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And Sediment Murray-Darling Basin Sediment Transfer through the Fluvial System (Proceedings of a symposium held in Moscow, August 2004). IAHS Publ. 288, 2004 245 Patterns of erosion and sediment transport in the Murray-Darling Basin RONALD DE ROSE1, IAN PROSSER2 & MARTIN WEISSE3 1 CSIRO Land and Water, GPO Box 1666, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia [email protected] 2 Land & Water Australia, GPO Box 2182, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia 3 Institute of Geography, Schneiderberg 50, D-30167 Hanover, Germany Abstract The Murray-Darling Basin in the southeast of Australia covers approx. 1 x 106 km2, equivalent to 14% of the country’s total area. Accelerated erosion, primarily in upland regions, has greatly degraded river habitats over the past century. Here we describe the results from the basin-wide sediment modelling for this region using SedNet: a spatially distributed sediment routing model which predicts sediment loads, together with bed, flood plain and reservoir deposition. Comparisons are made between current (past 100 years) and natural (pre-European) conditions. The results demonstrate that the basin is one of sediment redistribution rather than net sediment export. The basin is estimated to have 18% of rivers with >100 times natural loads. Erosion of gullies and riverbanks has also resulted in 11 000 km (13% of the total) to have historical accumulation of over 0.3 m of sand and gravel averaged over the river length. Key words erosion; Murray-Darling Basin, Australia; sediment budget; sediment load; spatial model INTRODUCTION Extensive modification to the natural environment in many parts of Australia began with the arrival of European farmers in the early part of the 19th century. Modification of the natural environment, principally through clearance of the native Eucalypt forests, initiated a phase of accelerated erosion: the effects of which continue to the present day (Scott, 2001). Many of the ephemeral streams and creeks that previously flowed across swampy meadows and formed “a chain of ponds”, began to incise into alluvial valley fills, releasing large volumes of sediment that subsequently caused extensive sand-bed aggradation and increased suspend­ ed sediment loads. While there is evidence for declining erosion rates in recent times, erosion rates remain high in areas where poor land management practices continue (Scott, 2001). The impacts of land degradation on river systems are an important issue for land management authorities. Targeting and prioritizing the source areas of erosion that contribute disproportionately to river loads is an efficient way of maximizing returns from investment into soil, land and river rehabilitation (Lu et al., 2003). To achieve this necessitates the mapping of erosion processes and rates and the construction of a sediment budget which links river loads with upstream sources of sediment. The only practical way to assess the patterns of erosion and sediment transport across large complex areas such as the Murray-Darling Basin (Fig. 1) is a spatial modelling framework. There are often few direct measurements of sediment transport in regional catchments, and it is unrealistic to initiate sampling programmes of the processes now and expect results within decades (Prosser et al., 2001a). 246 Ronald De Rose et al. Fig. 1 The Murray-Darling Basin and river network. This paper summarizes results from application of a spatially distributed sediment model (SedNet) to the Murray-Darling Basin (DeRose et al.. 2003). SedNet couples erosion, hydrological, and sediment transport modelling to predict sediment loads and deposition throughout river networks, utilizing digital elevation models (DEM) and regional resource surveys (e.g. land use, vegetation, erosion, soil, flood plain maps). The model was first developed at national scales for the Australia NLWRA (Prosser et al.. 2001b), but is now routinely applied in regional scale assessments. STUDY AREA The Murray-Darling Basin (MDB) is large, covering approx. 1 x 106 km2 or about 14% of Australia’s land area (Fig. 1). The Basin contains >20 major river systems, including the three longest rivers in Australia, the Darling, Murray, and Murrumbidgee. The MDB covers a diverse range of environments from the alpine margin of the Great Dividing Range in the east, to tropical Queensland in the north, to the central low-lying riverine plain which dominates the region, and to the sparsely vegetated arid interior in the west. Average annual rainfall shows a strong regional gradient from >1000 mm along the Great Dividing Range in the east, to as little as 180 mm in the arid west. Rainfall is highly variable and can swing from periods of above average rainfall and frequent flooding to protracted periods of drought, such as in recent years, when rainfall was well below average and many streams and rivers ceased to flow. The natural vegetation at the time of European settlement ranged from dry and wet sclerophyll forest communities in the east to more open woodlands including mallee forests Patterns of