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Tritrophic Interactions Between the Leaf Miner

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Tritrophic Interactions Between the Leaf Miner TRITROPHIC INTERACTIONS BETWEEN THE LEAF MINER, LIRIOMYZA BRYONIAE (KALTENBACH) (DIPTERA: AGROMYZIDAE) AND THE PARASITOID, DIGLYPHUS ISAEA (WALKER) (HYMENOPTERA: EULOPHIDAE). By Stuart Thomas Hands A thesis submitted to the University of Birmingham For the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY School of Biosciences College of Life and Environmental Sciences University of Birmingham September 2012 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. ABSTRACT Liriomyza bryoniae is an economically important pest of vegetable and ornamental crops in European glasshouse agriculture. Diglyphus isaea is a parasitoid of Liriomyza leaf miners and is commercially available as a biological control agent. Anecdotal reports made to commercial producers of the parasitoid suggest that the efficacy of D. isaea varies between crops. This study examines the tritrophic interactions between crop plant, L. bryoniae and D. isaea. Host plant was found to influence the abundance of L. bryoniae and D. isaea with larger populations establishing in the culturing host than in the novel host, tomato. Individual size of L. bryoniae also varies with host plant. These patterns are consistent in L. bryoniae across three generations of rearing on tomato. Habituation of L. bryoniae to tomato does not affect D. isaea efficacy nor does the natal plant host of D. isaea. Both L. bryoniae and D. isaea are affected by plant host ontogenetic stage, becoming most numerous on juvenile plants. The D. isaea natal insect-plant complex showed no effect on D. isaea olfactory preferences. Diglyphus isaea demonstrated greater thermal tolerance than its host. These results are discussed in relation to biological control and also in terms of their wider ecological implications. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to extend my gratitude to Professor Jeff Bale for his patient help and advice as my supervisor over the last four years, for his support of my travelling to conferences in Thailand and France, and for untangling some of my ideas. I would also like to thank: BBSRC and Koppert who funded the project, Koppert staff, especially Johannette Klapwijk and Hans Hoogerbrugge for their guidance as well as some interesting day trips to Holland and for the provision of insect and tomato seeds. Also, the staff of Elms Road Plant Laboratory and Winterbourne Gardens for growing my plants and for delivering them to Biosciences, even in the snow. I also wish to extend my thanks to all my colleagues in the School of Biosciences, especially to Dr. Scott Hayward for valuable advice, to Emma for patiently sitting in the cold room demisting the chill coma equipment and to Gwen, Lucy, Bobbie, Ji, Paul, Megan, Emily, Matt and Nicky; it has been amazing fun and I will miss you all very much. Finally to my parents, my brother and my beautiful wife; your kind and loving support has made battling with the trains and failing climate rooms so much less burdensome and I am truly grateful. TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 1 1.1. Biological Control .................................................................................................................... 1 1.1.1. Advantages and Disadvantages ....................................................................................... 2 1.1.2. Classification .................................................................................................................... 4 1.1.3. Other Considerations ...................................................................................................... 7 1.2. Study System ........................................................................................................................... 8 1.2.1. Liriomyza bryoniae (Kaltenbach) ..................................................................................... 8 1.2.2. Diglyphus isaea (Walker) ............................................................................................... 11 1.2.3. Tritrophic System .......................................................................................................... 12 1.3. Current Control System ......................................................................................................... 13 1.3.1. Northern Europe ........................................................................................................... 13 1.3.2. Southern Europe and North Africa ................................................................................ 14 1.3.3. North America ............................................................................................................... 14 1.4. Possible Explanations ............................................................................................................ 14 1.4.1. Environmental Conditions ............................................................................................. 16 1.4.2. The Pest ......................................................................................................................... 17 1.4.3. The Parasitoid ................................................................................................................ 20 1.4.4. Tritrophic Interactions ................................................................................................... 23 1.5. Aims and objectives .............................................................................................................. 27 2. INSECT CULTURE ........................................................................................................................... 28 2.1. Plants ..................................................................................................................................... 28 2.2. Conditions ............................................................................................................................. 28 2.3. Liriomyza bryoniae ................................................................................................................ 29 2.3.1. Host plant ...................................................................................................................... 29 2.3.2. Culture Method ............................................................................................................. 29 2.3.3. The Colony ..................................................................................................................... 30 2.4. Diglyphus isaea ...................................................................................................................... 30 2.4.1. Hosts Plants and Insects ................................................................................................ 30 2.4.2. Culture Method ............................................................................................................ 30 2.4.3. Storage .......................................................................................................................... 31 2.4.4. The Colony ..................................................................................................................... 31 3. INTERACTIONS BETWEEN LIRIOMYZA BRYONIAE AND DIGLYPHUS ISAEA IN DIFFERENT HOST PLANTS. ................................................................................................................................................. 32 3.1. Abstract ................................................................................................................................. 32 3.2. Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 32 3.3. Materials and Methods ......................................................................................................... 34 3.3.1. Insect culture ................................................................................................................. 34 3.3.2. Plant material ................................................................................................................ 35 3.3.3. Environmental Conditions ............................................................................................. 35 3.3.4. Interactions between Liriomyza bryoniae and Diglyphus isaea in gerbera, tomato and French bean ................................................................................................................................... 36 3.3.5. Effect of extended oviposition periods on the interactions between Liriomyza bryoniae and Diglyphus isaea in gerbera, tomato and French bean ........................................................... 37 3.3.6. Interactions between Liriomyza bryoniae and Diglyphus isaea in tomato and French bean………………… ........................................................................................................................... 38 3.3.7. Effect of earlier introduction of the parasitoid on interactions between Liriomyza
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