Masaryk University Faculty of Arts
Department of English and American Studies
English Language and Literature
Katarína Murinová
The Characters of Governesses, Guardians, Chaperons and Nurses in British Novels M.A. Thesis
Supervisor: PhDr. Věra Pálenská, CSc.
2007
I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography. ......
1 I would like to thank PhDr. Věra Pálenská, CSc. for her useful comments, valuable advice and close revision of my thesis.
2 Table of Contents Preface...... 4 Introduction ...... 5 Chapter 1 : Evelina ...... 14 1.1 In General...... 14 1.2 The Plot ...... 15 1.3 The Character of Mr. Villars...... 16 1.4 The Character of Madame Duval ...... 22 1.5 The Character of Mrs. Mirvan...... 25 1.6 The Character of Mrs. Selwyn ...... 27 Chapter 2 : Northanger Abbey ...... 31 2.1 In General...... 31 2.2 The plot ...... 32 2.3 The Character of Mrs. Allen ...... 33 2.4 The Character of Mrs. Thorpe...... 38 Chapter 3 : Jane Eyre ...... 41 3.1 In General...... 41 3.2 The Plot ...... 42 3.3 The Character of Bessie Lee ...... 43 3.4 The Character of Jane Eyre ...... 47 3.5 The Character of Mrs. Reed ...... 52 Conclusion...... 57 Résumé...... 61 Notes...... 62 Bibliography...... 65
3 Preface
The aim of this thesis is to deal with the characters occupied as governesses, chaperons, guardians and nurses. As these jobs were mostly widespread in the eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries, the novels of our interest are chosen from this period of time. The books are analyzed chronologically according to the year of their first appearance in print.
The structure of the thesis includes Introduction, three chapters devoted to three British novels and Conclusion.
In Introduction I give a historical background concerning above mentioned jobs and characterize them in relation to their impact on the young ladies in their care.
The three chapters discuss the novels Evelina (1778) by Francis Burney, Northanger
Abbey (1818) by Jane Austen and Jane Eyre (1847) by Charlotte Brontë. Each chapter contains basic information relating to the facts about the author, the publication of the novel and its reception as well as a brief summary of the plot. The chapter proceeds with the interpretation of the figures in the position of the governess, chaperon, guardian or nurse.
With the exception of Jane Eyre, all of them are minor characters, though they have important roles in the lives of the heroines who are always young, inexperienced ladies in need of guidance.
In Conclusion I summarize similarities and differences in individual characters and their authors` approach to their characterization.
In the choice of the novels I was inspired by the courses on British Women Writers.
As most critics deal chiefly with major characters and they tend to neglect the minor ones, I have decided to focus on the latter and demonstrate their impact on the formation and education of the heroines.
4 Introduction
Before dealing with the interpretation of the individual characters in the novels, it is necessary to give a historical background of the professions that are going to be discussed in this thesis.
In the eighteenth and nineteenth century England different people were employed within middle and upper class households. It was a sort of the prestige of the family and a proof of their wealth to employ not only people directly responsible for the running of the house, but also women of different social ranks, ages and education who took care of their masters` children. Ellen Micheletti observes that in Victorian England, “most mothers and fathers of the upper and middle classes approached child rearing in a strictly hands off manner” (Micheletti) 1. She goes on claiming that they used to put their children into the care of wet nurses soon after their birth, later they entrusted them to nurses and nurserymaids, and when their children were old enough to start their education, the parents would hire a governess or send them to boarding school, so it often happened that the children developed a closer relationship with their nurses and governesses 2 rather than with their mother and father.
The husband used to employ these women to facilitate the life of his wife who was not supposed to work at all and had plenty of time at her disposal. In such a family, the husband was considered to be a solvent man deserving the esteem of the society for his ability to secure the comfort for his family. However, the wife still had some duties such as
1 For more information see a reference to the web site in the Notes. 2 All the information on the employment of the nurses and governesses is taken from the following secondary sources: Nannies & Governesses by Ellen Micheletti , A Historical View of the Victorian Governess by Clarissa Cluessman, The Governess and Class Prejudice by Erin Wells, Punch and Brontë on Training the Ideal Victorian Governess by Emily Constable, The Figure of the Governess, based on Ronald Pearsall`s Night`s Black Angels by Philip N. Allingham and The Governess in Nineteenth-Century Literature , ed. by Jessica Menzo Russel Whitaker.
5 supervising the organization of work within the household, being a good wife, mother and chatelaine, looking after her children and invigilating their education. In two last mentioned duties she was helped by a nanny and a governess. Women of these occupations were looked at with contempt by the women who did not have to work because at that time an employed woman was considered inferior for her financial dependence on other people and also for her social position which was not clearly determined. Even though they were paid for their work, their earnings were poor to give them independence and the lack of money diminished their chance to get married. And since they worked and lived within the household, they had hardly any opportunity to make any acquaintance with gentlemen who used to consider them unequal and undeserving their attention. In fact, a nurse and a governess were not supposed to marry at all by the society and few of them managed to fulfil themselves as wives and mothers.
Except for a wet nurse, a nanny was the first female who looked after a child from its birth until its four or five years of life and she was also called a nurse. She was a woman of the lower class, usually without fair education whose main duties were looking after children, feeding them, bathing them, dressing them, keeping their things in order and entertaining them by telling them fairy tales, singing to them or taking them for a walk. She was paid for her services and lived within a household. She was usually single, like Nelly Dean in
Wuthering Heights , but could be also married, like Bessie in Jane Eyre who got married after the children in her care did not need her care any more. In the last mentioned case she could remain in the household assuming another position which could be that of a housekeeper or she could leave her job and joined her husband. If a nurse was a sensible and tactful woman, she often played the role of the confident to whom her charges revealed their secrets or asked advice. She established a close relationship with her orphaned wards in particular and tended to provide them with affection they were deprived of because of the death of one or both of
6 their parents. Although she could not replace their mother and father, she was often the only person who understood her wards and tried to protect them.
A nurse as a person taking care of the children was mainly responsible for the physical development and good state of health of her wards, could provide them also with affection and attention, but was not responsible for their education, being uneducated herself. The role of the educator of the young ladies in English well off families was entrusted to a governess, another female employee living within her masters` household.
The governess was not an occupation which a young woman would have chosen of her own accord. An educated woman was usually forced to work as a governess or teacher to earn her living because of the financial distress of her family or because she was an orphan without any relatives to rely on. She could be a member of the same class as her masters, but was never treated as their equal. The loss of the fortune caused her to alter her previous social status which became indeterminate: by her birth she was still a lady, but by wealth she could not be considered equal to the ladies of her own rank, nor she would socialize with the servants from the lower classes. She had no choice but to become a governess, if she did not want to fall into the working class and the dread of poverty made her accept this occupation.
The work of the governess was not entirely condemned and criticized by her masters and was considered also rewarding for both the parents and herself as it is mentioned in Early
Victorian England : “The education of a girl in a good home, where the parents took an interest in their children and the governess was well chosen and well treated, was probably as good as it has ever been” (C. S. Peel, 110). However, only few governesses were lucky enough to be treated well by their masters and their children and it occurred frequently that the “governess was a poor down trodden creature to whom her employers and her charges were often scandalously rude” (C. S. Peel, 110).
7 Particularly in Victorian times, there was a great demand for governesses whose main duties were teaching girls useful skills such as drawing, needlework, playing the musical instruments, but also three Rs, history, geography or a foreign language such as French,
German or Italian. Governesses usually gained their qualification at an institution that provided them with sufficient knowledge to educate young girls after leaving this school.
They were used to harsh discipline and life in inhuman conditions which prevented some of them from finishing their studies because of their early death caused by the speedy spread of contagious diseases within the school premises as it occurred at Cowan Bridge school attended by the Brontës. 3 However, the hard life of many governesses continued also after their studies, when their lives were conditioned by their masters` heartlessness and they had to endure humiliation and ill treatment from the members of the family they worked in which often caused them to suffer from neurosis or other psychological disturbances.
The position of the governesses within the household was a peculiar one because they were neither servants nor their masters` equals, so it happened that their masters, but also other people working within the same household, did not know how to behave towards them and “their equivocal social status deprived them of any companionship or sense of belonging” (Stone, 244). The governess was often predestined to isolation caused by the exclusion from the family life: she was supposed to eat her meals in the schoolroom with her charge, was not allowed to participate in the parties held in the house and was often forbidden even to enter the parlour.
The salary of the governesses was rather low, “sometimes as little as ₤12 to ₤30 a year, although those who knew French and had the right graces and connections might earn up to ₤100 a year ‘in a family of distinction’” (Stone, 244). In the mid nineteenth century the number of governesses increased while the demand for them decreased and some of the
3 Maria and Elizabeth Brontë died of the consequences of the epidemy spread at Cowan Bridge school (Shattock, 63).
8 desperate ones accepted to work only for shelter and food being entirely dependent on their masters (Allingham) 4.
Even though a governess was conscious of her destiny, her wish was often to run a school of her own, which was, in most cases, hardly realizable desire because she could not afford to open one with her modest savings. Also the Brontë sisters tried to run one, but unsuccessfully 5. The main drawback of this occupation was the fact that a woman trained for a governess could hardly be employed in other professions until she would accept a job as a worker which would mean a fall in the social hierarchy. However, in the course of the nineteenth century working conditions of the governesses improved also thanks to the
Governesses` Benevolent Institution 6 founded in 1841. It helped them to find a job and, in particular, it took care of the old ones unable to work because of their advanced age, providing them with small financial help. However, this association could not at once resolve the problems of all governesses whose position in society had remained unaltered for many years to follow. They still had to cope with the same hardships as they used to and their occupation was not an enviable one.
Another group of women, who offered their services to the middle and upper class families, whose social status was different from the previous two female professions already mentioned, were chaperons. 7 A chaperon was a member of the same class as her masters, financially independent of them, who often did her duty without any salary and usually did not live within the same household as her charge. She used to be a married lady or a widow who took care of her masters` growing daughters, accompanied them to the public places and kept them company instead of their mother who was either too busy to take them to society or 4 For more information see a reference to the web site in the Notes. 5 Joanne Shattock remarks that the Brontës` “plans for school did not materialize” probably due to their lack of money (Shattock, 64). 6 The Governesses Benevolent Institution was an organization helping “governesses during illness, poverty and old age. It was renamed the Schoolmistresses and Governesses Institution in 1952 and was still in existence in 2004 (London Metropolitan Archives). 7 All the information on the chaperons is taken from the Occupations for Women by Frances Elisabeth Willard, Evelina by Francis Burney and Northanger Abbey by Jane Austen.
9 often dead, which occurred frequently due to the high level of mortality of the mothers giving birth to their children. A chaperon should have had a very good reputation to be a moral companion of young ladies and even though she had certain independence of her masters, she was still subdued to them, when her charge was concerned.
The main function of the chaperon was the surveillance over good manners of young ladies while accompanying them in public or staying with them when they were receiving their visitors at home. A chaperon was a lady who was either a relation or an acquaintance of her charge and was usually better off than a young lady in her care. She had to have a spotless character and be a respectable woman with good knowledge of the society in which she introduced her charge.
A chaperon was usually a social sponsor of her ward, especially when the latter was an orphan, which led her to refuse any remuneration for her work. If she was a wise woman who found it her duty to introduce properly her charge into society, helped her to make proper acquaintances, provided her with advice concerning not only her conduct, but also her dress and hairstyle, she contributed a great deal to the young lady`s happiness. To succeed in this task, it was necessary for a chaperon to create a good relationship with her charge of which was capable only a tactful, intelligent and kind woman who, when possessing a social talent, managed easily to the young ladie`s success in society.
The most frequent example of the chaperon was that of a woman of advanced age acting as a protector of the young lady`s reputation who was still considered unable to defend it herself. The chaperon became her companion until a young lady in her charge got married or was old enough to do without her. However, a chaperon could be also a young woman, either married or spinster, who became a confident of her charge very easily because of her young age but, on the other hand, she could have less authority with her, so the older chaperons were preferred.
