CtLRO LE iflfflY LCtDO BPRTN,

3 3027 00653 1754

•_j’ ;.* p IN Voyles COUNTRY MINING Press London A4inneapolis Brynne NAVAJO UBRARY COLORADO URANIUM Minnesota of OF Traci COLLEGE SPRINGS University COLORADO LEGACIES COLORADO

Wasteandng

In

to

hold

both race

Utah,

when

waste

prize:

highly

blasted

human

encour

charac

a

II,

of

uranium

products,

took

with recovered,

1972

real

to

by integral

discovered

new

of was

French

they

States

War

piles

democracy.

the

Mexico,

of othet

were

have

out,

power

of

at

range into

ASSOCIATION

virtually

when

to

United

World

each

a

New

wrecked

vanadium

Company

get

it

Space

recognized

in

to the

THE

a

associations

alloys

was

signifier

turned

atomic

to the

it

arsenal

in

be of

GEOGRAPHERS,

its it

OF

and

during

and

—thrown

claiming

across

alloys

for

Reserve

Arizona,

areas

before

1880s

often

apart,

came

yellow,

Race,

fearsome

innards steel

ANNALS

Ford

fast Vanadium

the

came

a

can long

AMERICAN

known Vanadium,

the

Roosevelt’s

the

Metals

as included—

OF

blasted

bright

and

that

of

environment,

Before

Henry

the

throughout

Miners

barrels. 1

T, was

one

and

the

strengthen

rock

through

marketability

to

President

to

Wastelanding,

gun

bombs,

was

commonly

armaments.

rock

Land formed

DURRENBERGER.

waste.

of

to

imagination

black,

Model

sifting

used

scattered

was

Indians.

war

economically.

mock——uranium

Plateau

nuclear

red,

for

Indians:

composite

parts

Ford

was

for

vanadium’s

public

while

a

the

technology,

of

carnotite mines

—ROBERT

for

and

of

the

to

ingredient of

niantuin

considered

ecepr

uses

government

which

of

developed

mining

Colorado

peak

rest-

be

power

streaks

Except

American

carnotite,

before

automobile

empty

to

The Sacrificial

INTRODUCTION

the

mostly

The

Colorado,

vanadium

federal metal

design

the

and

the age and

sought-after the

vanadium, vanadium’s

the

from car. 2

apart

relationships

of teristic

nuclear was

Long Empty 2 Uranium were materials these

popular to

hard character market Wetherill to activity Uranium tains, an

held was The on Navajo radioactive source of the Alamos the

Most reservation a Vanadium much Only the Mountains)1 ditional per its 1945,

process

be

strengthen

That

Mostly,

vanadium Arizonan

By

an

exploratory

secret government

Manhattan

site charged year,

pressed

manufactured

mines a

sent

mining

15 of

atomic 1945,

an

of

secret

of

was for

reservation.

Fiestaware

Secret

changed

of

that

489

hauled

percent Company, oxide estimated (more

that

it to

to Manhattan

the

which

though,

John

Corporation was

radium

enough

and secreted

discovered,

when

France

to

make

named

with

tonnage, both tons

program. meeting to

steel AEC

was

Monument

Disclosed

find

glazes salvaged drilling Project commonly

had

some

the pulled

Wade’s

of forever

it

newspaper the

of both

vanadium

it

alloys

44,000 the

dishes.

“continue[d] With

a

and

hit to

for

was

which the

John

most acquired

from

use ore)2

Project, a

development uranium-bearing

to however, render

were

uranium

What commercial

its

Marie expensive sought from

on

ore a sold

of Carriso

by

aware,

that, for

for

on

deputize

white but

Wade

Valley

sought-after

Uranium,

pre—World

pounds

had

the

the

America

called

Despite

Truman:

INTRODUCTION

had

uranium

responsible use

October everywhere

vanadium

like

and

came

roughly

headlines

uranium it

was Curie’s

domestic

Colorado vanadium

forty

“unsteady

had trader

was was

in

come the

Uranium

mines,

to

that

and

uranium.6

tailings).

of

much the glazes

to

these

product.”4 of

receive

been (VCA)

