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Clay Minerals for Petroleum Geologists and Engineers

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Clay Minerals for Petroleum Geologists and Engineers CLAY MINERALS FOR PETROLEUM GEOLOGISTS AND ENGINEERS . 4 SEPM SHORT COURSE NO. 22 SEAS; 1926 Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/books/book/chapter-pdf/3801090/9781565762497_frontmatter.pdf by guest on 27 September 2021 CHIN MINERHILS for PrirGEWILIEJE ellaBLINUNITI1 AMO IllagEMEW Z'..''.'....1;.11. 1411 *...., 4: I . 1 ,I 1 ' -`.I .. 1. ' .1 'el!: .,...:4,73;::a1 ::fl% I. ...e. ......y.::-..v.,-..: . - ... , h . NU. i.---N4 ..,:vv., i» WNW 1. A : 1 11 aiN ol -s. !:Y. Eningr; ,..)Y..% .. ........i.V A ' P I. r;I ':11! byEric Eslinger and David Pevear SUM SHORT COURSE NOTES NO. 22 Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/books/book/chapter-pdf/3801090/9781565762497_frontmatter.pdf by guest on 27 September 2021 ISBN #0-918985-73-0 Additional copies of this publicationmay be ordered from SEPM. Send your order to: SEPM Post Office Box 4756 Tulsa, OK 74159-0756 U.S.A. C Copyright 1988 by Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Printed in the United States of America ii Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/books/book/chapter-pdf/3801090/9781565762497_frontmatter.pdf by guest on 27 September 2021 PREFACE These notes provide a general introduction of clays for the uninitiated, plus a review of traditional and more recent concepts for those who already know something about clays. Some topics were reviewed more intensively than others, either because a recent review had not been made, a concept was relatively new or thought particularly important, orthere was perceived to be some misunderstanding about a concept. The concept of fundamental illite particles and the phenomenon ofinterparticle diffraction, relatively new concepts that arereshaping the manner of visualizing mixed-layer clays, are discussed in somedetail. A discussion of shaly-sandlog analysis, from a claymineralogy perspective, is included. Isotope geology is discussed because of its potential for permitting a better understanding of temperatures and timing of diagenesis. The role of clay minerals in sandstone diagenesis, per se,is only cursorily reviewed; references are given to reviews and compendiums on sandstone diagenesis, of which the role of clays is but a part. We have not attempted to make a complete literature search on any of the chapter topics, so unintentional omissions of some concepts or individual "good" published papers can be expected. We have collaborated to some extent on some of the chapters, but primary responsibility for chapters 1,2,4,5, and iii Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/books/book/chapter-pdf/3801090/9781565762497_frontmatter.pdf by guest on 27 September 2021 the appendix was that of Pevear, and primary responsibility for chapters 3,6, 7, 8, and 9 was that of Eslinger. We would like to thank the many people with whom we have had discussions concerning clays during the writing of this text. These include Craig Calvert, Jenny Colten-Bradley, Denny Eberl, Reed Glassman, Wuu-Liang Huang, Jim Hoffman, Bob Klimentidis, Leo Lynch, Elizabeth Nicot, Rich Pollastro,Gray Thompson, Bruce Velde, and Gene Whitney. In particular, we thank Jim Howard and Robert Elphick for reviewing thechapter on logs; their suggestions were very helpful. Also, Craig Calvert contributed to an earlier