10 Not all chaperons were exemplary women and it happened that some of them took the role of the chaperon only for their own profit. They were already married and wanted to continue leading a gay life without acting as a guide of the young ladies, but used them as a pretext to appear more frequently in society. They were giving a bad example to their charges who were prone to imitate their chaperons` behaviour and thus spoiled the chance to be regarded as well bred young women. A bad chaperon could become not only a gay, young married woman, but also one of an advanced age who was not aware of the importance of the task she was performing and was rather negligent in the care for her ward. An example of this kind of the chaperon is Mrs. Allen in Northanger Abbey who is concerned only with her own good looks and limits her duty to accompany her charge to public places where she is often left by herself.
It was considered a violation of the social rule when a young lady appeared in public without any guidance or just in the company of other young ladies. If the members of her party were also gentlemen and she was seen with them, the lady was judged harshly for her misconduct because her good reputation was in danger and could be only protected by the presence of the chaperon. By protecting the reputation of the lady was meant to accompany her in public places and this guidance was not restricted only to social occasions such as balls, theatres and opera performances, parties or dinners. The chaperon was also supposed to be at the side of her charge while shopping, going for a walk or riding in a coach. Her presence was indispensable while a young lady was faced with gentlemen and it was she who decided whether a man was worth her ward´s attention and could be a good match for her. So it depended mainly on the chaperon´s taste and will what gentleman could approach her ward and be a potential husband for her charge, preventing thus a young lady from a bad marriage.
While making such decisions, a chaperon had to rely on her own experience and good knowledge of the society and their members which she could gain not only by herself, but
11 also by wide rank of her acquaintances and friends who could provide her with information concerning both unfamiliar gentlemen and ladies approaching her charge. By her cautious and tactful acting she eliminated acquaintances representing a threat to her ward´s innocence, but, on the other hand, she favored relationships that contributed to the benefit of the young lady. However, her surveillance had to be discreet and not exaggerated so that a young lady did not feel her presence as a burden and if she treated her charge with tact and understanding, she obtained her respect and admiration in return.
Guardians 8 were not subdued to other people for the care of their wards and were members of the middle or upper class who were asked to look after orphaned children of their relatives or acquaintances. Guardians were esteemed by the society for their ability to take such a responsibility and were considered benefactors of their wards. Like, governesses and chaperons, also guardians were responsible for young ladies` conduct and education as well as for their physical, moral and character`s development which was a task of great importance. They were supposed to provide their wards with shelter and education and look after them until they were able to take care of themselves.
Guardians should be people of reasonable age who were both physically and mentally capable of taking care of their wards, were solvent enough to bring them up properly and provide them with everything their wards` parents would not have deprived their children of including shelter, food and clothes, but also helped them to build their character and manners.
Guardians had to be protectors of their wards, able to establish a confident relationship with them and if they were tactful and apprehensive enough, the personality of young ladies developed because both their psychological and physiological needs were satisfied during their growing up. However, a few wards were lucky enough to make such experience. Many of them were humiliated and mistreated by their guardians, which often occurred, when a
8 All the information on guardians is taken from Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontë and Evelina by Fanny Burney.
12 ward lived among her guardian`s children who ridiculed and teased her. Some guardians sent their ward to school not because of their interest in her education, but to get rid of her and the school gave them the only possibility to do so without raising suspicion of their true intentions with her.
In addition to taking care of their wards, guardians were responsible for the fortune of the orphaned ladies, if they had inherited any, and were in charge of it until they got married.
While thinking of their ward`s education and conduct, they could employ other people to help them to take care of their wards, such as governesses, or send them to school. However, guardians should have been the first people to teach their wards moral principles which they should have followed themselves, setting a good example to their wards. When it was about time for a young lady`s introduction to the society, a guardian could hire a companion among his acquaintances to chaperon a parentless girl. While staying with her chaperon, the ward still depended on her guardian`s will and both she and the chaperon had to inform him about their decisions while staying out of the ward`s home because the guardian had the same authority and responsibility as a parent.
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Chapter 1 : Evelina
1.1 In General
Fanny Burney (1752 – 1840) wrote her first novel Evelina, or, A Young Lady`s
Entrance into the World in 1778. It was published in three volumes and met with success among both the readers and the critics not only in England, but also abroad 9. However,
Burney`s identity as its author was not immediately revealed because she decided to publish it anonymously. Her first copy of Evelina was written in a disguised hand to prevent the publishers from recognizing her, as they were familiar with her handwriting for the transcriptions she wrote for her father. Because of many doubts about the writer`s identity,
Evelina `s authorship was attributed to several male writers and after becoming known,
Burney had to get used to notoriety which was rather difficult for the shy writer. She was pleased by the critiques of her work, especially by that of Dr. Johnson which was very positive and helped her to be more self confident. Being encouraged by him as well as by other people from both literary circles and from the members of her family, Fanny Burney successfully continued writing comedies.
The fame of Evelina is attributed to “its real novelty, even though it showed traces of earlier literary models” (Stevenson, 153). Although Burney was influenced by the works of
Richardson, Fielding and Smollett, she managed to treat the social questions in a satirical manner and Evelina became classified as a satirical social comedy or comedy of manners, offering an insight into the contemporary society and its etiquette with which Burney was well acquainted herself. Lionel Stevenson further explains that the novel was popular
9 In 1779 German translation of Evelina was published and a year later Dutch translation appeared (Bloom, xii).
14 because of its naturalness, the faithful descriptions of the places which made it attractive to a reader and also due to the public`s promptness to accept the satirical social comedy as a genre
(Stevenson, 154).
Evelina is an epistolary novel and its story takes place in the end of the eighteenth century. It describes the heroine`s introduction into society and includes many comic situations she experiences because of her unawareness of the etiquette.
1.2 The Plot
The heroine of the novel is seventeen year old Evelina who was adopted by Mr. Villars after the death of her mother who has been abandoned by her husband, Lord Belmont soon after her daughter`s birth. When it is time for Evelina`s introduction into society, Lady
Howard suggests Mr. Villars that her daughter, Mrs. Mirvan, could keep his ward company, while attending social events in London. At first Mr. Villars does not want Evelina to go there, but than he assents reluctantly. Evelina has to face many embarrassing situations caused by her unawareness of the social conventions, such as the refusal of one dancer followed by the acceptance of another. While staying in London, she falls in love with Lord
Orville and meets her vulgar and ill bred grandmother who wants to adopt her for selfish reasons.
During her stay with the Mirvans in Howard Grove, Lady Howard writes a letter to Sir
John Belmont asking him to acknowledge Evelina as his legitimate daughter. To Evelina`s great distress, he refuses to make this step claiming he has already a daughter who later, however, turns up to be the daughter of Evelina`s deceitful wet nurse.
Evelina`s grandmother Madame Duval invites her granddaughter to stay with her and their relatives, the Branghtons, in London where she experiences a lot of vexatious incidents.
15 Here Evelina meets and saves from suicide Mr. Macartney, a young Scottish gentleman, who later turns out to be her brother.
When Evelina returns to her guardian to Berry Hill, she is altered because she misses
Lord Orville. Mr. Villars, who worries about his ward`s health, sends her to the spa in Bristol, entrusting her into Mrs. Sellwyn`s care. Here Evelina meets Lord Orville again and is introduced to his family. Mrs. Selwyn who has satisfying proofs concerning Evelina`s birth, helps to convince Lord Belmont about his parenthood and the girl is finally acknowledged as his daughter. She is given a title which improves her social position and she becomes an equal partner to Lord Orville. Mr. Villars is pleased by this solution of Evelina`s situation, but, on the other hand, is afraid of losing her because she has always been to him as his own daughter. She feels the same tenderness towards her guardian and although she discovers her natural father and marries the man she loves, Mr. Villars still remains for her the “best of men” (Burney, 406).
1.3 The Character of Mr. Villars
Mr. Villars is a man who experiences his role of the guardian twice in his life. The wards he has in his care are a mother and a daughter: the first loses her father, the latter her mother, and both of them are entrusted to Mr. Villars not to be spoiled by Madame Duval. In both cases he assumes his responsibility with devotion, provides the girls with education and tries to be a good substitute for their missing parents. He feels for them paternal affection and anxiety and brings them up as well principled young ladies. However, his first ward, Miss
Evelyn, unaccustomed with socializing in the high circles, becomes easily misled by a young and superficial gentleman, who after a secret marriage abandons his pregnant wife. Without having any proof of her marriage, her reputation is in danger although according to Mr.
16 Villars, “every body believed her innocent, from the guiltless tenor of her unspotted youth, and from the known libertinism of her barbarous betrayer” ( Evelina , 15). In this situation,
Miss Evelyn is sure to find her unique salvation in Mr. Villars who offers her shelter and protection and despite his ward`s error, his feelings for her are not altered. He is hurt by her unwise conduct but knows that her failure is also his failure because he has not warned her against the dangers of the world and now he feels remorse and finds himself culpable for not having accompanied her to Paris where her misfortune has begun. On the other hand, he knows that his responsibility for Miss Evelyn is restricted because of her adult age that does not permit him to detain her forcibly in his care. He finds it his duty to take care of Miss
Evelyn until her death, when she gives birth to Evelina, Mr. Villars second ward.
To avoid suspicions regarding his ward, he ensures Evelina`s identity by giving her name of Anville as she has no claim of any other name. In spite of trying to be more prudent in her upbringing, Mr. Villars makes the same mistake as he did in the education of her mother. He is still convinced that her exclusion from society can protect his ward from being deceived by the lures of the world and again he neglects to instruct her about the way she should behave in high circles. This omission of his duty is attributed to the fact that he has been determined not to let Evelina be acquainted with the people of higher rank at all, although he realizes that the only possibility for the improvement of Evelina`s social status is through marriage as there is hardly any chance of her recognition made by her father.
Mr. Villars seems to be exorbitantly anxious of his ward and cannot bear without terror the idea of her separation from him fearing that she could have the same fate as her mother. He has to be reminded of his exaggerated preoccupation for Evelina by Lady Howard who is convinced that it does no good to young people to be prevented from the knowledge of the world which, when unexplored, leads them to have wrong expectations followed by delusion ( Evelina , 17). Mr. Villars still sees more drawbacks than advantages of Evelina`s
17 stay in London but, being ashamed of appearing selfish in the concern of his ward, he finally assents to her entrance into society because he does not want to violate Evelina`s freedom.
He says: “I aim not at an authority which deprives you of liberty, yet I would fain guide myself by a prudence which should save me the pangs of repentance” ( Evelina , 25). Mr.
Villars is too susceptible to impose his will on Evelina and accepts her wishes and desires at the cost of losing her. His worries are diminished by the fact that his ward will be accompanied by two women of good reputation and character.
Evelina expresses her love and estimation for her guardian, calling him her “father” and he, in return, calls her his “daughter” and their correspondence prove their mutual affection and Evelina`s trust in him who seems to be her first confident. Her ingenuous way of writing causes Mr. Villars many worries because Evelina acquaints him with all her adventures and perils she gets through, making him rather upset but, on the other hand, he appreciates her confidence and frankness. He sees that his ward despite experiencing many embarrassments turns to like socializing, which starts to worry him because she might become soon bored in calm Berry Hill after her return from London. He tries to prevent her from the perils of the life in high society by reminding Evelina of her disposition:
Alas, my child, the artlessness of your nature, and the simplicity of your
education, alike unfit you for the thorny paths of the great and busy world. The
supposed obscurity of your birth and situation, makes you liable to a thousand
disagreeable adventures. Not only my views, but my hopes for your future life,
have ever centered in the country ( Evelina , 116).
In a retired life he sees again the only possibility of Evelina`s escape from the traps in
London and admonishes her of her inequality to other members of the society which she attends. He implies not only to her ingenuousness, but also to the insufficient education that she has received in a village school which limits her knowledge of the world.
18 Although Evelina has always confided in Mr. Villars, after having received an impertinent letter supposed to have been written by Lord Orville, she decides to conceal this fact from her guardian being ashamed to acknowledge in front of Mr. Villars that she has been misled by the man she has esteemed. Her guardian is rather inquisitive about the change in her behaviour and suspects that Evelina suffers from the loss of her new acquaintances and her reserve makes him feel upset. Evelina`s determination to remain silent about such a delicate matter vanishes after Mr. Villars` entreaty to be sincere and tell him about her sorrow:
‘Fear not,’ said he, kindly, ‘to unbosom thyself to me, my dearest Evelina; open to me
thy whole heart, it can have no feelings for which I will not make allowance. Tell
me, therefore, what it is that thus afflicts us both, and who knows but I may suggest
some means of relief?’ ( Evelina , 265).