Atomic vanadium like

tossed. claims

uranium operating

that

radiological

fraught

of

be 10,000 9,

War

from

an went

to

Army

ore

carnotite

blared

tailings

also supplies

the

1941, vanadium, known for

from

Plateau too

the for sources,

shipped atomic

was

mines

Company

as

II

of Sometimes

East

most

in

from Santa

the

Bombs

run

the

dishes

Navajo

with tons Corps a costly.

peak

were

the

“of declarations

the Woolworth’s

In

when

a

reeling

mines

piles.1°

continental

as

Reservation of

ore

on by

orange-red

to being bomb, company

of

Fe

a twentieth in and

experiments.5 1917, of

eastern

potential

uranium the

secretly

and

sufficiently and Dropped VCA,

could

a

and

to

its of

from Manufacturers

New claims fissionable

Nation

President

rate

despite in

the Manhattan drunk”:

a Flagstaff,

Between

Engineers

uranium

glassware,

uranium’s

using

waste when

near

and

provided Mexican—”Los

foreign have

Carrizo

of

uranium

that

recovered

called

security

in

United

from

to

century.

color

Lease named

on

200,000

around

stepping

the

an

the

by-product

Tiffany’s.3

the

distinctive

been

unmasked

Roosevelt uranium.7

uranium.8

Japan”—

1943 By

Arizona,

from

the

element

sources, Carriso

to

Navajo Moun

Carrizo Project

of global which

radio

area—

States,

an

1920, risks.9

from

were John

used

from

only take

the

and

feet the

ad

the

up INTRODUCTION 3

Belgian Congo and Canada.” “Our own country,” the commission con ceded in 1949,“has1producedlittle uranium.”14 Half a century later, l)iné land hosts upward of 2,000 now-abandoned uranium mines, mills, and tailings piles, in which over 3,000 Navajo miners wrenched and blasted raw uranium ore from the ground and then pro cessed it into yellowcake. Abandoned mines sit open, poorly covered, or insufficiently 15marked. Radioactive tailings piles litter the Navajo land scape, leaching radon gas into the air and water and scattering radioactive debris throughout the ecosystem.’ In addition to being radioactive, these piles are littered with 6other toxic contaminants, including arsenic, vana dium, and manganese. The combined environmental contamination of mines,mills, and tailings piles has caused dramatic problems for the water quality of a landscape where water is already in short supply. Expensive water pipelines have yet to he built to serve the estimated .3()percent of l)iné people who live near and use unregulated water sources, many of which are contaminated with uranium or arsenic.’ Homes have been built out of debris from mines, including chunks7 of rock blasted into neatly squared-off blocks, often at the encouragement of mine operators. These “hot homes”were occupied by multiple generations of familiesbefore some one thought to test them for radiation.’ rhe U.S.Environmental Protec tion Agency (EPA)has identified8 iiearly 800 structures and residential areas contaminated with uranium; fewer than forty of the structures had been demolished as of 2014, and only seventeen o those demolished had been rebuilt.’ Whereas most of the mines were closed by the mid-1980s, 9 profitable, a rise in uranium prices has Ledto when uranium was no longer a new ura ilium boom since 2005. The Navajo Nation, still grappling with environmental and human health disasters from its first three decades of experience with the uranium industry, responded by passing the Dine Natural Resources Protection Act (DNRPA)in 200, which placed a mora torium on new mines in Navajo country. Companies seeking permits to mine in the titanium,rich eastern borderlands of the reservation have de imiedthat the land in question can be considered “Indian Country” despite being overwhclttiingly populated by Navajos and being formally repre sented iii the Navajo Nation government.° Although there was ample evidence by the 1950s of the deadly nature of uranium mining, particularly because of the risk of lung caner, miners were not imiformrd(If these health risks, nor were they provided adequate protection front them. I-Ughdeath rates among miners in the uranium rich Frz Mountains on the bordet of Germanyand the CzechRepublicwere re ported as early as the mriid—1500s,As the 1LS,[‘,.tblic1lenlth Service itself

reported ut I)S?, “it has been kuown for centuries that the [Erzl miners 4 die these nineteenth

