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Spatial Analysis and Remote Sensing for Monitoring Systems of Oncomelania Nosophora Following the Eradication of Schistosomiasis

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Spatial Analysis and Remote Sensing for Monitoring Systems of Oncomelania Nosophora Following the Eradication of Schistosomiasis Jpn. J. Infect. Dis., 62, 125-132, 2009 Original Article Spatial Analysis and Remote Sensing for Monitoring Systems of Oncomelania nosophora Following the Eradication of Schistosomiasis Japonica in Yamanashi Prefecture, Japan Naoko Nihei*, Osamu Komagata, Mutsuo Kobayashi, Yasuhide Saitoh1, Kan-ichiro Mochizuki2, and Satoshi Nakamura3 Department of Medical Entomology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo 162-8640; 1Department of Parasitology, School of Veterinary Medicine Azabu University, Kanagawa 229-8501; 2Research and Development Center, PASCO Corporation, Tokyo 153-0043; and 3Department of Appropriate Technology Development and Transfer, Research Institute, International Medical Center, Tokyo 162-8655, Japan (Received August 18, 2008. Accepted January 19, 2009) SUMMARY: In order to develop an inexpensive, simple, and accurate method of monitoring for the reemergence of schistosomiasis japonica in Yamanashi Prefecture, Japan, the distribution and habitation density of the inter- mediate host, Oncomelania nosophora, were spatially analyzed using geographic information systems. The 1967-1968 density distribution maps prepared by Yamanashi Prefecture and Nihei were digitized and geocoded. The habitats and population density of O. nosophora were estimated by referring to the data compiled by the Yamanashi Association for Schistosomiasis Control (1977). These earlier findings were compared with average population densities between 1996 and 2000 previously recorded (Nihei, N., Kajihara, N., Kirinoki, M., et al., Parasitol. Int., 52, 395-401, 2003 and Nihei, N., Kajihara, N., Kirinoki, M., et al., Parasitol, Int., 53, 199-205, 2004). A variance map was created to compare the spatial distribution maps of population density from each of the two periods of interest. The changes in distribution were remarkable and the map was found to be effective for future control. The most appropriate monitoring sites were chosen on the basis of the spatial population density maps and the variance map. Moreover, the paddy fields at risk were extracted using the normalized difference vegetation index value based on Advanced Land Observation Satellite images. The combination of this method with the global positioning system provides an inexpensive means of monitoring modern schistosomiasis endemic areas in Japan and also in China, the Philippines, and other countries as well, where the intermediate snail grows in paddy fields and marshlands under consistently wet conditions. However, with the exception of those created by Iijima and INTRODUCTION Ishizaki (10) and Nihei and Asami (7), no detailed maps were The epidemic of schistosomiasis japonica in Yamanashi printed or preserved during this data collection process. Prefecture was officially declared to have ended in 1996, thus In this report, the data in the distribution map of 1967- 1968 completing the national eradication of this endemic disease. maintained by our group were compared with the results of However, populations of the intermediate snail host, namely, fixed-point observations recorded using geographic informa- Oncomelania nosophora, still exist. Hence, fixed-point ob- tion systems (GIS) from 1996 to 2000 (11,12). Furthermore, servations of O. nosophora habitats were conducted for 8 areas supportive of O. nosophora habitation were represented years spanning from 1996 to 2003, in accordance with deci- diagrammatically following analyses of aerial photographs sions made by the prefectural authorities, the Yamanashi and field surveys. The trends in habitat range and density Institute for Public Health (YIPH), and citizens who were were studied, enabling the identification of areas that still concerned about the reemergence of this disease (1,2). How- need to be continuously monitored. Snails were collected sev- ever, this series of observations was discontinued in 2003, eral times each year, and specimens were examined to identify since no infected snails had been identified during the study any cases of infection. If the schistosomiasis had indeed re- period. emerged, the condition of the snails could be immediately Various measures to eradicate the disease had been under- assessed. Here, we established a precise, efficient, inexpen- taken since 1913, when records maintenance began (3-9). sive, and rapid method of monitoring the risk of future out- Since the 1960s, information regarding measures taken to breaks of schistosomiasis japonica derived from imported target O. nosophora has been recorded; various factors have cases. It has been claimed that remote sensing and GIS have been included in these records, including distribution area, been actively adopted to monitor for outbreaks of schistoso- habitat density, development and dispersal of molluscicides, miasis japonica by considering factors such as climate change, and the positions and lengths of concrete irrigation channels. changes in land condition, and migration of patients in China and the Philippines (13,14). However, with few exceptions, *Corresponding author: Mailing address: Department of Medical there have been very few reports on the use of these techniques Entomology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Toyama (15-22). The results of the present observations could be used 1-23-1, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 162-8640, Japan. Tel: +81-3-5285- as a reference for monitoring the risk of schistosomiasis 1111, Fax: +81-3-5285-1147, E-mail: [email protected] japonica in countries other than Japan. 