Evelina impressed by her guardian`s preoccupations for her, acquaints him with the shocking content of the letter. Seeing that his ward has not managed to react correctly when her reputation has been endangered, he advises her to return the letter and to avoid the presence of its writer. Although Evelina follows Mr. Villars` advice, she learns to make up her own opinion about Lord Orville whose polite behaviour towards her remains unaltered, in spite of the letter, and she again admires him. This change in her attitude alarms her guardian who does not have faith in the man whose uttered words and written ones differ so much and convinces Evelina to treat him with coldness and avoid being in his presence. Even though she doubts Mr. Villars` judgement of Lord Orville, the obedience to the former prevails upon her feelings towards the latter, but she regrets soon her decision because her detached attitude towards Lord Orville changes his behaviour towards Evelina who suffers from his reserve to her. She asks her guardian to approve of her acting that makes her unhappy:
19 Tell me, my dearest Sir, if you possibly can, tell me that you approve my change of
conduct, tell me that my altered behaviour to Lord Orville is right, that my flying
his society, and avoiding his civilities, are actions which you would have dictated. –
Tell me this, and the sacrifices I have made will comfort me in the midst of my regret,
for never, never can I cease to regret that I have lost the friendship of Lord Orville!
(Evelina , 336).
In the eyes of his acquaintances Mr. Villars seems to be reluctant to improve his ward`s situation as he has never tried to get in touch with the father of Evelina who could help her to gain her title and fortune. Although he has already considered this scheme, he has no courage to approach Lord Belmont with the request of Evelina`s recognition. Mr. Villars is afraid of meeting him for fear of losing his position of an adoptive father and also because he feels anger towards the traitor of Miss Evelyn who has never shown interest in his daughter. Despite Lord Belmont`s negligence, Mr. Villars is prone to introduce Evelina to him, if he would wish to know her. However, he refuses to do it himself, but asks Evelina`s chaperons to contact her father. In this respect Mr. Villars acts passively as far as his ward`s future is concerned and is not of the opinion that wealth and higher position in the social hierarchy could offer Evelina true happiness. On the other hand, when the proceedings concerning Evelina`s recognition by her father are promising, he expresses his happiness for his ward and is convinced that she deserves justice and “must, at least, be entitled to the name of Belmont” ( Evelina , 337). He finally realizes that through Evelina`s becoming Lady
Belmont her mother`s last desire will be completed as well as his role of the guardian which he regrets to give up. In spite of the improvement of his ward`s prospects, Mr. Villars still worries that sudden alternation of her social status could change her character:
20 May`st thou, oh child of my bosom! May`st thou, in this change of situation,
experience no change of disposition! But receive with humility, and support with
meekness, the elevation to which thou art rising! ( Evelina , 338).
Although preparations for the wedding start without Mr. Villars` approval, Evelina cannot help asking him his consent, when she decides to marry Lord Orville. However, the permission of Mr. Villars is needed no more as she does not depend on him any longer, but she still wants to know his will. It is obvious that Evelina`s guardian cannot part with his ward and prepares her in his last letter to his death which he wishes to experience in her presence, expressing thus his secret desire to keep Evelina with him also as a married woman till his last days.
Mr. Villars has always tried to avoid Madame Duval`s interference to Evelina`s life, but as it happened in case of Miss Evelyn, he is again unable to deny her meeting her granddaughter and finds it judicious to instruct Evelina about her behaviour towards her grandmother. Although Madame Duval is hostile towards Mr. Villars, he advises Evelina to be polite to her and behave “towards her with all the respect and deference due to so near relation, remembering always, that the failure of duty on her part, can by no means justify any neglect on yours [Evelina`s]” ( Evelina , 54 55). He prepares his ward not to feel any remorse against her grandmother`s reproaches concerning Evelina`s stay with her guardian who, in Madame Duval`s eyes, is usurping her position. He feels only pity towards Evelina`s grandmother also because of his Christian principles that he as a reverend professes and according to which he is able to forgive her obstinacy.
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1.4 The Character of Madame Duval
Madame Duval is not an exemplary chaperon of Evelina. Having many vices, she is deprived of the care of her daughter, Miss Evelyn as well as of her granddaughter. Because of her shallow character and irresponsible attitude to the upbringing, she is considered incompetent to look after them. Mr. Villars characterizes her as an improper “companion or guardian for a young woman: she is at once uneducated and unprincipled; ungentle in her temper, and unamiable in her manners” ( Evelina , 13). As a waiting girl married to a gentleman, she is unaware of how to behave in society and does not bother herself to become familiar with the etiquette, embarrassing other people by both her conduct and appearance.
She is not a very feminine character because she lacks virtues such as gentleness and tact and is ridiculed by other characters such as Captain Mirvan, Sir Willoughby and the Branghtons for her triviality and eccentricity. Madame Duval likes being in the company and attends both the places visited by the nobles as well as the spots sought after by the middle class people.
She tries to be considered the member of the upper class, but her behaviour prevents her from being accepted there, although she attends the same places as the nobles. Her reserved reception in high circles is not only due to her extravagancy, but also due to her nationality.
Being a Frenchwoman, she becomes a target of derision for her manners considered by
English people typical of all the French and, in this respect, Madame Duval fails not only as a chaperon, but also as a representative of her nation.
Madame Duval starts to be interested in her granddaughter due to the Branghtons` selfish intentions who want to become the only heritors of their aunt`s fortune thinking that when Evelina gains her title, she would be rich enough to make without her grandmother`s heritage. Evelina is shocked by her grandmother`s manners and cannot bear without
22 preoccupations Madame Duval`s eagerness to take her to Paris. While staying with the
Mirvans, Evelina has a protection of Mrs. Mirvan and her husband which she loses, when she has to stay with her grandmother who turns out to be her most incapable chaperon. She requires complete obedience from Evelina which she obtains by threats such as “I order you to follow me this moment, or else I`ll make you repent it all your life” (Evelina , 86). Her granddaughter dreads to be at her presence and being seen with her means for Evelina a real torment.
Madame Duval is deluded by Evelina and sees that she needs the “polish of a French education” ( Evelina , 67) meaning in her view that the girl should not be so prudent, timid and inexperienced as she is now, which is the result of her country education and Mr. Villars` upbringing. Evelina`s grandmother laughs at her granddaughter`s ignorance of the world and finds it her duty to teach her new customs. Evelina explains the reasons for such Madame
Duval`s resolution:
she said she had been considering what a shame it was, to see me such a poor country,
shame faced thing, when I ought to be a fine lady; and that she had long, and upon
several occasions, blushed for me, though she must own the fault was none of mine: for
nothing better could be expected from a girl who had been so immured ( Evelina , 121).
In fact, Evelina has to blush for her grandmother who puts the girl in many embarrassing situations, especially when the members of the company are the Branghtons. In spite of her advanced age Madame Duval takes part in the amusements that are proper for younger people than herself such as dancing a minuet, attracting thus general attention for her improper conduct. When she accompanies Evelina in the public places, her main concern is to have good time herself. As a foreigner, she is unfamiliar with the society she attends and cannot provide her niece with any information concerning the people they meet or places they visit. By neglecting her duty of the chaperon, Madame Duval exposes her granddaughter
23 to the dangers that can harm Evelina`s reputation. The most perilous adventure of Evelina is her mixing up with the prostitutes, when she gets lost and looks for protection against a man who persecutes her. Being seen in such a company could have an impact on her future life, particularly when she is recognized by Lord Orville. When the two women become members of her party, Madame Duval shows herself utterly irresponsible, not having discovered their identity and regarding them as “two real fine ladies” ( Evelina , 236). She also contributes to great uneasiness of Evelina, when she makes use of Lord Orville`s coach only because he is
Evelina`s acquaintance. Her granddaughter is shocked by this impoliteness made in her name against her consent, but is helpless to oppose her grandmother`s insistence and fears of appearing rude in Lord Orville`s eyes for such a request.
Madame Duval is inconsiderate of the gentlemen approaching Evelina who have no genuine intentions with her granddaughter. She promotes Mr. Smith`s effort to court Evelina, although he is quite a stranger to her and a man with rough manners; she consents to young
Mr. Branghton`s proposal of marriage despite Evelina`s scorn of him, but she rebukes Sir
Willoughby for his participation in Captain Mirvan`s joke which harms her personally and does not reprimand him for his insolence to the girl. In such situations Evelina has no one to offer her protection and has to defend herself against rudeness and liberty of her grandmother`s acquaintances. Madame Duval is rather oblivious of the men interested in her granddaughter, but when she discovers Monsieur Du Bois` feelings for Evelina, she becomes her rival. Madame Duval`s opinion of Evelina as an inexperienced country girl changes: she accuses her of “having seduced his [Monsieur Du Bois`] heart” and calls her an “ungrateful, designing girl” ( Evelina , 252). Evelina as a granddaughter does not represent any threat to
Madame Duval, but as a woman she has great power over men because of her extraordinary beauty, and only her simplicity and ingenuousness save her from coquetry. Evelina`s grandmother is so hurt by her partner`s betrayal that she threatens Evelina to marry her with
24 Mr. Branghton, but this time the girl does not fear to disobey Madame Duval trying to impose her will on Evelina.
After her stay with Madame Duval, Evelina learns to judge and act for herself and, what is more important, she also learns to defend herself against impertinences of the people she encounters. However, this merit cannot be attributed to her grandmother`s guidance, but to Evelina`s endeavours.
1.5 The Character of Mrs. Mirvan
Evelina`s first chaperon is Mrs. Mirvan who like her mother, Lady Howard, is sincerely interested in Evelina and wants to introduce her into society, during her stay in London. She intends to acquaint Mr. Villars` ward with places which a young lady should see and where she may find a good match which, in Evelina`s case, would improve her social status. While asking Mr. Villars` approval, Mrs. Mirvan does not contact him herself, but leaves this task to her mother who is well acquainted with Evelina`s guardian and is considered by him a respectable woman who, despite Mr. Villars` first objections to his ward`s stay in London, manages to obtain his permission.
Mrs. Mirvan treats Evelina as her own child and gives her the same care and attention as she offers to Miss Mirvan who as well as Evelina makes her first appearance in society.
Evelina calls Mrs. Mirvan in her letter written to Mr. Villars “mamma Mirvan” ( Evelina , 28), which proves her affection for her chaperon. Mr. Villars` ward is astonished by London life, but is not aware of the conventions which must be observed in high circles where all Mrs.
Mirvan`s acquaintances come from. Being familiar with the etiquette, Evelina`s chaperon is reluctant to their appearing in the theatre in their country dresses which would rise general curiosity, but cannot resist the girls` insistence to go there and assents to “sit in some obscure
25 place, that she may not be seen” ( Evelina , 25). She soon takes care to “londonize” herself and the girls by being dressed according to London fashion and going to the places visited by the upper class, which is indispensable if one wants to be accepted by its members. In such spots
Evelina gets herself into peculiar situations because of her inexperience and always seeks her chaperon`s help, when she finds herself in trouble. Since Mrs. Mirvan has presumed that her charge knows well the manners used in society, she is surprised by Evelina`s ignorance and feels sorry for not having told her about them ( Evelina , 34). She realizes that being brought up in the country, Evelina is deprived of the knowledge of bon ton, so her chaperon does not blame her for her disasters.
Mrs. Mirvan is very cautious about the gentlemen approaching Evelina and has to protect her against those who are strangers and impertinent men. She interferes in the persecution of her charge by Sir Willoughby whom Evelina makes believe that she is already engaged to another gentleman. Following her chaperon`s instruction not to dance with unknown people, Evelina refuses to accept his offer appearing rude and offending him, but she feels offended as well by his uncivil manners. Having distinguished in him a man of dubious character, Mrs. Mirvan treats him coldly, but does not manage to dissuade him from his resolution. When Sir Willoughby looks for being in Evelina`s presence, Mrs. Mirvan asks her to avoid him because “it is not right for a young woman to be seen so frequently in public with the same gentleman” ( Evelina , 105 106). However, her chaperon realizes that Evelina can hardly keep away from him if he is often her husband`s guest.