rate the poisoning niuin elevated

including lead uranium uted Dine, perts Miners found average, stomach 200

prostate bladder of former uranium demic the former cancer called

contaminated uranium can further

tween are taminated Study

ore

Clearly,

in Rates

tuberculosis,

deadly

of

When

inside

times to to yet

change

high

bodies, mining the

as

a

up

astronomical

to

Navajo

seeks high changes congenital population miners

fifteen contracted

miners

being lung

expanding or unknown.29

cancer and districts. of

cancer, ptime

silicosis, to

many

once

in

from

death has

nature

more

uranium century

of

pancreas,27

parts lung

70

19:34.23 the

death

process,

it

to cancer

had

a genotoxic

“immune”

times

and

released

poses

neuropathy of to percent,

parts water

mines were measure l)rosis,

mine. rates, likely

genetic in

and

cancer of

of

an

tuberculosis, lift;

he

rates

defects mine their

on, lung described

uranium’s radiation

remains

rates the

rates By

the

average

While of 82

sure over had little

and

with

to

Dine

during and

Nor uranium

1952,

material its the

Navajo silicosis,

families: times cancer and for largely national

and get safety outcomes

to

of arnolig

been by

hut

and

60

threat impacts symptoms

Navajo mills.

INTRoDucuON has children studies were miners.24

cancer liver lung

encased

respiratory

mutagenic the

exposure, as

life

the radon,

influence

percent pregnancy.28

also

pneumonia,

uranium singled

for at

been recently due Nation.3°

of and wa’s

1930s researchers

expetancy cancer, miners,

cancers

cancer.25 national average,

to Radiation-related

rate

for

those

Nation, workers deaths

a have have

to

human

have a

in birth

chronically

identified

closely

These

of

more

1,500 radioactive

out

Marie En, lung

carnotite on 5

effects;

almost as damaged

exposure, disease

been long of although

the

average.

a among-former defects, and

By

future miners times as

the

claiming and

Navajos

Studies or

rate discoveries, cancer22

health also

likely

Dine linked of only

Curie

the

the

suggested

catastrophic.

a

1950s for

50 as

that only

emphysema,

have

fatal exposed found of

higher

rock

primary

populations

mid-1980s,

experienced

health lungs.”22 all gas newborns the

other

Miners titnes

to the

a

or herself

testicular to

have the diseases is,

who 46

Navajo linked

by skyrocketed have Further

neurological released

primary

and to

ingesting people

uranium increased

health

than- years.26 however, health more

a public

problems

uranium

the

population,

would

also culprit

were

relationship died

in

cancers Front

to

Moreover,

also

in

Birth are environment. th

underground

and

researchers in a suggesting likely

exposure living

in and

found culprit of highly problems,

health

more

mortality

Rit

poisoning

ways uranium—

never incidents the contrib

national now in the

radium did

miners.

ovarian

for

among

lies Cohort disease

of

these

to

near ura

late than

not even

that con the ex

that

the

fot

get in en

one see

be

of to INTRODUCTION 5

.1 art t,piIti t, o rated b aorr drilling, WC) prdt thr ch tariatic pat. tern sean in phet. at tight Corec moved Sr. Sssyed te 4ctermitte urs*iua content at triaut le,els.

FIGURE . The aerialphotographat the top right showsthe patterns created on the landscapeas coredrillingholespockmarkpotentialminesites.The ore samplesremovedfromtheseholeswere then testedto determinetheir uranium content.The imageat the bottomleft showsa coredrillingcrewhard at work. AlbuquerqueNationalBank,Albuquerque Progress, 22, no. 5 (May 1955). CourtesyofThe AlbuquerqueMuseumPhotoarchives—AlbuquerqueProgress Collection.

of the most probleniatic components of the struggle for justice over nude arism has been that, except in extreme circumstances, the iii effects of ra diation exposure take temi,fifteen, sometimes twenty years, and sometimes multiple generations, to manifest. This makes uranium mining in Dine Bikéyah a kind of “slow violence” or “delayed destruction” that emerges over 3time. In uranium country, which, like so many mining industries, is governed’ by the rule (or lack of rules) of boom and bust, this has meant that by the time many miners got sick, the companies that eniployed them were long gone. Now, tile responsibility for cleaimingup mine and mill sites 6

has

mines, taniinate’d: and Na

in jiortli; across

operating doned uranium sidered

decades mining

Nation so cut color ronniental

ied: that Louisiana; in munities; not as

celerating ing globally and

geted

munities, than women

vironmental members.