version ofsome of the material in this volume. We thank him for allowing us to edit anduse his material. In addition, we thank Sharon Blassingame forlogistical support. Finally, we thank Cities Service Oil andGas Corporation (EE) and Exxon Production Research Company (DP)for permitting us to participate in this exercise. Eric Eslinger, Tulsa David Pevear, Houston iv Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/books/book/chapter-pdf/3801090/9781565762497_frontmatter.pdf by guest on 27 September 2021 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION Definitions . 1-1 Clay ... 1-1 Clay mineral 1-1 Who Studies Clays 1-3 Distribution and Origin of Clay Minerals . 1-5 Chapter 2. STRUCTURE OF BASIC CLAY MINERAL GROUPS, AND INTERPRETATION OF CLAY MINERAL DATA Basic Structural Elements 2-1 The Silica Tetrahedron . .. 2-1 The Tetrahedral Sheet . 2-3 The Octahedral Sheet 2-3 Basic Layer Types 2-5 The 1:1 Layer . 2-5 The 2:1 Layer . 2-6 Classification and Nomenclature of Phyllosilicate Clays . 2-10 Criteria for Classification 2-10 Interpretation of Clay Mineral Data 2-11 General . 2-11 Classification of the Serpentine-Kaolin Group, and Interpretation of XRD Data . .. 2-13 Serpentine Subgroup , 2-17 Kaolin Subgroup . 2-18 Interpretation of XRD Data 2-21 Classification of the Talc-Pyrophyllite Group, and Interpretation of XRD Data . 2-23 Classification of the Mica Group, and Interpretation of XRD Data 2-28 Trioctahedral Micas . 2-29 Dioctahedral Micas . 2-31 Interpretation of XRD Data 2-35 Classification of the Vermiculite-Smectite Group, and Interpretation of XRD Data 2-36 Vermiculite Group . 2-36 Smectite Group 2-40 Saponite Group . 2-41 Montmorillonite Subgroup . 2-44 Interpretation of XRD Data 2-47 Air-dried Analysis 2-47 Solvation with Ethylene Glycol or Glycerol 2-49 Heat Treatments . 2-51 Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/books/book/chapter-pdf/3801090/9781565762497_frontmatter.pdf by guest on 27 September 2021 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) Page Chapter 2 (Continued) Classification of the Chlorite Group, and Interpretation of XRD Data . , -. 2-52 Interpretation of XRD Data .. .. .. 2-61 Classification of the Sepiolite-Palygorskite Group, and Interpretation of XRD Data . 2-62 Interpretation of XRD Data . .. I. 2-64 Classification of Associated Minerals, and Interpretation of XRD Data . .. 2-64 I XRD Data from Randomly and Preferentially I Oriented Samples .. il Preferred Orientation . 2-71 Random Orientation . 2-79 Kaolin Polytypes . 2-82 Disordered Kaolinite . 2-84 . Halloysite . 2-85 Hi Smectite 2-85 Dioctahedral Mica Polytypes . 2-86 Chlorite Polytypes . 2-87 Mixed-layer Clay Minerals . .. J. 2-88 Classification and Nomenclature . 2-88 Layer Types 2-89 1 II Stacking Arrangement . 0 2-91 1 Regular Interstratification . 2-91 : Segregation into Crystallites . 1 2-97 Random Mixed-Layering . 2-97 Regular Mixed-Layering 2-98 ! Interpretation of XRD Patterns of Mixed- Layer Clays 2-100 Recognition of Mixed Layering. 2-101 . Determination of Types of Layers . 2-108 Determination of Proportion and Ordering . I. .. .. 2-111 Qualitative Method . 2-111 Quantitative Method . 2-117 Fundamental Particle Concept . 2-129 Chapter 3. PROPERTIES Introduction . 3-1 Charge . 3-1 Structural versus Surface Charge o . .. 3-1 Zero Point of Charge . 3-4 Diffuse Double Layer Theory . .. 3-8 Gouy-Chapman Model . 3-8 Stern Model . 