the strong ties between politics and art. In this atmosphere, the Arbeitsrat für Kunst (Working Council for Art) arises in Berlin, founded by Taut, and Adolf Behne, simultaneously and in close connection with the Novembergruppe Group (November Group), which joined , after the war, the revolutionary artists of all Germany. In March 1919, the Arbeitsrat für Kunst publishes a letter summarizing the Architektur-Programm (Architecture Program), of 1918, from , in which the union of the arts under the wings of architecture constitutes the main objective. It highlights the cosmic attribute of architecture, its religious foundations, its condition of utopia. (GARCÍA ROIG, op.cit ., p.86, 103-4) Bruno Taut seems to conceive its architecture between two poles: small single- family houses - minor architecture – and symbolic public buildings, both connected to a transcendental unity, the individual and the collective - the "house of the people" - a concept that Taut develops as a colorful crystal building. Also in 1919, Walter Gropius was appointed director of the school renamed Staatliches (State Bauhaus) in . (GARCÍA ROIG, op.cit ., p.104), where he accomplished to unify the arts under the leadership of architecture. However, the architecture that arises in Germany from 1922 on, the Neue Sachlichkeit (New Objectivity), as its name suggests, shows a dramatic change in the arts as a whole, towards a new realism . (COLQUHOUN, 2002, p.159) After all utopian reform movements, after the summit of Expressionism, a change of course takes place, in search of concrete, immediate achievements. Behne's position - who had been one of the spokesmen of Expressionism and one of the main characters of Arbeitsrat für Kunst -, contrary to the use of the machine, is symbolic. It shows the changes. In 1922, in his paper Kunst Handwerk, Technik (Art, Craft and Technology), (COLQUHOUN, op.cit ., p.159) he says that division of labor brought about by machine was an improvement of the old "organic" relationship between the artisan and the product of his work. After a transitional period, the worker would understand his role within an industrialized society. A return to craftsmanship was no longer possible. The architecture that arises is made for a new man, “type-man”, the "hygienic man" that "must acknowledge the full implementation of Taylorism as a premise for his own 'reconstruction.’” (TAFURI, 1984, p.363) The "new man" should be the representative of a society that requires Cities, nations and regions in planning history

the intellect, the man of science, technology and calculation, which can conquer nature . In what concerns to the Bauhaus, during the period 1919-1922, it gives up its expressionist ideology and espouses the concepts of New Objectivity, De Stijl and L'Esprit Nouveau . It is introduced in the school an "objective" approach and the use of industrial materials and new manufacturing techniques. (COLQUHOUN, op.cit ., p.160-1) In the first exhibition of the Bauhaus in 1923, several pieces of furniture designed and produced in the school’s workshops are exhibited as prototypes for industrial production. In architecture, changes are linked mainly to the postwar program, of the Republican government, financed by the government, trying to solve the housing deficit. After the First World War, Germany had many technically competent architects. Most of them was placed in command of municipal housing programs between 1924 and 1931, as in , in and Martin Wagner in Berlin. These were mainly the liberal administrations that built part of housing developments 2. Like the experiences related to the garden city movement from before the war, the postwar Siedlungen 3 were residential enclaves in the suburbs. However, they had a higher population density and mostly consisted of blocks of apartments with many floors, aligned north-south and with a space between them that did not allow shading. Biological considerations determined the design of the new house: space, air, light and heat. (MUMFORD, 2000, p. 37). These settlements followed the principles of New Objectivity. Some of the biggest ones included public buildings such as schools and hospitals, and services such as central heating and collective laundries. Except for concrete slabs and columns, and some concrete panels the materials used were the traditional ones. (COLQUHOUN, 2002, p.165) Among the achievements, we highlight the Ernst May’s ones, from 1925 on , in Frankfurt, the "New Frankfurt", with more than twenty residential settlements; projects, among others, by Bruno Taut, Martin Wagner, , Hugo Häring, Hans Scharoun in Berlin, and of Walter Gropius and the Bauhaus in . The area of the dwelling in the Siedlungen was minimized. Functions were mainly concentrated in the living room, resulting in larger spaces. This kind of design reflected the new concepts of rationalization of domestic environment, that began to be discussed still in the nineteenth century, in the United States.