clothes. the vironment,”

the

vajo

The

disproportionately

and

a

beu

Feminist

case

Crownp

environmental

be financial

to

economically

social share

southwestern

are

ih the and

men.37 mine

for

Nat

state

near and by found

name as

seeking

of market

are

taken

By

and

on

disproportionately

(huska

Navajo

and environmental

a enviromnental

industrialism, tlit the federal

Women

the harm.14 ion fence environniental

movement

sites

the

virtue

result

most

scholars African

the

of

jitit,

and not

moreover

Women

resources: just

for area eastein

overwhelming the

that

on

envirunniental

environmental

hit

recognition Navajo

is

lines

New as

care

rniles.- likely and

Mountains

agencies,

a “food of

marginalized by only of

problems—polluted

stirinnuding a are

Examples

cornet host

few, essentialized

American,

precipitous

hasten

the

this

borderlands,

muted federal

responsibilities with and

occupy 1w

also

s4e

recently

to that

Nation

the

and

they

uranium

deserts”

there

problems degradation.36

close

N

The

racism,

live of

as

often

Navajo ten; to

historically

highest

of

N these

so

the on

exposed tendency

of

and

a

EPAs

haul

[I3ODUCFION

add

ijit

the in and basic the

health

contact,

are

on—are field were

Latino,

underway.32

decline communities the ( environmental

and

Navajo

poverty,

most

Mother

in

ove,

Red Natii

industry, which marginalized

that very

socially

human water, the near

tend have

cuncetit families

area

inner

of

premise

shuttered,

near

for

impacts

to

Valley.

Arizona,

of

likely

even

air, petrochemical m academic

real in

women

African Asian

disproportionately

the

to

prioritized

occurs

Nation; sil or

children toxic

to

Earth the usd1

grow Native

cities,

water,

health

constructed

rwunding

and be

connections

ci

deliberately

within

and

experience

Before

it

to

behind

Southwest Now,

)mnlunities

both

American,

with toll

waste borne

lifesaving

racism

be

can

where

the communities

American Of

whenever

and but

where the

soil,

inquiry Monument

land,

and

problems

of

in

in

these

three

cleanup The

which

fact

the

be

Navajo

rather

environmental

abandoned

cook facilities

close differently

the

changing

elderly Cameron,

mines processing

are

seen

makes

six

fresh most

hunger,

role

that

and

marginalized between targeted

United decades

and

of

cleanup is

diverse

communities

communities

they

contact

food,

horn regions

as

that

was

as

Chure

in

the

Nation

uranium are

of

Valley produce heavily

or

are

to Native

occupants

this

“the

the

climate,

and

lived.

last

caretakers;