Evelina`s first chaperon has a gentle character and is sensitive and attentive to the needs of other people as in the case when she is prone to help Madame Duval who has lost her party. Mrs. Mirvan`s manners are utterly opposite to her husband`s who behaves without any decorum. Mrs. Mirvan has to put up with his roughness as well as to cope with Madame
Duval`s ill behaviour and Sir Willoughby`s presence at her home. She is conscious of her
26 responsibility for Evelina and is unwilling to agree with Madame Duval`s aim to take her charge to her lodgings. However, she is also aware that it is not in her power to prevent
Madame Duval from seeing her granddaughter and invites her several times to her place.
Evelina is convinced that for her chaperon it is a kind of mortification to endure Madame
Duval`s presence who is often a victim of Captain Mirvan`s teasing for which she has to apologize to her guest instead of him. Unlike Madame Duval, Mrs. Mirvan is a well principled, educated lady who is always polite whereas Evelina`s grandmother appears at her side as a caricature of the woman whose ill breeding is demonstrated on every occasion. In one of such situations she tries to take her granddaughter forcibly to the opera, even though
Evelina is already engaged to her chaperon`s party. Mrs. Mirvan`s failure to convince
Madame Duval cannot be attributed to her incapability but, as she dislikes arguing with people, she prefers to be on good terms with them. She is shocked by the consequence of
Madame Duval`s chaperonage and her inability to prevent Sir Willoughby to accompany
Evelina home on her return from the theatre.
Mrs. Mirvan is the only chaperon able to create motherly relationship with Evelina, feeling for her true affection. Trying to help her charge to alter her situation, Mrs. Mirvan is fully aware that she answers for her to Evelina`s guardian, so she does not find it in her power to make any step without having his permission.
1.6 The Character of Mrs. Selwyn
While staying in Bristol, Mr. Villars entrusts Evelina to Mrs. Selwyn`s care. Although he dislikes her sharpness and tendency to satirize other people, he takes advantage of her good will to accompany his ward to the hotwells. Mrs. Selwyn is an intelligent lady with fair knowledge of society and of the mistakes of its members she likes to ridicule. In high circles
27 she is hated for her outspokenness and particularly feared by gentlemen because she unmercifully attacks them for their shallowness, lack of education and ignorance of good manners. Unused to hear critique from a woman, men are astonished that she behaves in a way unsuitable for the women of that time who were supposed to be submissive to men and not to criticize them. Evelina is also surprised by her chaperon`s conduct, but she expresses her disapproval to Mr. Villars only.
What Mrs. Selwyn dislikes most is people`s superficiality. She finds this feature also in her acquaintance, Mrs. Beaumont, who “thinks proper to be of opinion, that birth and virtue are one and the same thing” ( Evelina , 284) and whose view of Mrs. Selwyn changes after discovering that she is a “mere country gentlewoman”. Mrs. Selwyn is still polite to her, but does not establish a very close relationship with her, knowing that Mrs. Beaumont`s attentions are only due to her feeling of obligation. However, Mrs. Selwyn accepts her invitation to stay in her house because she likes to ridicule the company of “fools and coxcombs” who assemble there.
Evelina sees her chaperon as a “kind and attentive” woman, but thinks that both her understanding and manners can be called masculine ( Evelina , 268). She respects Mrs. Selwyn with anxiety, being afraid that she herself can become a target of her satire. In order to avoid her ridicule, Evelina tries to obey her chaperon in every respect, but also asks her guardian`s approval of Mrs. Selwyn`s plans with her. Mrs. Selwyn acts as her ward`s protector, which is well demonstrated in the situations, when she is approached by impertinent gentlemen who have no idea of politeness. Without her chaperon, Evelina would be at a loss, not knowing how to defend herself against low principled men, though in some cases she is able to express her disagreement and react according to her own will.
Mrs. Selwyn, preoccupied with her ward`s safety, instructs Evelina about the way she should behave towards gentlemen such as Mr. Lovel. Even though Evelina`s chaperon
28 condemns him for his misconduct, she advises her ward to treat him more gently, saying:
“Though he is malicious, he is fashionable, and may do you some harm in the great world”
(Evelina , 295). She is convinced that Evelina`s prudence and polite behaviour can protect the girl from the perils that could endanger her good reputation but Evelina refuses to be submissive to a man she hates, refuses to become double faced.
As a good chaperon, Mrs. Selwyn has surveillance over gentlemen approaching
Evelina. She is inquisitive about those she does not know and promotes the acquaintances from which her ward can benefit. Evelina`s ignorance of the world entertains her chaperon who admonishes her ward, when she acts against good manners, for example when Evelina keeps secret correspondence with Mr. Macartney. In spite of her respect for Mrs. Selwyn,
Evelina does not feel easy in her presence and wishes she could be accompanied by Mrs.
Mirvan because the latter has more tact and interest in her. Evelina sees that her Bristol`s chaperon does not pay much attention to her and when in a large company, she occupies herself in satirizing the people around her. Though Evelina has not courage to blame her chaperon openly for the neglect of her duty, she writes about it to Mr. Villars.
Yet, Mrs. Selwyn has a real interest in Evelina`s fate and wants to help her to change it.
She does so not only for compassion that she feels for Evelina, but mainly to restore justice that was once omitted by an unprincipled lord. She is not easily put off by her first unsuccessful embassy to Evelina`s father and thanks to her persistence and arguments Mrs.
Selwyn manages to convince Lord Belmont about his fatherhood, ensuring thus better future to her charge.
Mrs. Selwyn soon discovers her charge`s affection for Lord Orville. She finds him unusually polite gentleman and has a good opinion of him. She tries to match Evelina and him because such a union will elevate the girl in the social hierarchy and she needs not wait for her father`s recognition to become a lady. Yet, Mrs. Selwyn cannot help sarcastic remarks
29 concerning the two young people, when they are concealing their feelings for each other.
Evelina feels often embarrassed by her chaperon`s words and remains silent rather than to argue with her. As the first person directly responsible for Evelina at Mrs. Beaumont`s, Mrs.
Selwyn is the first one to whom Lord Orville reveals his intentions with her charge, putting an end to the chaperon`s teasing. She is hilarious about this news because her ward`s marriage is also her success as a chaperon who has also contributed to a good match. Mrs.
Selwyn is convinced that the wedding has to take place as soon as possible because “young men of this age are not to be trusted with too much time for deliberation, where their interests are concerned” ( Evelina , 369). Evelina again disagrees with her chaperon and refuses to get married in a hurry without her guardian`s approval, but Mrs. Selwyn`s vehemence and arguments overpower her. Evelina`s chaperon takes the liberty to organize her ward`s wedding without asking Mr. Villars` consent. She does not mean to offend him, but realizes that Evelina`s situation should be resolved at once whereas the waiting for his letter may postpone the wedding ceremony.
Mrs. Selwyn is the most capable from Evelina`s chaperons who, despite their effort, fail in helping their charge to gain her title and fortune. Mrs. Selwyn`s assertiveness and outspokenness are both her advantages and drawbacks: they are instruments that make other people hate her, but they also enable her to secure happiness for Evelina. She is a good guidance for her charge and surveilles over Evelina`s good manners and conduct, providing her with advice, though often given in a satirical way. As Evelina is rather passive, inexperienced and submissive, Mrs. Selwyn is the right person to protect her in the great world.
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Chapter 2 : Northanger Abbey
2.1 In General
Jane Austen (1775 – 1817) is considered one of the greatest English women writers of her time whose works are still read and discussed nowadays. However, she experienced little fame during her lifetime and published her works anonymously, with the exception of her two last novels which were published posthumously. Even though Jane Austen lived in the
Romantic era in which Gothic and Sentimental novels were written, her works cannot be labelled as utterly sentimental or Gothic because of her inclination to realism and the use of satire and irony. Northanger Abbey is, in fact, a parody on the Gothic novels which signals the end of this genre in English literature.
Although Jane Austen wrote Northanger Abbey in 1798 9 and sold it to a publisher in
1803 entitled firstly as Susan , it was not published until 1818. Since it contained Gothic elements which Austen tended to mock, her publisher Crosby declined to issue this novel in the period, when the Gothic novels were still popular. Austen bought the novel back from him thirteen years later and revised it, but she still thought it unsuitable to be published and doubted its success. It was her brother Henry who published it a year after her death under the title Northanger Abbey (Laski, 121). It is not known what reception had the novel soon after making its appearance in print, but it can be supposed that it was not well understood by the readers for its satire of the Gothic novels and W. A. Craik also points to the fact that the novel was “too short for the customary three volumes in which novels were published, and in having about it an air of incompleteness” (Craik, 4). Even nowadays Northanger Abbey seems to be marginalized because, as Frank O`Connor observes, “we no longer read the
31 Gothic romances she [Jane Austen] was criticizing and we miss the points she makes”
(O`Connor, 65). However, the value of Northanger Abbey should be recognized not only for its witty and satirical descriptions of the characters and places, but also for its social and moral message that all of the Austen`s novels possess.
2.2 The plot
The main character of the novel is Catherine Morland, a seventeen year old daughter of the clergyman, who is invited by her family`s acquaintances Mr. and Mrs. Allen to spend six weeks in Bath. Catherine is acquainted with superficial Isabella Thorpe who becomes her friend. When Catherine`s brother, James Morland, comes to Bath, Isabella, thinking he is a well off gentleman, pretends to fall in love with him and becomes his fiancée. She introduces
Catherine to her reckless brother John Thorpe and tries to promote their engagement, but
Catherine soon detects his character. She is deluded by Isabella`s shallowness who, after discovering that John is a rather poor match, starts to flirt with Henry Tilney`s brother.
Catherine falls in love with Henry Tilney, a clergyman, and becomes friend with his sister
Eleonor who after the approval of her father, General Tilney, invites Catherine to her home called Northanger Abbey. His invitation is due to his presumption that his children`s friend is an heiress of a large fortune. Catherine, who has read many Gothic novels recommended to her by Isabella, suspects that the place where she has been invited is similar to the spots she has read about and imagines that it is haunted by the spirit of General Tilney`s wife who was murdered by him. When General is told by John Thorpe about Catherine`s little wealth, he sends her away without telling her the reason of his conduct. As Henry is away from home and Eleonor is unable to oppose her father, Catherine must endure this humiliation and returns home alone and ashamed. Her parents are offended by General`s treatment of their
32 daughter. Soon afterwards Henry comes to explain them his father`s reaction and apologizes for General Tilney`s misbehaviour. He makes a proposal of marriage to Catherine, but his father does not allow him to marry her. Thanks to Eleonor`s intervention and the discovery of the sufficiency of Catherine`s dowry, Henry and Catherine obtain General Tilney`s consent and can finally marry.
2.3 The Character of Mrs. Allen
Jane Austen`s Mrs. Allen is a good example of the writer`s art to create a burlesque character who appears comic for her self content. Mrs. Allen is introduced into the plot in a satirical way:
She had neither beauty, genius, accomplishment, nor manner. The air of a
gentlewoman, a great deal of quiet, inactive good temper, and a trifling turn of mind,
were all that could account for her being the choice of a sensible, intelligent man, like
Mr. Allen (Abbey 10 , 7 8).
Her only advantages as a chaperon are her love of public places and her interest in fashion and, in this respect, she can be useful to her charge, but she is rather reluctant to inform
Catherine about the manners in society and is oblivious of the way she spends her time. W.
A. Craik considers Mrs. Allen “neither noble adviser nor villainous deceiver, for she gives
Catherine no help at all – either on whether it will rain or on whether it is proper to go out in
John Thorpe`s gig” (Craik, 14) and Mrs. Allen`s passivity and vacuity causes Catherine to experience many uncomfortable situations which she must cope with by herself because of her chaperon`s indifference.
10 In the quotations I will use the short form Abbey instead of the full title.
33 Mrs. Allen`s incompetence is always revealed by her tendency to end every serious discourse with her interest in her dress. As a chaperon, she should know the society where she takes Catherine, but she can provide her charge only with the knowledge of the latest fashion and lacks to know any acquaintance, which makes Catherine`s first experience in the public disappointing. She soon realizes that her chaperon is as little familiar with the people in Bath as she is herself and, in addition, she notices that Mrs. Allen does not follow social conventions and takes a seat at the table of strangers, which embarrasses Catherine who asks her: “What shall we do? The gentlemen and ladies at this table look as if they wondered why we came here; we seem forcing ourselves into their party” (Abbey , 10). Catherine`s chaperon does not seem so much surprised at their intrusion and replies languidly: “Aye, so we do.
