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Plant Kingdom Plant Kingdom 1. What is the basis for the classification of algae? Solution: Initially, algae classification was based on a single visible character in the form of the colour of the thallus. Accordingly, three main algal divisions were recognised – Green algae, Brown algae and Red algae. However, at present, in addition to the colour, some more characteristics are taken into consideration for algal division. Some of them are: a. Type of photosynthetic pigments present b. Nature of the stored food c. Composition of the cell wall d. Number and position of the flagella e. Pattern of life cycle Based on the above features, algae have been classified into three main classes – Chlorophyceae (green alga), Phaeophyceae (brown alga) and Rhodophyceae (red alga). 2. When and where does reduction division take place in the life cycle of a liverwort, a moss, a fern, a gymnosperm and an angiosperm? Solution: Reduction division is a meiotic cell division, and it occurs in the reproductive organs at different stages of the life cycle. The usual sequence of steps leading to reductional division across all species of plants is as follows: a. The spore mother cell is formed by the sporophytic generation and is a diploid cell. b. The spore mother cell (2n) undergoes reductional division to form haploid spores (n). c. A haploid spore germinates and marks the beginning of the gametophytic generation. In liverworts and moss, for instance, the sporophyte that depends on the gametophyte, bears the spore mother cell. It undergoes meiotic division to form haploid spores inside the capsule, which germinate and form free living gametophyte. In ferns, the spore mother cell is formed inside the sporangia of the dominant sporophyte. It undergoes meiotic division to form haploid spores. The spores, after liberation, germinate to form prothallus and mark the beginning of the gametophytic generation. In gymnosperms, the spore mother cell is present in the microsporangia / megasporangia borne on the microsporophyll / megasporophyll. It undergoes meiotic division to form haploid male and female gametes, in the form of egg and pollen. In angiosperms, the (dominant phase) main plant is a sporophyte and bears flowers with anther and pistil, which is the site of occurrence of the spore mother cell. The spore mother cell undergoes meiotic division to form pollen/egg cell. 3. Name three groups of plants that bear archegonia. Briefly describe the life cycle of any one of them. Solution: Archegonium is a female sex organ having the egg cell enclosed by a protective layer. It is present in bryophytes, pteridophytes, and gymnosperms. Life cycle of bryophytes 1. The plant body is thallus-like in lower bryophytes, while in higher forms it can be differentiated into rhizoids, stem and leaves. Functionally, they are equivalent to roots. 2. The dominant phase is a free-living thalloid gametophyte (haploid) , which lacks vascular tissues. Reproduction is brought about by vegetative and sexual means. 3. Sexual reproduction is highly oogamous and takes place with the aid of the male and female organs of reproduction, called the antheridia and the archegonia . The former is club-shaped, and the latter flask-shaped. The sex organs are jacketed and multi-cellular. The archegonium is flask-shaped with a five or six rowed tubular neck and a broader single to multi-walled venter. The venter contains a non-motile oosphere. Each antheridum produces biciliate antherozoids. 4. Fertilisation occurs in the presence of moisture. The male gamete swims to the female sex organ and movement is chemotactic (sucrose). The fusion of the male and female gametes results in a zygote. Since water is required for the completion of the life cycle, bryophytes are known as the amphibians of the plant kingdom. 5. Sporophytic generation is never independent, but is parasitic over the gametophyte. Sporophyte can be differentiated into foot, seta and capsule. 6. The capsule consists of a diploid spore mother cell. It undergoes reductional division to form haploid spores. All spores are similar, and after liberation, they germinate to form thalloid protonema . Protonema finally gives rise to a new haploid pplant. 7. There are two well-defined generations in the life cycle of all bryophytes. 8. The life cycle of all bryophytes has heteromorphic alteration of haploid gametophytes and diploid sporophyte. It is known as haplodiplontic life cycle. 9. The stages before fertilisation and after reduction division contain haploid set of chromosomes, while the stages after fertilisation and after reductional division contain a diploid set of chromosomes. The former is called gametophytic generation and the latter is known as sporophytic generation . This phenomenon is known as alternation of generation , which is a characteristic feature of this group. 10. 