2 Housing according to the principles of Neue Sachlichkeit were built on a large scale, for example in Berlin: more than 14,000 units between 1924 and 1933. 3 Siedlung in the literature of urbanism and architecture is a universal concept, which defines a housing state. Siedlung derives etymologically from the verb siedeln , which means to settle in a plot. Thus, the physical projection on the territory of several reformist theories takes the form of the Siedlung , not only those German experiences of the 1920’s. (GARCÍA ROIG, 2002, p.72)

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111555th 5 th INTERNATIONAL PLANNING HISTORY SOCIETY CONFERENCE

But, there was no unanimity regarding the Siedlungen and the housing projects were the subject of much criticism. The critic Adof Behne, despite supporting the movement of New Objectivity, in 1930, in an article in Die Form (H6) on the design of the housing estate Dammerstock in (1927-1928) by Otto Haesler and Gropius, states said that one should not look for a logical solution, almost like a scientific experiment. In this "architectural dictatorship", the dweller would become an "abstract resident". "Medical research has shown that the inhabitants of the houses that are considered unhygienic enjoy better health than residents of hygienic homes." 4 About the "new housing", May argued at CIAM 2 that, in the construction of houses, the appearance of the building and the composition of the facade should not be considered main tasks, but the design of housing unit. (AYMONINO, 1973, p.91) To Riboldazzi (2009, p. 102-3), May, at the time, did not have sensitivity and attention to context anymore, in favor of a strict interpretation of urban design using the Taylorist.principles. In other projects there was some formal diversity, as in- Britz-Siedlung (1928), by Bruno Taut in Berlin: a large horseshoe-shaped building where Taut introduces some variety through the use of color and contrasting materials. "In his projects in Berlin, Taut, despite his objective credentials, leads a particular kind of guerrilla against the more objective Modernists." (COLQUHOUN, 2002, p.166) Among Taut’s criticisms, in IFHTP’s Congress in 1928 in Paris, he states that the utilitarian aspect regained by architecture, losing its decorative character, was positive, but he regretted that rationality and functionalism had become the "maximum laws of architecture. "(AYMONINO, 1973, p.99) The need to organize all these questions about the new architecture, the exchange of experiences and ideas leads to the organization of the CIAMs (International Congresses of Modern Architecture) at the end of the decade. In the second CIAM, which takes place in Frankfurt in 1929, the discussion becomes more concrete and revolves around the question of Existenzminimum (existence minimum'), the low cost housing’s unit. This was seen as a "type" product, which should be rationalized and could be “industrially” produced (MUMFORD, 2000, p 39.) The discussions in the "CIAMs reflect all the limitations of radical architectural thinking: a postulated absolute continuity between mass production and construction of the city expressing an utopian belief." (TAFURI; DAL CO, 1979, p.219). Similarly, it would be applied in the urban level, the mode of design and production used in the dwelling.. The role of the architect would be to organize the production cycle. This new "objective" architecture, despite certain cultural hegemony and great attention from the press, found resistance and did not actually prevail in Germany in the 1920’s. 5 There were experiments in the mid-1920s, looking for an alternative, put

4 COLQUHOUN, Alan. Critica e autocritica del moderno,moderno, p.143-144 . In: DE MICHELIS, 1994.

5 Even after 1927, the majority of housing estates were still built on the principles of traditionalist architecture, with pitched roofs and vertical casements with blinds. ANGELI, Franco, L'architettura a Berlino negli anni Venti, Milan: Franco Angeli, 1979, p. 121 in TAUT Bruno, op.cit., Footnote 28, p.124. Cities, nations and regions in planning history

between the more radical ideas and the more conservative ones. Some of these conservative proposals were imbued with nationalism and many proposed a return to the past and: the ideals of the conservative Heimatstil , the "style of homeland." Among the alternative proposals, there were those from Max Taut and the Luckhardt brothers, Hans and Wassily, trying to adapt their projects to the existing city. (TAFURI; DAL CO, 1979. p.227). In addition to the discussions about housing in the CIAMs, it must be mentioned the IFHTP’s congresses (International Federation for Housing and Planning)6 happening at the same time, also discussing housing and urban design: the 1920’s decade was especially fruitful for reflections on housing. However, one should not simply counteract the two organizations. Modern German architects, for example, had active participation in the IFHTP’s congresses, as is the case of Bruno Taut and Ernst May, in the 11th congress in Paris in 1928, the same year that occurred in , the first CIAM. "(...) If in La Sarraz are laid the foundations of a cultural revolution in the field of architecture and urban planning, in the French capital topics less ambitious and more concrete are discussed," as the need to harmonize built spaces and open spaces. (RIBOLDAZZI, 2009, p.95)