That is very disagreeable. I wish we had a large acquaintance here” ( Abbey , 10). In fact, the chaperon is instructed by her charge who in spite of her inexperience can distinguish their failure in observing the etiquette. This reversion of the duties among the two is due to Mrs.
Allen`s following her selfish need concerning the safety of her dress as well as due to her indifference to guide Catherine properly.
To Catherine`s disappointment, Mrs. Allen is unable to present her to any gentleman in
Bath as her charge has expected, and it is the master of the ceremonies who notices young lady`s discomfort and introduces her to Henry Tilney. This gentleman makes a good impression on Mrs. Allen with whom she shares love of clothes. However, there is a difference in their common interest because for Mrs. Allen it is a strong obsession to possess expensive dresses, whereas for Henry Tilney, being a parson, it is a necessity of appearing gentlemanlike and his knowledge of muslin shows his talent for economical purchase of female garments. There is also another reason for Mrs. Allen`s liking this gentleman and it is his origin and wealth which makes of him a promising match for Catherine who is herself modestly situated and a union with the gentleman would secure her a fair social position.
34 Mrs. Allen interprets his worthiness by the quality of clothes, but this time she speaks of his mother`s wedding clothes ( Abbey , 56 57). She judges people according to their taste for fashion and is convinced of the power of the proper dress which can help its wearer, for example, to obtain forgiveness. After Catherine`s faux pas with the Tilneys, Mrs. Allen advises her charge to “put on a white gown” because “Miss Tilney always wears white”
(Abbey , 78) but this recommendation turns to be misleading because not everybody understands the “talk of the clothes” and Catherine`s chaperon fails in her attempt to make her charge appear agreeable.
The first person to guess Mrs. Allen character is Mr. Tilney who, after becoming familiar with Catherine`s chaperon, exclaims at Mrs. Allen`s address “What a picture of intellectual poverty!” ( Abbey , 67). However, he becomes a favourite with Mrs. Allen who encourages Catherine to proceed with her acquaintance with him and his sister because, as it has been already mentioned above, he has convinced Mrs. Allen of his worthiness by his knowledge of the fabrics which is according to her a “great comfort” to a woman and she is ready to admit him to Catherine`s presence. Love of the clothes is a rather insufficient criterion to make a conclusion about a man`s character and it is Mr. Allen who tries to learn about Catherine`s partner`s disposition and occupation and acts also as her only adviser in
Bath. He controls his wife who is neglecting her care for her charge. Doubting Mrs. Allen`s judgement, Catherine asks an “unprejudiced person [Mr. Allen] what her own conduct had really been” ( Abbey , 92). His strong disapproval of unguided socializing of the young people of both sexes surprises Catherine whose sincere preoccupations for her own conduct contrasts with trivial worries of her chaperon. He as well as Catherine have to bring Mrs. Allen to the core of the subject of their talk and highlight the dangers of such behaviour for a young lady, while Mrs. Allen sees the only peril of the open carriages in damaging one`s clothes.
Catherine`s chaperon`s final acknowledgement of this improper behaviour contradicts to her
35 previous consent to Catherine`s airing in John Thorpe`s gig which astonishes her charge who reproaches her chaperon: “I always hoped you would tell me, if you thought I was doing wrong” ( Abbey , 93). This neglect of Mrs. Allen is the most serious in the whole novel and its gravity is also proved by her husband`s interference in Catherine`s guidance. Mrs. Allen shows up as an utterly irresponsible chaperon advocating relaxed instruction of the young people because they “do not like to be always thwarted”, so “one must not be over particular”
(Abbey , 93). Catherine`s directness and her simple sincerity contrasts with her chaperon`s foibles. Mrs. Allen is not fully aware that her reluctance to stick up to the social conventions displays her lax morality as well as endangers her charge`s reputation who, being unacquainted with the etiquette, is unable to follow it. However, the abandonment of Mrs.
Allen`s duty has also its positive aspect and that is the fact that Catherine learns to make her own judgement, which helps her to grow up. In the whole conversation Catherine is reasonable and recognizes her ill behaviour which was not caused by her own fault, while
Mrs. Allen is too irrational to understand possible consequences of her bad guidance. Their conversation reveals the characters of the three interlocutors out of which Mrs. Allen is the one who underestimate the argument of the discourse by turning to her trivial preoccupations.
Foolishness of Jane Austen`s characters is revealed in the conversation in which she uses devices such as irony and satire, causing them to appear silly. In W. A. Craik`s view,
Mrs. Allen is a pleasant picture of a stupid woman who is always irrelevant (Craik, 14), but, in our opinion, this statement is only partly true and it appears as a first sight characteristic, but Mrs. Allen is, in fact, a stagnating person, closed in her selfishness and unwilling to widen her personal interests who, for her narrow mindedness, cannot help making irrelevant remarks concerning her dress.
Mrs. Allen`s folly reaches its climax after Catherine`s unsuccessful return to
Fullerton. Catherine`s chaperon is unable to express her sincere concern for her charge, but
36 dryly repeats that she has no patience with General ( Abbey , 222). She does so at Mrs.
Morland`s presence who considers her a “steady well wisher”, although Mrs. Allen turns
Catherine`s misfortune into the emphasis on her own preoccupations for her clothes in Bath.
As W. A. Craik points out, Mrs. Allen plays down the seriousness of Catherine`s disposition which appears pathetic (Craik, 30):
It was very agreeable, was not it? Mr. Tilney drank tea with us, and I always thought
him a great addition: he is so very agreeable. I have a notion you danced with him, but
am not quite sure. I remember I had my favourite gown on (Abbey, 223).
Mrs. Allen unconsciously proves herself guilty of having neglected to keep an eye on
Catherine in Bath properly, but she knows exactly to associate former events with her garments. She is quite tactless to remind Catherine of her bad luck with Tilney, though she does so without a bad intention. Jane Austen, while displaying Mrs. Allen`s vanity, criticizes shallowness of the middle class women who, in their attempt to look like real ladies, appear grotesque. Thanks to her skills to make Mrs. Allen “confuse important matters with trivial ones” (Craik, 29), Austen succeeds in creating a picture of the woman too much occupied with herself to notice other people`s needs and worries. She is incompetent person who despite her well meaning makes no effort to become a good companion and a guide of her charge. She thinks that her role of the chaperon comprises only of taking Catherine to Bath and letting her enjoy herself as she pleases. Thanks to her innocence and ingenuousness,
Catherine is prevented from becoming mischievous and artificial as her friend Isabella and, in spite of her chaperon`s neglect, manages to find a solution from unexpected situations through her own endeavour and in the end of the novel she stops to be a “poor helpless creature but can shift very well for herself” ( Abbey , 222).
37
2.4 The Character of Mrs. Thorpe
Another chaperon appearing in Northanger Abbey is Mrs. Thorpe who is keen on her children and gossiping. Unlike Mrs. Allen, she is her charges` relative. Being the mother of three daughters, she overlooks their vices and finds them exemplary children. In comparison with Mrs. Allen, she abandons her duty for her exaggerated trust in them whereas Mrs. Allen can seem, at first sight, to be indifferent to her role of the chaperon for she is not a blood relation to her charge. Absurdity of both Mrs. Thorpe and Mrs. Allen is revealed in their conversation which is, in fact, a monologue of each of them, because the former talks of her children and the latter of her garments ( Abbey , 23). Although they have hardly anything in common since their leaving school, they seem quite satisfied with staying together because for each of them it is enough to speak about her personal interests without expecting any reaction from the other. Sandra M. Gilbert and Susan Gubar consider them “fit representatives not only of fashionable life but also of the state of female maturity in an aristocratic and patriarchal society” (Gilbert and Gubar, 129). Both of them like socializing which enables Mrs. Thorpe to show off her children and Mrs. Allen her clothes and although they are mature women, their behaviour is often childish. Mrs. Allen`s addiction to clothes seems like an adolescent lady `s caprice and Mrs. Thorpe appears to be too sentimental at her age, when she wants to embrace “half the inhabitants of Bath with satisfaction” (Abbey , 110).
Catherine, while witnessing their outbursts, realizes the triviality of their discourse, but must endure to listen to their nonsense talk while waiting for a partner. The failure of Mrs. Thorpe to understand the point of the conversation between Catherine and Mrs. Allen is one of the wittiest dialogues in the novel and demonstrates Mrs. Thorpe`s maternal preference of her son who is not a real gentleman as she thinks him to be. Mrs. Allen`s praise of Mr. Tilney as
38 of a “very agreeable young man” is misinterpreted by Mrs. Thorpe as the praise of her own son. She says: “I must say it, though I am his mother, that there is not a more agreeable young man in the world” ( Abbey , 46), puzzling thus other listeners, but not Mrs. Allen who sees that her friend has misunderstood her remark. In this instance Mrs. Allen turns up to be brighter than Mrs. Thorpe who hears what she wants to hear and is not objective when her children are concerned.
Mrs. Thorpe`s faults as a chaperon and a mother are seen both by Mr. Allen and Mrs.
Allen, and the most serious of them is Mrs. Thorpe`s negligence in her daughters` socializing in public with the opposite sex without any guidance. Her relaxed care for them can be attributed not only to her unconditioned trust in her daughters but also to the fact that she is alone to bring them up and the girls lack a paternal figure. Unlike Catherine who is reminded of the impropriety of her behaviour by Mr. Allen, Isabella and her sisters have no such a person to keep an eye on their conduct and their mother permits them to do whatever they want. Even though Mr. Allen and his wife disapprove of Mrs. Thorpe`s attitude towards her daughters and, in particular, towards Isabella, they do not interfere and also dissuade
Catherine from reminding her friend of her mother`s neglect, being aware of the vanity of their effort. Mrs. Thorpe is easily deceived by her daughter`s character and she is wrong to consider Isabella an innocent and modest girl. Her daughter masterly manipulates with her as well as with other characters in the novel such as Catherine and James Morland to carry out her selfish desires and her mother more or less unconsciously helps her daughter with their realization.
After the announcement of Isabella`s engagement to James Morland, Mrs. Thorpe exchanges with her daughter and son “significant looks and mysterious expressions” ( Abbey ,
109) that embarrass Catherine who considers them unkind and impolite. Knowing her daughter`s intentions with James, Mrs. Thorpe promotes their relationship from the
39 beginning, letting the young people spend their time often without any guidance. She appears a greedy mother whose vision of the comfortable life for Isabella is the result of John
Thorpe`s lies about the Morlands` wealth. Her love of money and eagerness to find a good match for her daughter reminds of the practices in the middle class families who, for fear of losing their social position because of their diminishing wealth, try to improve their financial situation by the profitable marriage of their daughters.
Mrs. Thorpe`s superficiality, as well as Isabella`s shallowness, are demonstrated by their badly concealed disappointment with the small fortune promised by Catherine`s father to his son. Catherine feels injured by their dissatisfaction as they are themselves not very well off people. Mrs. Thorpe`s suspicion of Mr. Morland`s stinginess makes Catherine feel uncomfortable and in spite of her inexperience with the matters of money, she defends her father who “has promised to do as much as he can afford” ( Abbey , 122). Mrs. Thorpe`s conduct is tactless, when she blames Catherine`s father for his insolvency at his daughter`s presence, thinking that Catherine is too silly to understand the reason why she and Isabella are uneasy. However, though Catherine seems to be ingenuous, she is too susceptible to distinguish falsity from sincerity in one`s behaviour, so Mrs. Thorpe fails in trying to diminish her worries by attributing Isabella`s vexations to her prolonged separation from
James.
Jane Austen uses frequently the theme of husband hunting in her novels to demonstrate foolishness of the characters such as Mrs. Thorpe who miscalculates the advantage of the engagement of her daughter which turns out to disagree with both her and Isabella`s expectations and the two are punished by the fact that Isabella remains without any suitor.
40
Chapter 3 : Jane Eyre
3.1 In General
Charlotte Brontë (1816 – 1855) became recognized as an author after the publication of Jane Eyre (1847) which was written under her male pseudonym of Currer Bell, since she wished to remain anonymous for fear of being refused as a woman writer. After the appearance of her sisters` novels Agnes Grey by Anne Brontë and Emily`s Wuthering Heights published in the same year as Jane Eyre , Charlotte had to reveal her identity as well as her two sisters who also wrote under their male pseudonyms. They were asked to prove their existence as three different authors because their publisher, T. C. Newby, began to suspect that the three novels he had published were written by one and the same person. 11 After the unfolding of the mystery concerning her authorship, Charlotte Brontë gained her fame as a woman writer.