4. Mention the ploidy of the following: protonemal cell of a moss; primary endosperm nucleus in dicot, leaf cell of a moss; prothallus cell of a fern; gemma cell in Marchantia; meristem cell of moncot, ovum of a liverwort, and zygote of a fern. Solution: Protonemal cell of moss: Haploid (n) Primary endosperm nucleus in dicot: Triploid (3n) Leaf cell of a moss: Haploid (n) Prothallus cell of a fern: Haploid (n) Gemma cell in Marchantia: Haploid (n) Meristem cell of moncot: Diploid (2n) Ovum of a liverwort: Haploid (n) Zygote of a fern: Diploid (2n) 5. Write a note on the economic importance of algae and gymnosperm. Solution: The economic importance of algae is: 1. Producer of aquatic systems: Algae are major producers of all aquatic ecosystems. 2. CO 2-O2 balance: About 50% of the total global CO 2 is fixed by algae through the process of photosynthesis. They increase the level of dissolved oxygen in water, thereby making life congenial for aquatic organisms. 3. Food: a. About 70 species of marine algae are used as food. b. Some are utilised as fodder, for example Porphyra, Laminaria, Sargassum, etc. 4. Hydrocolloids: Red and brown algae are good sources of colloids like carrageen, algin, agar-agar, funori, etc. 5. Single cell protein (SLP) - Spirulina and chlorella are rich sources of proteins, vitamin and minerals. - They are widely used as food supplements. 6. Minerals: - Bromine, iodine, etc. are extracted from algae. 7. Medicines: - Codium, Chlorella, Laminnaria, Durvillaea, etc, have medicinal importance. Economic importance of gymnosperms: 1. Ornamental uses: Cycas revolute, Thuja, Criptomeria etc. are usually cultivated in gardens as ornamental plants. 2. Source of wood: - Many gymnosperm trees, particularly conifers (example pine, cedar, etc) are of great importance for their light-coloured, straight, light- weight soft wood. - The wood is extensively used as timber for building material, in making furniture and closets, match boxes, pencils, railway sleepers, paper pulp and as fuel. 3.Edible Products: a. The stem and seeds of the cycas yield “sago” starch. b. The seeds of many cycads and conifers are edible. c. The seeds of “Pinus gerardiana” are used as dry fruits, called “Chilgoza”. 4. Medicinal uses: a. Species of Ephedra yield an alkaloid called “ephedrine.” b. “Ephedrine” is used in the preparation of medicines for the treatment of cough, asthma and bronchitis. 5. Resins: a. Resins are semi-fluid substances secreted in the ducts, cavities or canals of coniferous trees. b. The resins are complex oxidation products of various essential oils containing terpenes, resin acids and esters. c. The resins are chiefly used in the manufactures of varnishes, water- proof paints, sealing wax, etc. d. Some common resins obtained from various sources are: (a) Copal obtained from Agathis australis. (b) Resins obtained from pine. (c) Canada balsam obtained from Abies balsamea. 6. Tannins: Tannins are complex phenolic substances obtained from the bark of Tsugo condenses. 7. Essential oils: Many gymnosperms yield essential oils that are used in perfumery and as flavouring agents. 6. Both gymnosperms and angiosperms bear seeds, but then, why are they classified separately? Solution: Gymnosperms and angiosperms are classified separately because of the following reasons: 1. The sex organs in gymnosperms are in the form of cones, whereas in angiosperms, they are present in the form of flowers. 2. The ovules of gymnosperms are naked, but in angiosperms, they are enclosed inside the ovary. 3. The endosperm in gymnosperms is haploid and it is formed before fertilisation. In angiosperms, the endosperm is fertilised product and it is triploid. 4. Gymnosperms lack fruits, and the seeds are naked, whereas fruits that enclose seeds are present in angiosperms. 5. In gymnosperms, the wood is non-porous, and lacks vessels. In angiosperms, the wood is porous, and vessels are present. 6. Archegonium is present in gymnosperms. In angiosperms, it is absent and gets modified into egg apparatus. 7. What is heterospory? Briefly comment on its significance. Give two examples. Solution: Heterospory is a phenomenon in which two kinds of spores are borne by the same plant. These spores differ in size. The smaller one is known as the microspore and the larger one is known as the megaspore. The microspore germinates to form the male gametophyte and the megaspore germinates to form the male gametophyte and the megaspore germinates to form the female gametophyte. Significance of heterospory: A heterosporous condition leads to the precocious development of gametophytes that has ultimately led to the seed habit. The evolutionary trend is marked by the development of two different kinds of spores, and the retention of the larger spore within the plant body. This ensures a proper development of the sporophyte, and eventually leads to the development of an independent and dominant sporophytic generation. As we proceed along the evolutionary ladder, there is progressive loss of the independent existence of gametophytes, and they have become increasingly dependent upon the parent sporophyte for nourishment. The trend started in pteriophytes in the form of heterosporous condition that eventually led to the seed habit.
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