Brazil

At the same time, in Brazil, discussions on housing were present too, as it shows the achievement of the First Housing Congress in 1931 in the city of Sao Paulo. Brazilian professionals were aware of the German experiences on housing, but these were regarded with caution: Bruno Simões Magro, in a paper presented at the congress, mentions the experiences of Ernst May on the "existence minimum"7. Highlighting the new way of designing: a "(...) design of rooms regarding the modern concept of living and then, (…) the adjustment of the group of rooms to the general plan of the city (...)." (MAGRO , 1931, p.64) However, he criticizes the accumulation of functions in the same room: " we can’t see in these kind of chambers a concern about isolation as the Brazilian family wants, (…) in its strict morality. "(MAGRO, op.cit ., p.57) The Russian architect, Gregori Warchavchik, the responsible for bringing an entirely new architecture to Brazil, had arrived in the country a few years earlier, in 1923, one year after the "Week of Modern Art."

6 IFHTP was founded in 1913 by Ebenezer Howard, the creator of the garden city. Originally it was called 'Garden Cities and Town Planning Association.' Its aim was to discuss matters such as housing and town and regional planning, with the application of scientific methods, and also the improvement of professionals through international exchange of knowledge and experiences. The first international conference happened in Paris in 1914. Among its members there were intellectuals, but also politicians and technicians related to municipalities and housing cooperatives. About IFHTP see RIBOLDAZZI, 2009.

7 MAGRO, Bruno Simões “Habitações Econômicas”. In: Congresso de Habitação (1.: 1931: São Paulo), p.62-5.

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111555th 5 th INTERNATIONAL PLANNING HISTORY SOCIETY CONFERENCE

Warchavchik, after two years in Brazil, published a manifesto 8 entitled "Futurism?", where he states that: "Architecture should only be rational, must be based only on logic (...)". 9 The manifesto did not have major outgrowth. When Warchavchik begins to work on his own, the architect makes his first personal work, his own residence, between 1927 and 1928, in Santa Cruz Street, in the city of São Paulo. Due to the simplicity almost aggressive of the house, there was a lot of polemic about it, the press included,. The architect Dácio de Moraes 10 began at that time a dispute with Gregori Warchavchik in the pages of O Correio Paulistano , lasting till the next year, where he pointed out the mistakes of an "international architecture". And Warchavchik, in contrast, defended its architecture. The controversy created in the Sao Paulo split architects, artists and critics in a fierce debate through the press. Le Corbusier, in his visit to Sao Paulo in 1929, in a tour of Warchavchik’s works was surprised "with the existence of a ‘modern’ architecture in that city." (BRUAND, 2005, p.68). On that occasion it was decided that the Russian architect would be Brazil’s representative in the CIAMs. (FERRAZ, 1965, p.29) In 1930, Warchavchik builds the house of Itápolis Street in Pacaembu, 11 in the city of São Paulo where he organizes an exhibition of modern art, with painters, sculptors and engravers. The performance of the Russian architect as the main actor in the constitution of Brazilian modern architecture, for most of the historiography, ends at that time. But he was going to play an important role in beginning the modernization process of Rio de Janeiro’s architecture. which occured with a few years of delay compared to São Paulo. The architect whose personality would be remarkable inside the modern movement in Brazil was Lucio Costa, who at that time was designing and building a series of neo-colonial houses, in Rio de Janeiro. For, Martins (1987, p. 141-2), "Costa does not have (...) in 1929, about a year and a half before his appointment to the direction of the ENBA (Escola Nacional de Belas Artes) neither any sympathy for modern design, nor a critical view of the compositional procedures of eclecticism.” Le Corbusier's visit to the school, in 1929,

8 Published on June 14, 1925, in a newspaper of the Italian immigrants, Il Piccolo , and again on 1 November 1925, in the Correio da Manhã , one of the great newspapers of Rio, with the title "About Modern Architecture" 9 WARCHAVCHIK, Gregori Acerca da Arquitetura Moderna,Moderna, 1925. In: XAVIER, 2003, p.36-7. 10 Dácio Aguiar de Moraes graduated in Stuttgart in 1898. The architect made projects, budgets and buildings and became known for the calculation of reinforced concrete structures. He was a regular contributor of the magazine Architectura e Construcções (Architecture and Constructions). (About the architect, see JANJULIO, 2009, p.337-344). 11 Inaugurated in March 1930, the exhibition attracted over twenty thousand people, including the high society of São Paulo (BRUAND, 2005, p.69). The house was sponsored by the company that accomplished the neighborhood, the City Co. Cities, nations and regions in planning history