Although Charlotte wrote Jane Eyre as her second novel in 1847, it was published as her first book. A year later, after the appreciation of Jane Eyre by William Makepeace
Thackeray, she dedicated to him its second edition because of her great admiration of this
English novelist. However, her dedication created speculations about her relationship to him which embarrassed both writers and in particular Thackeray whose wife suffered from mental disorder. Margaret Lane mentions that the “dedication started excited gossip connecting
Thackeray with Mr Rochester, and speculating still more eagerly about Currer Bell, who must clearly have been one of the Thackerays` governesses” (Lane, 216). In spite of this
11 Introduction to Jane Eyre by Margaret Smith, vi.
41 rumour, Thackeray did not blame Brontë for the consequences which her dedication caused, knowing that her intention had been innocent.
Soon after its publication, Jane Eyre became popular among the readers and critics, although some of the latter doubted morality of the book and its appropriateness for a young female reader because of its coarse language 12 . In spite of some negative critiques, the book was and still is successful due to Charlotte Brontë`s genius.
Jane Eyre is a semi autobiographical work and its story is set in Victorian England describing the life of an orphaned girl until her adulthood and her life as a wife. The novel is written retrospectively in the first person and is narrated by the main character who through her job of the governess finds her fulfilment as a woman.
3.2 The Plot
Jane Eyre, a daughter of the clergyman, loses her parents soon after her birth and is brought up by her uncle Reed who dies few years after Jane`s parents and leaves a two year old girl in the care of his wife who is obliged to follow the last wish of her husband. She cannot bear Jane at her sight and when her ward is ten years old, she sends her to Lowood school for orphaned girls. Jane`s eagerness to study changes into delusion, when she is acquainted with living conditions and treatment of the pupils who must endure humiliation and starvation. She does well at school and decides to become a teacher, but she soon realizes that this occupation does not satisfy her. Jane advertises in the local paper and obtains an acceptable place as a governess in Thornfield. Here she is teaching a ward of Mr. Rochester and falls in love with her master, but at first they do not express their mutual affection
12 “‘Coarseness’ was the term Victorian readers used to rebuke unconventional language in women`s literature” (Showalter, 25). Charlotte Brontë was directly accused of coarseness by the reviewer Elizabeth Rigby (Sage, 90).
42 openly. He tries her jealousy by telling her about his intended wedding with Miss Ingram.
However, Jane is devoted to him as to her master and is ready to fulfil all his orders which are not contrary to her moral principles. While staying in Thornfield, she is asked to return to her dying aunt who gives Jane a concealed letter from her uncle from Madeira to whom Jane writes later. Returned to her master, Jane wakes with Mr. Rochester in the evening and is surprised by his proposal of marriage to her. She accepts it with pleasure, but their wedding does not come true because of the revelation of Mr. Rochester`s previous marriage. Struck by this blow, Jane runs away from Thornfield and after three days of starvation she happens to be saved by her unknown cousins. They live together without knowing that Jane is their relative, but when she receives the letter about her uncle`s death, she is more pleased by discovering her cousins than by becoming an heiress of a great fortune which she divides among them equally. She starts to be a teacher at a parsonage school, but remains dissatisfied. One night Jane hears Mr. Rochester`s voice and sets off for a journey to
Thornfield, but finds only ruins there. She is told about a disaster caused by Rochester`s mad wife and goes to see him in his new home where the two characters are finally reunited in a legal marriage.
3.3 The Character of Bessie Lee
Bessie Lee is a nurse of Mrs. Reed who has three children and Jane Eyre to look after.
She is a smart young woman, with a good sense for duty and a capacity of narrating stories, by which she entertains children, but possessing “capricious and hasty temper, and indifferent ideas of principle or justice” ( Eyre 13 , 29). Being afraid of losing her job, she wants to be on good terms with her mistress and follows blindly her orders, even though they are often 13 In the quotations I will use the short form of Jane Eyre instead of the full title.
43 unjust. Her duties include not only the care for the children such as dressing them up, preparing and serving them meals, but also light household chores such as dusting or ironing.
She tends to employ Jane as her helper though she should do household chores herself. Her relationship with the children is not very close, and though she conceals her true feelings, her preference for Mrs. Reed`s daughters and a son is evident.
Bessie`s attitude toward an orphaned girl changes gradually during her stay at
Gateshead and even though the nurse is often cross with her, she still remains the most agreeable person for Jane at Mrs. Reed`s house. At first, Bessie does not pay much attention to Jane as she is more concerned about her mistress`s children, which cannot be attributed to her negligence, but rather to her obedience to Mrs. Reed`s orders. Although she witnesses a harsh punishment of falsely accused Jane assaulted by her older cousin for reading his book, she does not object to be an executor of Mrs. Reed`s will and locks the girl up in a ghastly red room which she would not enter herself. In this respect, Bessie reacts cowardly because she is not able to say a word in Jane`s defence and finds her to be blamed for having provoked the conflict with John Reed and reprehends Jane for her wickedness. After Jane`s terrifying experience in the red room, Bessie`s behaviour towards the girl improves. The nurse becomes kind, sympathetic and attentive to her and even feels compassion for the girl.
Jane`s ill health convinces her of the impropriety of the punishment for which she is partly responsible, feels remorse and changes her attitude to Jane. Bessie`s sudden kindness surprises the girl used to her roughness. Her nurse`s little favours such as a book, a tart, singing ballads or telling stories are like a balm on a poor oppressed soul who is not used to them and Bessie suddenly appears to Jane as “the best, prettiest, kindest being in the world”
(Eyre , 29).
In her songs Bessie expresses her empathy for Jane whose fate is identical with the orphan in the ballad who has no friends in the world, but God ( Eyre , 22). Even though Jane
44 likes Bessie`s singing, she cannot put up with its religious message, because she has not interiorized Christian doctrines yet. In fact the ballad irritates her for it proclaims complete submissiveness, which does not agree with Jane who refuses to accept her destiny without making an attempt to change it and is prepared to fight for the improvement of her situation.
Sandra M. Gilbert and Susan Gubar interpret Bessie`s song as Jane`s life`s pilgrimage from one hostile place to another and criticize Bessie to acquaint Jane with an “image that recalls the patriarchal terrors of the red room and hints at patriarchal terrors to come – Lowood,
Brocklehurst, St. John Rivers” (Gilbert and Gubar, 342 343). Bessie thus contributes unconsciously not only to Jane`s fear of her future life in general, but also to her fear of men she encounters later.
In contact with other people, Bessie is prudent to appear loyal to her mistress. She shows again her alliance to Mrs. Reed by not replying truly to Mr. Lloyds` questions regarding the circumstances which have proceeded Jane`s illness. Her brief invented answers, which disagree with Jane`s comments, raise suspicions in Mr. Lloyd. Bessie is afraid of revealing the true reason for her ward`s sufferings to a stranger because it would put her mistress in bad light and she could dismiss her nurse for her talkativeness. In fact, Bessie is not cautious enough to avoid talking about the girl with other people in her presence often contributing to Jane`s uneasiness but, on the other hand, on such occasions the girl also learns about her parents` fate and Bessie`s sympathy for her.
The sudden change in their attitude towards each other occurs a few days before
Jane`s departure: their relationship becomes frank and close thanks to the girl`s abrupt spontaneity and Bessie`s good temper. Bessie feels sorry for the child going to the strangers and resolves to render her last days at Gateshead pleasant and even though she assures Jane of her affection, her confession sounds exaggerated because Bessie rarely proves her emotions by her deeds. Yet, Bessie still remains the only person at the Reeds` who likes Jane
45 and from time to time is able to demonstrate her feelings, even though an orphaned girl, deprived of the affection of her own relatives, needs to be loved unconditionally and not only at moments, when her nurse finds her deserving her attention. The reason why Bessie conceals her feelings towards her ward is that she does not want Mrs. Reed to know about her sympathy for Jane and wants to be loyal to her mistress at every respect, not only by doing her everyday`s duties, but also by imitating Mrs. Reed`s behaviour towards Jane. Bessie is the only person to say farewell to the girl and although it is her duty to prepare and accompany her to a coach, she does it voluntarily and feels sorry for a little orphan whose relatives are glad to get rid of her.
Bessie`s next meeting with Jane is not a reunion of the nurse and her ward, but an encounter of two mature women, one a wife and a mother, the other a teacher. The nurse notices Jane`s alteration from “a queer, frightened, shy little thing” ( Eyre , 39) to a self assured woman earning her own living and thus gaining her independence. Bessie feels proud of Jane who has become a real lady with knowledge superior to that of her cousins. However, she cannot help making comments on Jane`s look which has little altered and still preserves its plainness and though Jane appreciates Bessie`s frankness, she is not pleased to hear them.
Later the nurse acts as a good messenger helping Jane to improve her social status because she tells her about the existence of her uncle. She does so out of her will without the approbation of Mrs. Reed who has always tried to conceal the truth of Jane`s relatives. Bessie is convinced that Jane has the right to be acquainted with this fact and realizes that she is the only person to announce the news. She is not afraid of Mrs. Reed any longer and is transformed from a servile nurse into a mature woman able to form her own opinions and act according to her own will. She becomes bolder and self confident also because of Mrs.
Reed`s weakness and illness, though she still remains faithful to her mistress and takes care of her until her death. Bessie fulfils Mrs. Reed`s last wish to see Jane because she
46 understands anguish of a dying guardian who has done so much harm to her ward during her life and participates in their conciliation.
3.4 The Character of Jane Eyre
Dissatisfied with her job as a teacher, Jane looks for “a new place, in a new house, amongst new faces, under new circumstances: I want this because it is of no use wanting anything better” ( Eyre , 87). Her wish sounds modest but, in fact, it shows Jane`s awareness of her real chance to get a job corresponding to her education which gives her only few choices of occupation. In her advertisement she specifies her competency as to be “qualified to teach the usual branches of a good English education, together with French, Drawing, and
Music” ( Eyre , 88) and adds a note which admits the narrowness of her knowledge which was considered sufficient for becoming a governess at that times.
Jane`s reception at Thornfield is above her expectations and she has to acknowledge:
“I little expected such a reception; I anticipated only coldness and stiffness: this is not like what I have heard of the treatment of governesses” ( Eyre , 97). The widely known conditions of the work of the governess has contributed to Jane`s negative expectations concerning her new occupation because she has considered her job a “new servitude” ( Eyre , 86), which is the best term to characterize governessing. Although Jane is a subordinate and has to put up with her master`s imperious and moody behaviour, she succeeds in coming out from the stereotyped description of the governess and becomes a new protagonist of this occupation.
Harriet Björk explains that
[a]s a governess Jane will attempt to some extent to meet experience in conformity
with traditional principles of female conduct. But her individualistic preference for the
47 inner voice to the conventional code contributes to shaping a new governess (Björk,
94).
Becoming a governess is for Jane a new challenge which enables her to use her knowledge and abilities in the occupation which secures her modest financial independence and later offers a chance to ameliorate her social status by the union with her master.
Jane takes up her role of the governess with eagerness and soon gains her ward`s affection, which was not very common of the children in the English middle and upper class families. The task to teach Adèle seems according to Jane`s description difficult as Adèle
“had no great talents, no marked traits of character, no peculiar development of feeling or taste which raised her one inch above the ordinary level of childhood; but neither had she any deficiency or vice which sunk her below it” ( Eyre , 109). Jane characterizes Adèle as an average pupil who, under her guidance, is able to make progress and is eager to please her teacher obtaining in return her encouragement. Jane realizes responsibility for her ward`s education as well as for her good conduct and her progress is the best reward for Jane`s attempt to profound Adèle`s knowledge who is transforming from a spoiled child to a docile and diligent pupil. Although Jane likes Adèle`s company, she suspects her affection to be rather superficial because of the girl`s ability to be easily fond of everybody. Mr. Rochester, who has the similar opinion of Adèle as Jane, and who admits that “she is not bright, she has no talents” ( Eyre , 122) is surprised that his ward succeeds in making progress in such a short time and although he acknowledges Jane`s success, he praises her work unconsciously.