erosion and sediment transport in the Murray-Darling Basin 247 and native grasslands in the west, all of which were largely dominated by Eucalyptus spp. At least half of the pre-European vegetation cover has now been removed and converted for cropping, grazing, and less commonly, horticulture, viticulture or plantation forests. Most rivers begin in the wetter and more mountainous region along the eastern and northern margins of the Basin where, although drainage networks are initially well defined, they soon flow onto the extensive riverine plain and become much more sinuous and anabranching in form. There are at least 9 major distributaries systems in the MDB where rivers split into between 2 to 5 anabranches, each diverging by up to 10-20 km, before coalescing to form the Murray and Darling Rivers. The greatest continuous length of river in the Basin extends 3750 km from the source of the Condamine, near Brisbane, to the mouth of the Murray, near Adelaide (Fig. 1). Only streams that carry sufficient flow merge with the major rivers and most smaller streams and rivers in the western arid zone dry up well before reaching the Darling River. All major rivers are now heavily regulated due to demands on fresh water for domestic consumption, agricultural production and industry. There are many dams, reservoirs and river off-takes throughout the MDB that have reduced both mean annual discharge and flow variability throughout the river network. Outflow from the mouth of the Murray River now averages 4.9 G1 year“1. This represents 36% of the long-term flow of 13.7 GL year"1 estimated under natural conditions, despite there being significant inflows from coastal rivers as part of the Snowy Mountain Hydroelectric Scheme. Annual diversions have gradually climbed from 3 GL in the 1930s to 11 G1 in the early 1980s and now remains capped at this level (Murray-Darling Basin Commission). METHODS The conceptual framework for the SedNet model is described by Prosser et al. (2001a) and details of model structure, parameterization, assumptions and limitations are given by Prosser et al. (2001b). A brief overview of the SedNet model follows. SedNet is a sequence of Arc-GIS routines coded in ARC Macro Language (AML) script. The model first builds a link representation of the river network from a digital elevation model (DEM), separated by tributary junctions or nodes. For the MDB, the river network was defined from a 9" resolution (approx. 250 m) DEM producing 9900 river links averaging 12 km in length and with an upslope contributing area >50 km2. Each link in the river network has an associated link watershed area averaging 100 km2. The river links and associated watersheds form the basic processing elements for the model. Each river link, receives a mean annual supply of suspended (silt and clay) and bedload (sand and gravel) sediment from upstream tributaries, and from gully, hillslope, and riverbank erosion in the associated watershed area. Each river link similarly loses sediment by deposition on the flood plain (suspended) and on the bed of the channel (bedload) when the sediment transport capacity of the link is exceeded. Reservoirs and lakes trap all passing bedload while a proportion of the suspended load is trapped depending on mean annual inflow and storage capacity. Each of the three main erosion sources are separately modelled and calibrated to local measurements where possible. Hillslope (sheetwash and rill) erosion is modelled using the RUSLE model, adjusted for seasonal variation in rainfall and cover factors (Lu et al., 2001), and scaled to 50 km2 by the sediment delivery ratio (SDR). The SDR represents the 248 Ronald De Rose et al. probability of eroded soil reaching the river network and is predicted to average 0.044 and vary mostly between 0.001 in arid regions and 0.4 in wetter regions (Lu et al.. 2003). As hillslope erosion generates mostly fíne sediment it was considered to contribute only to the suspended load. Gully erosion was estimated using rule-based statistical extrapolation of air photo measurements of gully density (Hughes & Prosser, 2003) while river bank erosion is based on an empirical model relating a global review of meander migration rate (Rutherfurd, 2000) to stream power, extent of riparian vegetation, and flood plain width (Hughes & Prosser, 2003). Limited available data and field observations of bank texture suggest a relatively even contribution of sediment (e.g. Dietrich & Dunne, 1978) from riverbank and gully sources to the suspended and bedload of rivers. A suspended to bedload sediment contribution ratio of 40:60 was found to provide the best overall agreement between observed river loads and known extents of bedload accumulation. A number of hydrological and channel morphological parameters (width, depth) are used to predict sediment transport and deposition. Flood plain deposition is based on the proportion of flow that goes over bank during the median flood event. Bank full discharge was considered equivalent to the 1.58 year recurrence interval flow on the annual maximum time series.
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