whose lectures he didn’t have attended, would not have exertexerted any decisive influence over him. Costa was appointed director of the ENBA, in December 1930 to implement an educational reform. He invites Warchavchik to teach, who would play this role only for a few months, since taking advantage of legal provisions, José Marianno Filho 12 gets Costa's resignation in September , 1931. Since Costa’s appointment, Marianno started a campaign against him through the press, quite violent. (BRUAND, 2005, p.73). Warchavchik and Lucio Costa works together between 1931 and 1933. The collaboration concludes with the design of affordable housing in Gamboa, in the city of Rio de Janeiro. Observing the joint projects, it seems clear the predominance of the language already used by Russian architect: straight lines, well-defined volumes, clear surfaces, echoing modern architecture. According to Costa, after the partnership with Warchavchik, he had been out of work and had plenty of time to study and to become aware of Le Corbusier’s work and “loved”it. 13 To Bruand (2005, p.76): "The passage from the theoretical level to the practical one" could only have been possible through close contact with Le Corbusier, allowed by his second visit to the country. Everyone "stood in serried ranks and was polishing their weapons, bringing the theoretical instruments, preparing themselves to highly react to the spark that would be Le Corbusier’s second voyage." It would be the "miracle" that drew the attention of Europeans and Americans, twelve years after the first modernist house, "experiment without further consequences, unlike what would happen to the miracle in question, the Ministry and its immediate progeny setting the broad meaning of events (...) "(ARANTES, 1997, p.123) Since the appreciation of the production of "Escola Carioca," 14 it has not been taken into account the European discussions on matters contrary to the Charter of Athens. Brazilian architects in the postwar period did not participate in the discussions in the CIAMs, collectively, , where were highlighted the criticisms to the principles of modern architecture. (BUZZAR, 1996, p.1). However, the Ministry of Education’s episode, which promotes the development of the Escola Carioca, and the international prestige due to cannot be widespread throughout the country. In Sao Paulo, for example, despite Warchavchik’s avant garde, a cohesive group was not formed, initially, as in Rio de Janeiro. There, the process was so very different. Most of the architects working in São Paulo, at the time, remained unconnected to the matters that were being discussed by modern architecture, leading to a scene -

12 José Marianno Filho is regarded as the patron of Brazilian neocolonial architecture. He graduated in medicine, but never worked as a doctor. He lived alongside poets, writers and artists from Rio de Janeiro and, among other activities, has become an arts and architecture criticizer. He was also director of the Escola Nacional de Belas Artes between 1926 and 1927. 13 COSTA, Lucio Lúcio Costa: a vanguarda permeada com a tradiçãotradição. Interview to Hugo Segawa. Revista Projeto , n.104, out. 1987, p.146-7. 14 The group of pioneer modern architects from Rio de Janeiro is called “Escola Carioca”.

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between the years 1930 and 1940 - largely undefined. Different styles were being used: the neocolonial was still present, also the mission style and other manifestations of traditional architecture. Pinheiro (1997, p.267) notes the absence of a landmark, showing the predominant use of modern architectural language by leading architects of São Paulo. One can speak of individual trajectories that converge gradually. An assimilation process occurred, showing different stages of development at the same moment, according to each professional. Until 1945 we can find both professionals saying that they are "converted" to Modernism, as Eduardo Kneese de Mello, and others who, without any formalistic pretension, seem clearly committed to a gradual and continuous search for innovative solutions, such as Henrique Mindlin. (PINHEIRO, 1997, p.277, 291) Mindlin's career features a pursuit of rationality that characterizes modern architecture, for example, through research on the internal distribution scheme of buildings. Detaches itself from any formalistic concern. His text, "Rational Analysis of the Project (Klein Method)," 15 relates directly to the experiences of modern architects discussed in the first, CIAMs involving the need for an objective evaluation of architectural design. Thus, Mindlin and Kneese de Mello are two of the leading pioneers in this assimilation stage of modern architecture in Sao Paulo, not only for the projects of the period, but also because they’ve participated in the foundation of IAB / SP 16 in 1943 – an event whose importance is fundamental to expand the use of modern language in São Paulo. There had been a link between the architects from the IAB/Rio de Janeiro and Eduardo Kneese de Mello from São Paulo to organize the local section of the institute. (FICHER, 2005, p. 247) Kneese became the first chairman of São Paulo’s section. The IAB / SP brought together the local architects, forming a group with common aims and principles. The headquarters’ building itself would become a model of the use of modern architectural language in the city of São Paulo.