In spite of Adèle`s improvement, Jane is aware of the fact that the girl still possesses her mother`s love of luxury which Rochester nurtures by providing her with expensive presents. At first Jane does not understand his attitude towards his ward which tends to be cold, impassible and imperious, but when she is acquainted with Adèle`s and her mother`s past, she has more comprehension for her master. The revelation of the girl`s fate encourages
48 Jane to provide her with more attention and time. Her resolution to dedicate Adèle special care is due to Jane`s empathy and her own experience as a child. Jane`s attitude towards
Rochester`s ward diminishes her employer`s worries that Adèle`s illegitimacy can be the cause for Jane to leave her for a respectable family. The expression of Jane`s feelings for her ward proves sincerity of her intention:
I have a regard for her, and now that I know she is, in a sense, parentless –
forsaken by her mother and disowned by you, sir, I shall cling closer to her than
before. How could I possibly prefer the spoilt pet of a wealthy family, who would
hate her governess as a nuisance, to a lonely little orphan, who leans towards her
as a friend? ( Eyre , 146)
In spite of her attempt to appreciate Adèle`s qualities, Jane is well aware of superficiality in the girl`s character which demonstrates Adèle`s tendency to attract attention as it occurs when a party arrives at Thornfield. She is still influenced by the upbringing of her mother who used to take her to parties where her daughter entertained the company. Adèle is impatient to be introduced to Mr. Rochester`s friends because of her love of the society and her behaviour contrasts with that of Jane who tries to avoid the company of extraneous people, being unaccustomed to socializing.
Jane`s shyness originates both in her childhood, when she was excluded from the family life, and in her education at Lowood, where she was isolated from the outside world.
Jane`s introduction to society is a forced one and Mr. Rochester uses his ward as a pretext to present his governess to the party at Thornfield. For Jane it is not a triumphant entrance of a young lady into society, but a rather embarrassing appearance of the dependent obliged to obey her master. In spite of her worries she manages to appear presentably in her plain governess dress and is able to maintain her dignity and self esteem despite the criticism of her person and occupation made by Mr. Rochester`s guests. Jane`s greeting the company is
49 hardly returned and they let her know that she is an undesired person who disturbs the gaiety of the party and her Quakerish manners irritates them. The antagonism of the society towards
Jane is expressed not only by their astonished looks and derisive smiles, but also by the discourse of its members on governesses who are seen as incompetent, “detestable and ridiculous” ( Eyre , 179). This topic is introduced by Miss Ingram who seems to be an expert on governesses, disapproving of Mr. Rochester`s decision to employ a governess instead of sending Adèle to school. She, as well as other participants in the talk, is indiscreet and insensible towards Jane when speaking in her presence about the deficiencies of women occupied as teachers in the middle and upper class families. Mr. Rochester`s guests express not only their personal opinions, but also the views of the whole English aristocracy on the position of the governess in the Victorian family. The ladies seem to be proud of the ill treatment of their governesses which includes teasing them and behaving to them without any respect and Miss Ingram and her parents define them as “nuisance”, incompetent to teach and condemn them for taking the “liberty of falling in love” ( Eyre, 180). This view of the aristocracy on the governesses proves that the women teaching in private homes were supposed to endure patiently unpredictability of both their masters and the children they taught, were not supposed to fall in love or to marry, and if they happened to do so, they were suspected of immorality and subsequently lost their place. Miss Ingram`s mother is convinced that a union between a governess and a tutor cannot be tolerated in a house where good principles are kept and her daughter enumerates some drawbacks of this relationship such as “danger of bad example to innocence of childhood; distractions and consequent neglect of duty on the part of the attached; mutual alliance and reliance” ( Eyre , 180). Despite being hurt by the harsh and cynical words of Mr. Rochester`s friends, Jane remains silent as she finds it reasonable to refrain from appearing an arrogant Rochester`s dependent by attacking his guests. She desires equality promoted in the Bible but realizes that the society is
50 unprepared to accept someone in her situation among themselves and sees that “whatever talents she may possess, her sex and poverty restrict her to a domestic sphere” (Björk, 95).
The relationship between Jane and her master is a peculiar one from the beginning of their acquaintance: it is not a common relationship of a harsh employer and a mistreated dependent, but their affinity is full of confidence, openness and spiritual equality. Despite Mr.
Rochester`s unpredictable character and his moodiness, Jane soon gets used to his imperious and capricious way of conduct and does not fear to oppose him: “I don`t think, sir, you have a right to command me, merely because you are older than I, or because you have seen more of the world than I have – your claim to superiority depends on the use you have made of your time and experience” ( Eyre , 135). This answer sounds bold for a governess and proves her emancipation from the stereotyped picture of the representatives of her occupation and is like a revolt against social inequality of the classes which was common in Victorian society. Jane obtains her material and spiritual equality in the union with her master in which the roles of the dependent and independent are exchanged: Mr. Rochester is literally dependent on Jane`s help, being blind and without a hand, he has to learn “how it feels to be helpless and how to accept help” (Showalter, 122). Now his patriarchal role is overshadowed by Jane`s emancipation who despite realizing her physical, moral and material superiority, offers herself to Mr. Rochester as to her master without making him feel inferior.
Jane manages not only to fulfil herself as a woman and wife, but also as a governess who has been able to tutor Adèle wisely who, in spite of Mr. Rochester`s scepticism, abandons her superficiality and develops her good qualities which prevents her from becoming a copy of her mother. Even though Jane is no more obliged to care for Mr.
Rochester`s ward, she is interested in her treatment at school, keeps in touch with her and finds for her a new institution more suitable for the girl`s abilities which contributes to her pupil`s improvement of education and character. In her attitude towards Adèle, Jane as the
51 “new governess does not try to mould her pupil on the pattern of fashionable accomplishments, on that of narrow domesticity, or on that of convent like asceticism”
(Björk, 99), but she teaches Adèle to have self respect and to consider fair knowledge and moral principles essential for the education of the young lady, which help her pupil to be a
“pleasing and obliging companion: docile, good tempered and well principled” ( Eyre , 456).
3.5 The Character of Mrs. Reed
Mrs. Reed is a middle class woman proud of her social position and wealth who disapproves of Mr. Reed decision to bring up their orphaned niece, but who as his wife is supposed to obey him. Her aversion to Jane is rooted in her jealousy for a little orphan who has won her husband`s heart. She can express her concealed feelings openly after Mr. Reed`s death and makes Jane`s stay at Gateshead hard: she excludes her from the family`s enjoyments, separates her from her children, blames her unjustly for deeds she is not responsible for and punishes her for the acts she has not committed, condemning her to a life in isolation and privation which disables Jane to satisfy her social and emotional needs.
Although her guardian satisfies Jane`s physical needs, she deprives her of the care she dedicates only to her children. Mrs. Reed wants her ward to “acquire a more sociable and child like disposition, a more attractive and sprightly manner” ( Eyre , 7) and considers Jane strange, unnatural and deceitful girl unworthy of her maintenance and unfit to socialize with her children. As a child Jane finds her refuge in reading books, but she soon realizes that the
“realm of imagination is an inferior substitute for involvement with reality” (Björk, 94) so she starts to face the real life determined to avoid being submissive.
The main reason for Mrs. Reed`s cruel treatment of her niece is Jane`s distinction from her cousins including her looks, behaviour and manners which Mrs. Reed dislikes and
52 which are often a pretext of Jane`s unjust punishments. Jane`s appearance makes her aunt feel remorse for her incapacity to keep promise given to her husband, so she confines her to stay in the nursery the whole day. Mrs. Reed`s most severe punishment is locking Jane up in a ghostly red room that has a great impact on Jane`s psyche and her future life. Elaine
Showalter explains that the reason for this chastening of Jane is her committing “the crime of growing up” (Showalter, 114). She interprets Jane`s leaving of Gateshead as the representation of her passing from childhood into adolescence which is rather turbulent: her emotions such as anger and self assertiveness awake, when she openly expresses her refusal to accept the ill treatment of the Reeds (Showalter, 113 114). Her physical struggle with John
Reed symbolizes her fight for human rights in which Jane combats furiously for injustice that she experiences daily at Gateshead and her departure symbolizes liberation from the oppression of her relatives and also, as Elaine Showalter points, her entrance to womanhood
(Showalter, 113).
Jane tries to find a reason why she is always the “scapegoat of the nursery” ( Eyre , 16).
She is well aware of having nothing in common with her guardian or her children and calls herself
a heterogeneous thing, opposed to them in temperament, in capacity, in propensities; a
useless thing, incapable of serving their interest, or adding to their pleasure; a noxious
thing, cherishing the germs of indignation at their treatment, of contempt of their
judgment ( Eyre , 16).
Jane recognizes her physical inferiority to them as well as her different character, but does not want to acknowledge her social inferiority. She refuses to call his cousin her “master” because she does not consider herself “his servant” ( Eyre , 12) as well as she does not regard
Mrs. Reed her benefactress for she has done her more harm than good.
53 Mrs. Reed does not realize fully the consequences of Jane`s experience in the red room on her psyche, but she is conscious of having imposed on Jane too harsh punishment.
However, she does not admit it in front of other people, fearing to lose her authority and she readily accepts apothecary`s advice to send Jane to school where she will be brought up “to be made useful, to be kept humble” ( Eyre , 34). Lowood school chosen by her aunt is the
“penitentiary for which the red room was the tribunal” (Showalter, 117) where girls, except for studying common subjects, are also trained in self sacrifice and self denial.
Jane feels humiliated at Mr. Brocklehurst`s presence by her aunt`s lies about her bad character and her tendency to deceit and realizes that her guardian intends to spoil her future life by harming her reputation. Jane dares to reproach Mrs. Reed and express her hate:
I will never come to see you when I am grown up; and if any one asks me how I liked
you, and how you treated me, I will say the very thought of you makes me sick, and
that you treated me with miserable cruelty ( Eyre , 37).
These are impolite but true words of a ten year old girl who speaks to her aunt as an
“opponent of adult age” ( Eyre , 36). The latter is astonished by Jane`s boldness and fears her sincerity and sharpness, but is unable to say something at her defence because Jane has spoken the truth about her character. Jane is like the voice of her aunt`s conscience which
Mrs. Reed does not dare hear and tends to silence. Her ward` s final defence as a child means the defeat of her aunt who does not manage to bring Jane up as a submissive and humble child, deprived of her own will and emotions who, if remained at Gateshead, would have to endure her treatment until becoming a woman.
As it has been already suggested, when quitting Gateshead, Jane also leaves her childhood and goes straight away to encounter her womanhood without saying her aunt goodbye because Mrs. Reed does not desire it. However, Jane`s guardian reminds her ward to remember her as her best friend and to speak of her accordingly, but at Lowood Jane reveals
54 the true face of her benefactress. Although she is far away from her aunt, Mrs. Reed is still formally responsible for her ward and the girl realizes this fact only when she wants to leave her job of a teacher for the employment of the governess, needing her aunt`s formal consent.
Mrs. Reed grants it with indifference because since Jane`s leaving Gateshead she does not want to interfere in her affairs. However, on her deathbed, Jane`s guardian feels remorse for her wrong attitude towards her niece and wants her to come to see her.
When Jane returns to Gateshead, she does not have to fear of her relatives. Now she is a self sufficient woman who exceeds her cousins in her ability to earn her living as well as in her education. Jane does not refuse her aunt`s wish because she has developed to a mature woman who lives according to Christian principles and thus is able to forgive Mrs. Reed her ill treatment and feels for her “no other emotion than a sort of ruth for her great sufferings, and strong yearnings to forget and forgive all injuries” ( Eyre , 232), and is also able to call her
“aunt” again, even though she has sworn not to care for her any more. However, in spite of her endeavour, Jane does not succeed in conciliation with her guardian who rejects her forgiveness. Mrs. Reed speaks openly of her aversion for her ward which she has felt since the girl`s childhood and admits not only wishing her death, but also claming her dead in a letter to Jane`s well off uncle, who wanted to adopt his niece. Such acting convinces Jane that her guardian`s feelings for her remained unaltered and Mrs. Reed has not forgiven her the insult she uttered as a child. Her guardian remembers well Jane`s attack which has made her fear “as if an animal that I had struck or pushed had looked up at me with human eyes and cursed me in a man`s voice” ( Eyre , 241). By this statement Mrs. Reed acknowledges treating
Jane as an “animal” who, however, does not remain mute, but accuses her aunt of cruelty and reminds her of her existence as a human being who needs her care.