3-10 Water of Hydration 3-12 vi Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/books/book/chapter-pdf/3801090/9781565762497_frontmatter.pdf by guest on 27 September 2021 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) Page Chapter 3 (Continued) 3-13 Fixing of Cations . 3-13 Swelling . Deflocculation versus Dispersion . 3-17 3-17 Cation Exchange Capacity . 3-20 Surface Area . Chapter 4. CLAY MINERALS IN MODERN SEDIMENTS 4-1 Introduction . 4-2 Clays as Environmental Indicators . 4-3 Clay Origins . Modern Detrital Sediments 4-3 . 4-4 Bedrock Sources . Soil Sources . 4-5 Transport of Clays 4-6 . 4-9 Clays in Modern Oceanic Sediments . 4-16 Modern Authigenic Clay .. 4-19 Extension to Ancient Rocks . Chapter 5. SHALE DIAGENESIS Introduction 5-1 5-4 The Evidence: Mineralogy/Depth Relationships . .. Nature of the Reaction . 5-11 5-16 Controls on the Reaction . .. Relation to Petroleum Geology . 5-24 Clay-Organic Relations . 5-25 Temperature and Maturation . 5-26 . 5-33 Migration . 5-36 Overpressuring . 5-42 Sandstone Cementation . Chapter 6. CLAY MINERALS AND SANDSTONE DIAGENESIS 6-1 Introduction . Effect of Clay Minerals on Porosity 6-2 6-2 Compaction . 6-4 Clay Infiltration . 6-6 Neoformed Clays . 6-7 Transformed Clays . 6-8 Effect of Clays on Cementation . Differential Cementation in Sandstones 6-10 Secondary Porosity and Clay Minerals 6-16 Clay Mineral Trends During SandstoneDiagenesis . 6-18 Gulf Coast-Style Sandstone Diagenesis 6-21 6-22 Clay Minerals in Volcanic Sandstones . 6-23 Porosity Prediction in Sandstones . vii Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/books/book/chapter-pdf/3801090/9781565762497_frontmatter.pdf by guest on 27 September 2021 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) Page Chapter 7. ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY OF CLAY MINERALS Oxygen Isotope Geothermometry 7-1 Hydrogen and Oxygen Isotopes in Formation Waters . 7-9 K-Ar Dating of Sedimentary Clay Minerals .. 7-16 Background 7-16 K-Ar Dating of Illite and Illite/Smectite . 7-17 Gulf Coast . 7-17 North Sea . 7-20 Rb-Sr Systematics in Sediments, Clays, andWaters . 7-20 Background . 7-20 87Sr/86Sr Ratios inCrustal Materials . 7-22 Rb-Sr Dating of Rocks . 7-24 Evolution of 87Sr/86Sr in the Ocean . 7-24 Rb-Sr Dating of Shales...... 7-26 Rb-Sr Dating of Clay Minerals 7-27 Glauconites .. .. .. 7-27 Illites . 7-27 Illite/Smectite . 7-28 Chapter 8. CLAYS AND PRODUCTION PROBLEMS Introduction 8-1 Effect of Clays on Porosity-Permeability Trends . 8-1 Clays and Rock "Sensitivity" to Water . 8-6 Clay Migration 8-10 Clays, Cements, and Rock Strength . 8-17 Clays, Drilling Mud, and CoreDamage . 8-20 Drilling Muds . 8-20 Effect of Freezing . 8-21 Effect of Drying of Coreon Clay Mineral Textures and Core Permeability 8-21 Clays and Wettability . 8-24 Clays and EOR . 8-24 Clays and Acidizing . 8-25 Basic Principles 8-25 Iron in Common Minerals Found in Sandstones . 8-27 Acid Dissolution of Clays Minerals 8-27 Precipitation of Iron Ions from Solution 8-30 Precipitation of Silica During Mud Acid Treatments . .. 8-32 Chapter 9. CLAY MINERALS AND LOG ANALYSIS Introduction . 9-1 Porosity . 9-2 Density Log . 9-2 Vsh from the Simple (Unresolved) Gamma Ray Log . 9-5 Neutron Logs . 9-8 viii Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/books/book/chapter-pdf/3801090/9781565762497_frontmatter.pdf by guest on 27 September 2021 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) Page Chapter 9 (Continued) Porosity from Combination Density-Neutron Logs .
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