REFERENCEREFERENCESSSS

Arantes, O.B.F. “Lúcio Costa e a ‘Boa Causa’ da Arquitetura Moderna”. IN: ARANTES, O.B.F. Sentido da formação: três estudos sobre Antônio Cândido, Gilda de Mello e Souza e Lúcio Costa. Rio de Janeiro: Paz e Terra, 1997. Aymonino, C. Vivienda Racional: Ponencias de los Congressos CIAM 1929-1930. Barcelona: Gustavo Gili, 1973

15 Published in Acrópole , n.3, ano I, julho 1938, p.39-46. 16 The first president of the IAB-SP was: Eduardo Kneese de Mello (1943-50). Cities, nations and regions in planning history

Blau, E. The Architecture of Red Vienna, 1919-1934. Cambridge: Mass MIT Press, 1999. Bruand, Y. Arquitetura contemporânea no Brasil. São Paulo: Editora Perspectiva, 2005. BUZZAR, M. A. João Batista Vilanova Artigas: elementos para a compreensão de um caminho da arquitetura brasileira, 1938-1967. São Paulo: Master's Degree Thesis, University of São Paulo, 1996. Colquhoun, A. Modern Architecture. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2002 Congresso de Habitação (1.: 1931: São Paulo) Primeiro Congresso de Habitação São Paulo, maio 1931: official publication. São Paulo: Instituto de Engenharia, 1931. De Michelis, M. (org.) Espressionismo e Nuova Oggettività. La nuova architettura europea degli anni Venti. Milão: Electa, 1994. Ferraz, G. Warchavchik e a introdução da nova arquitetura no Brasil: 1925-1940. São Paulo : Museu de Arte, 1965. Ficher, S. Os Arquitetos da Poli: Ensino e Profissão em São Paulo. São Paulo: EDUSP, 2005. García Roig, J. M. Heinrich Tessenow: pensamiento utópico, germanidad, arquitectura. Valladolid: Universidad de Valladolid, Secretariado de Publicaciones e Intercambio Editorial, 2002. JANJULIO, M.S. Arquitetura Residencial Paulistana dos Anos 1920:: Ressonâncias do Arts And Crafts? São Carlos: Master's Degree Thesis, University of São Paulo, 2009. Magro, B. S. “Habitações Econômicas”. IN Congresso de Habitação (1.: 1931: São Paulo. MARTINS, C. A. F. Arquitetura e Estado no Brasil: Elementos para uma Investigação sobre a Constituição do Discurso Moderno no Brasil; a obra de Lucio Costa 1924/1952.São Paulo: Master's Degree Thesis, University of São Paulo, 1987. Mindlin, H. E. Arquitetura Moderna no Brasil. Rio de Janeiro: Aeroplano Editora/IPHAN, 2000. Mumford, E. The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism, 1928-1960. Cambridge e Londres: The MIT Press, 2000. PINHEIRO, M. L. B. Modernizada ou Moderna? A arquitetura em São Paulo, 1938- 45. São Paulo: Doctoral thesis, University de São Paulo, 1997 Riboldazzi, R. Un’altra Modernità: L’IFHTP e la Cultura Urbanistica tra le due Guerre 1923-1939. Milão: Gangemi Editore, 2009. Solà-Morales Rubió, I. Eclecticismo y vanguardia. El caso de la Arquitectura Moderna en Catalunya. Barcelona: Gustavo Gili, 1980. Tafuri , M. La Esfera y el Laberinto: Vanguardias y Arquitectura de Piranesi a los Años Setenta. Barcelona: Gustavo Gili, 1984. Tafuri, M. e DAL CO, F. Modern architecture, 2 vols. Nova York: H. N. Abrams, 1979 Tafuri, M. Projecto e Utopia: arquitectura e desenvolvimento do capitalismo. Lisboa: Presença, 1985. Tafuri, M. Vienna Rossa : la politica residenziale nella Vienna socialista. Milano: Electa, 1995.

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Taut, B. Costruire. La nuova edilizia abitativa. Bologna: Zanichelli Editore, 1983 (1927). Tessenow, H. La Costruzione della Casa. Milão: Edizioni Unicopli, 1999 (1909). Xavier, Alberto (org.) Depoimento de uma Geração-Arquitetura Moderna Brasileira. São Paulo: Cosac & Naify, 2003. Zucconi, G. (ed.) “Dal Capitello allá Città:” Il Profilo dell’Architetto Totale. In: GIOVANNONI, Gustavo Dal Capitello alla Città. Milão: Jaca Book, 1997.