Mrs. Reed is proud enough to accept her niece`s apology and stubbornly persists on her judgment of Jane as an ungrateful and wicked girl and unlike Jane, she sticks to her
55 prejudices until her death. She is an example of the guardian incapable of understanding the importance of her role in the life of her ward whose physical and psychical development as a child is inhibited by her aunt`s treatment. Fortunately, Jane succeeds in becoming an ambitious, self respecting and self assertive woman gaining her independence and, in spite of her negative experience at Gateshead and Lowood, she grows up a mature woman who breaks the conventions to find her fulfilment.
56 Conclusion
Although the three novels by three women writers have a different date of their appearance, ranging from the late eighteenth to the mid nineteenth centuries, they prove that the social standing, in dependence on the jobs the protagonists do, as well as contemporary conventions they have to respect, were very similar.
Jane Austen`s as well as Fanny Burney`s novels are defined as comedies of manners and both authors use in the description of their characters satire and irony. Whereas in some instances Fanny Burney tends to be humorous at all costs, Jane Austen mocks vices and superficiality of her characters in a way which does not ridicule them, but rather makes them appear pitiful for their foibles. The author of Evelina spares some of her figures from being the targets of her satire, but Austen cannot help to make satirical remarks on all of them, including the heroine. The reason why the writers decide to make use of these devices is to criticize society and its conventions which are often ridiculous, bound an individual and for an inexperienced person signify a real torment. The entrance of a young lady into society is the common theme of both novels and each of the major figures is provided with a chaperon or chaperons who become their companions in the great world.
Charlotte Brontë differs from the two writers mentioned above in the serious tone of her narration, the entrance of Jane Eyre into society is not voluntary and, unlike Catherine and Evelina, she must work for her living to preserve her dignity. Brontë is a harsher critic of immorality of the upper class society than Austen who omits to focus on this feature in high circles, her heroine does not call for human rights and her revolt is rather “confessional and naturalistic” (Björk, 58). Both Austen and Burney depicts society as full of entertainment where the main concern of people is to take part in a gay life whereas Brontë treats this topic from a more realistic point of view, referring particularly to its negative aspects. Jane Eyre is
57 more passionate and emancipated than Evelina and Catherine, who are rather submissive girls, also because she lives in a more advanced age signed by social changes. Although
Brontë at times makes use of irony, it does not evoke smile in a reader as it often happens in
Austen`s and Burney`s novels, but rather bitterness, in particular when it concerns the fate of the heroine.
To compare the role of the single characters taking care of the little and young ladies, it is necessary to divide them into the groups according to the professions they occupy.
The two guardians of the novels are of utterly different natures: Mr. Villars is described as an exaggeratedly anxious about his ward whereas Mrs. Reed is depicted as a tyrant of Jane Eyre. Although they are viewed by society as benefactors of the young ladies in their care, this general opinion of them is not entirely identical with the opinion of their wards as in Mrs. Reed`s case. Jane`s guardian does not comprehend her role, in fact, she is obliged to take it up and the consequences of her ill treatment are evident in Jane Eyre`s psychical and physical development. Unlike Mr. Villars, Mrs. Reed is hated by her ward who refuses to submit to her aunt`s will, while Evelina loves her guardian as if she was his natural daughter and always relies on his judgement. The main contrast between the two guardians is in their emotional disposition: Mr. Villars possesses almost female sensitivity and anxiety, whereas Mrs. Reed seems too heartless and severe for a woman. In fact, neither of them is an exemplary guardian as the former is incapable of providing Evelina with the proper instructions before she enters society and tends to isolate her from the outside world, and the latter is utterly indifferent to Jane`s needs and education.
Even though there is little place dedicated to her in the novel, a nurse has an important role in Jane`s childhood, being the only person interested in the girl at Gateshead. The character of Bessie displays both servility of an employee to her mistress and liberation from her influence, and her passing from one stage to another is gradual. Bessie`s change is not a
58 spontaneous one, but is provoked by her compassion for Jane after the girl`s sufferings in the red room. Despite being a marginal character, she has a considerable impact on both Jane`s childhood and her future life.
Charlotte Brontë`s heroine breaks the conventional view on a woman whose main aim was to get married and have children. Her governess longs for liberty and independence and, what was seen as immoral behaviour in the Victorian era, falls in love with her master. Jane
Eyre`s experience of the life as an orphaned child makes of her an empathic governess who possesses some features common to other Victorian governesses: she has a similar background, also meets with contempt in high society and is entirely dependent on her employer. Moreover, as Harriet Björk notices, she is on the same level with the housekeeper as she takes part in the household chores which should be done by servants (Björk, 104).
Work is for her a means to financial independence, her duty and mission, but it also contributes to her self respect because “[t]he power of earning is essential to the dignity of a woman, if she has not independent property” (Mill, 235). However, her situation is much different from the situation of the common representatives of her occupation thanks to the change of her social status when she becomes an heiress and marries her master. As Adèle`s governess, Jane is a competent and sensible teacher who succeeds in transforming a spoiled and neglected child into a well mannered, educated girl.
In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries social conventions required that a young lady entering society was, as a rule, accompanied by an elderly woman enjoying good reputation. Both Catherine and Evelina are inexperienced girls introduced into society by their chaperons who have different natures and abilities to guide their charges in the great world and only some of them are aware of the importance of their task. Evelina`s chaperons vary in their attitudes to her: Madame Duval, in fact a caricature of the chaperon, is interested in Evelina for selfish reasons and turns out to be an utterly incompetent woman to look after
59 her granddaughter; Mrs. Mirvan, feeling real compassion for Evelina, provides her with motherly affection, but omits to instruct her about the etiquette; and Mrs. Selwyn appears as the most capable of the chaperons, but is feared by her charge for her sarcasm and irony. In spite of their more or less successful attempts to guide her in society, it is Evelina after all who learns by herself how she should react in peculiar circumstances in which she is involved due to her ignorance of the world. In the end, Evelina like Catherine can form her own opinion about the people and society she attends, making her first step to maturity. After their experience in high circles, both girls awake from the romantic imagination of the world:
Catherine abandons her Gothic fancies and Evelina her childish artlessness.
Both Austen and Burney describe their chaperons in a satirical way: Mrs. Allen is comparable to Madame Duval for her neglect to inform her charge about the social conventions and for her exaggerated concern with her dress, which makes of her a comic figure, whereas Mrs. Thorpe is ridiculed for her ingenuous trust in her daughter, who is the only young lady that is familiar with the members of the society she attends. Unlike
Catherine and Evelina, Isabella is well aware of how to move in society and is also able to look for a good match by herself.
In spite of their foibles, guardians, governesses, chaperons and nurses in charge of upbringing, education and good manners of the young ladies, play important roles in the young women`s lives. Even though they are individualized characters, their attitude to education and behaviour of young women has some common features. Though, certainly, the given theme is not and cannot be exhaustive, I hope that my thesis may contribute to one of the possible interpretations of the three novels.
60 Résumé
Cílem této diplomové práce je interpretace postav v britské literatuře, které zastávaly pozici guvernantek, gardedám, poručníků a chův. Protože tato zaměstnání byla rozšířena především v osmnáctém a devatenáctém století, vybrali jsme pro interpretaci těchto postav romány z tohoto časového období, které jsou analyzovány chronologicky podle data jejich prvního tištěného vydání.
V úvodu práce jsou uvedeny historické informace týkající se výše zmíněných povolání, zejména s ohledem na jejich funkce, povinnosti a vliv na mladé dámy v jejich péči.
Jádro práce tvoří tři kapitoly, které jsou věnovány románům Evelina ( Evelina , 1778) od Fanny Burneyové, Northangerské opatství (Norhtanger Abbey , 1818) od Jane Austenové a
Jana Eyrová ( Jane Eyre , 1847) od Charlotte Brontëové. Každá kapitola obsahuje základní informace o autorce, okolnostech vzniku a vydání románu a jeho přijetí čtenáři a je také doplněna o stručný obsah díla. Jednotlivé podkapitoly se zabývají postavami guvernantek, gardedám, poručníků a chův, což jsou, kromě Jany Eyrové, vesměs vedlejší postavy.
Nicméně sehrávají velkou roli v životě hrdinky románu, kterou je většinou mladá a nezkušená dáma, jenž jim byla svěřena do péče. Interpretace těchto postav vychází z jejich vztahu k hlavní představitelce. U postav si všímám jejich kompetence, jakožto lidí zodpovědných za výchovu a dobré způsoby mladých dam a důsledky jejich chování na svěřenkyně, za které nesou zodpovědnost.
Závěrečná část práce poukazuje na podobnosti a rozdíly mezi jednotlivými protagonisty, jejichž jednání a chování odráží ducha doby, ve které žili a přestože jde o fiktivní postavy tří různých britských autorek, dokonale zobrazují konvence a sociální poměry 18. a 19. století.
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Notes 14
Fanny Burney
Fanny Burney was born in 1752 in King`s Lynn. She did not get any formal education because of the busy social life of her father and the early death of her mother. She had begun to write eagerly since she was ten. At the age of fifteen, under the influence of her stepmother disapproving of her writing, she burnt her first literary works including The History of
Caroline Evelyn which later provided her with inspiration for Evelina (1778). However, she did not give up writing and in 1768 started to write in secret a diary which offers an insight to her private life as well as to the life of the society of her times. She had the possibility to move in high circles and, thanks to her father`s acquaintances, she was familiar with famous people such as Dr. Johnson, David Garrick or Elisabeth Montagu. After her marriage in 1793 she became known as Madame d`Arblay. Her most popular novels are Evelina (1778),
Cecilia (1782) and Camilla (1796) whose heroines are inexperienced young ladies entering society. She wrote also four tragedies and four comedies out of which only Edwy and Elgive was performed in 1795, but it was withdrawn for its badly reception. Her last novel The
Wanderer (1814) was not a great literary success and is considered inferior to her other novels. She spent the last years of her life preparing her father`s memoirs entitled The
Memoirs of Dr. Burney (1832). She died in 1840 in London and is buried in Bath.
14 All the information about the authors was taken from The Oxford Guide to British Women Writers by Joanne Shattock and The Cambridge Guide to Women`s Writing in English by Lorna Sage.
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Jane Austen
Jane Austen was born in 1775 in Steventon, Hampshire, as the sixth child of the country parson. She was educated mostly at home and had a good knowledge of the classics and English novelists. In 1801 her family moved to Bath and after the death of her father in
1805 they returned to Hampshire. She never married, though she received several proposals of marriage and dedicated herself to writing and a family life. She was very attached to her sister Cassandra and their correspondence became useful for Jane Austen`s biographers, even though her sister burnt most of it after Jane`s death. In spite of being admired by several famous people such as Walter Scott and the Prince Regent during her lifetime, the popularity of Jane Austen`s works increased after her death. Her juvenilia include Love and Friendship ,
The History of England , The Watsons , Lesley Castle , S andition and Lady Susan. Her major novels in order of their publication are Sense and Sensibility (1811), Pride and Prejudice
(1813), Mansfield Park (1814), Emma (1816), Northanger Abbey (1818) and Persuasion
(1818). The success of her works is attributed mostly to her witty and ironic writing, universal themes, the clarity of her characters and the lively plots (Sage, 27). She died in
1817 at the age of forty one and is buried in Winchester Cathedral.
Charlotte Brontë
Charlotte Brontë was born in 1816 in the family of the Rev. Patrick Brontë. After the death of her mother she was brought up by her aunt Branwell and was soon sent together with her sisters Maria, Elisabeth and Emily to Cowan Bridge school for the clegymen`s daughters where the girls lived in inhuman conditions and which served her as an inspiration for the description of Lowood school in Jane Eyre . In 1831 she attended Roe Head School where she later taught. She also worked as a governess in several families, but was unhappy there.
63 In 1842 she went with Emily to Brussels to study foreign languages where she fell in love with her mentor, Mr. Heger, but their relationship was unsuccessful. She received several proposals of marriage and finally married to Rev. A. B. Nicolls. Together with her sisters
Charlotte wrote poems which were published in 1846. She entitled her first novel Professor and although it was written in 1846, it was published posthumously in 1857, as it was rejected by the publishers during Charlotte`s lifetime. Her first published novel Jane Eyre
(1847) was an immediate success and enabled her to take her place in literary circles. In 1849
Shirley was published which was followed by Charlotte`s last novel entitled Villette (1853).
She died during childbirth in 1855 in Haworth.
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