125 map. An isopleth map of O. nosophora density was created MATERIALS AND METHODS by superimposing the density isopleths onto this map. Data: (i) Data from YIPH (1967-1968): O. nosophora den- Creation of a density distribution map for O. nosophora sity distribution map by Nihei (no original map; extant map for 1996-2000: Snail habitat observations were conducted hand-drawn due to the lack of photocopying facilities at at 120 fixed points from 1996 to 2000, but due to budgetary a scale of 1:50,000 on topographic maps issued by the Geo- constrains, the number of fixed points was reduced to 60 be- graphical Survey Institute). (ii) 1970 statistical data for aver- tween the years of 2001 to 2003. For the present study, we age O. nosophora habitat density per municipality based on used the average populations for the first 5 years, when a data from YASC (1977) (5). (iii) 1996-2000: Data on O. higher number of fixed points were used. The number of speci- nosophora population density per fixed point calculated based mens collected was kept consistent within a 0.25 × 0.25-m on the results of a survey conducted in Yamanashi Prefecture frame at 2 water inlets per point. In order to compare these from 1996 to 2003 (12). (iv) Digital map of Yamanashi Prefec- data with those of the 1967-1968 GIS density distribution ture at a scale of 1:25,000 (PFM; Pasco Co., Tokyo, Japan). map, the averages were converted to equivalents collected (v) Aerial photos on a scale of approximately 1:20,000 (taken per square meter. The density distribution map per fixed point by the Japan Forestry Association, Tokyo, Japan in 2002). was displayed by classifying the data into 5 categories. Using (vi) Two advanced land observing satellite (ALOS) images these fixed points, we created a GIS spatial density distribu- taken in April and August 2007 (JAXA, Tokyo, Japan). (vii) tion map of the snail population for the period from 1996 to Data from the following GIS software: ArcGIS 9.1 + Spatial 2000 within a 250-m search area. Analyst Extension (ESRI, Redlands, Calif., USA). Creation of a spatial density variance map of O. nosophora Density distribution map of O. nosophora created on between 1967 -1968 and 1996 - 2000: GIS software, Arc View, the basis of surveys conducted in 1967 - 1968: The Yamanashi was used for dividing and displaying the density of each habi- Prefecture authorities had conducted a detailed survey of the tat of Oncomelania in 1967-1968. The habitat density at the density of snails in each habitat in each municipality for 2 investigated fixed points from 1996 to 2000 was similarly years. The distribution in the habitat was estimated as the divided and displayed as classes of 100. The values from the density of O. nosophora populations per square meter (m2) spatial distribution map of 1967-1968 were deducted from by dividing the habitat into 3 categories, namely, <10 snails/ those of the 1996-2000 map (green denotes positive values, m2 (low), 10-19 snails/m2 (medium), and ≥20 snails/m2 (high) white denotes no change, and red denotes negative values). each year, from which the density distribution map was As regards the range categories for habitat density at the 120 created. The coordinates were then added, and the resulting fixed points, maps were created ranging from 50 to –50. map was scanned. The snails mainly inhabited paddy fields Determination of the range of paddy fields with possible and associated irrigation channels; hence, habitat density is O. nosophora habitation baes on ALOS image data from represented as a linear, and not an aerial value. The coded April and August 2007: The land surrounding O. nosophora density data for the established 3 categories were joined for 2 habitats in the Kofu Basin consist of paddy fields, fallow lands, years per code, and a GIS layer was subsequently created. orchards, and other types of land. In order to determine the When the maps were overlaid and the lines were duplicated, range of paddy fields and fallow lands with possibile O. the higher numeric value was selected, and a density distri- nosophora habitation, the normalized difference vegetation bution map was created by defining 0.5 m as the line buffer index (NDVI) was computed using a near-infrared band and (hereafter referred to as the “1967-1968 GIS density distri- a visible-light red band of 2 ALOS images taken in April and bution map”). in August of 2007 (23). This index represents the existence Estimation of the average density of O. nosophora per and degree of vegetative activity, and shows the value nor- municipality and supplementary data for 1967-1968: In malized by –1 to 1.
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