our sick by even by be States

scattered

uranium

Arizona,

and

uranium after often

for of

and facilities

h

Navajo

with a

located racially of

first

women

to

mines in

justice aban Rock

grow spent

clear-

family

con

envi

com

con

com

wash

can WaS the

var the

the

hear

and

tar

ac

en

of en

in

of INTRODUCTION 7 sociallyconstructedroles in the home and familythat often place them in a unique relationshipto environmental38ills. Women’sexposure to toxins in the domestic sphere, moreover, illustrates the unbounded ways in which toxins move between industry and home. In the case of uranium mining, women wereexposedto radioactiveand chemicaltoxinsfrom the minesand millswhenworkers camehomewearingcontaminated clothes.Womenalso worked in the mines,livedin hot homes built with radioactivetailings,and bore severeeconomic hardship when their husbands were hospitalizedand later died of radiation-related diseases.I’he widows of uranium workers becamethe first and often most effectiveactivistsagainst mining when the adversehealth effectsof the industry beganto take shape,reflectinga larger pattern in environmentaljusticeorganizingin whichwomen oftenmake up the majority of participants in environmentaljustice39struggle. Although scholars of environmental justice studies most often focus on contemporary (post-I92) examples of environmental 40injustice, Native Americansare c1uick to note that the tendency of those in power to exert their power by manipulating resourcesand degradingthe natural environ ment issomethingwith whichcolonizedpeopleare all too familiar;in fact, “the Lnostworkable (late for the founding of the Native [environmental justice]movement . . . is 1492.fl41 This closerelationship between environ mental justiceand Native Americansderives from the similarlyclose rela tionship between environmental racism and settler colonialism. Settler colonialism is a distinct form of colonial power, with a very particular relationship to resources and land.Whereas we might think of colonialism as rending to bemainlyinvestedin the extraction of resources—labo goods, or raw materials—forthe benefitof a metropole,or colonizinghome coun try, settler colonialism adds a layer of comnplexityit is a form of colonial power that involvesthe settlermakinga homein a land that is alreadyhome to indigenous peoples.To quote Deborah Bird Rose, indigenous peoples “got in the way” of settler colonialism “just by staying at home,” because home is preciselywhat the settler colonial state seeks to occupy and re 42nmake. Remaking Native land as settler home involvesthe exploitation of environmental resources, to be sure, hut it also involves a deeply com plex construction of that land as either always already belonging to the settler——hismanifestdesriny-—--’oras undesirable,unproductive,or unappeal ing: in short, as wasteland. No one driving clown the curvy switchhacks of Narbona Pasc would be particularly inclined to think of Navajo country as wasteland—-or even desert. Carving through the verdant Chuska Mountains just 0mmthe New Mexico side of the New Mexico-Arirona state line,Narbona Pass linksthe towns of Crystal. on the east side of the Chuskas, with SheepSpolirigs,on the 8 the and

heart full standing underlying foresting, have complex in or

near

empirical borrow create formed.

called tive mission

indigenous disappearing” cupied tions

favor of tions book

humans, cause gues

explore rendered al is

of as deterritorialization.48 tal

settler

claim

In

west.

air a Narbona

difference

threatening,

display.43

peridot

this

Environmental

problems

industrialism

been current

Dine of

that

this

and

that

is of

a

is

“the

they

and

Dine

When representational from

marginalization—”barren” The

sharp the

that (AEC) relationships

a

an discourses

image

global

objects.45

animals,

realities, contending.44

book, deserts

pollutable

produce

history

Bikéyah conditions

inhabitants green.

claimed scenic

are

mapping interpellation

Pass, in Chuskas

it

forest as The

geographer

in

prospectors,

and

in

the

is

marginal, understood

identified

climate “wasteland.”

the of

I

are

the

was “empty

The

argue

with rich

topsoil ceased

of

air,

sociologists cool

American Notions

Dine

starkly

context resources, that

by

demonstrates

through

targeted

of face

contested

here

naturalized

of

water,

of

air

woodlands

tribes,

of

its

The

even Navajo change,

that

the criterion construct

to BikCyah

and—revealing drought,

Gillian the except

is the

of of

of

shimmering mining

are

urgent

INTRODUCTION as of of he

thick realities Dine

Navajo settler America’s

in

and

the

The land

discourses

environmental for with

Four

Navajo

contemporary and a

have worthless

an

the

land

representations

and

rich

for

environmentally Rose,

history

earth. empirical to

by as wasteland

with

companies,

material

were

as this how

its of

Narbona

water

summer

Corners colonialism’s outlined

invasive their indigenous

Indians.” palette of and, which

places country

the

own austere

country

the

greens land

environmental

forms

vast placed

Following

landscapes

of

the in

of

by

environment, shortage, pass

unique

piney

conditions race,

ideas object—the

a

the months. of predisposed

as

the

energy extension,

area discourse, distinctly

Pass

species)

industrialism

imagination

writ

and

Euro-American

of

desert

and

as

under mauve

speak

unqualified

to ways

uranium

of

gender,

representation

about smell

“uninhabited”

advance.47

the

as puts

destructive

large

sets the

crisp

landscapes,

Valerie

and

storehouse,”46

of

what The

erasure

Atomic with

country neither

in

and

landscape

gendered

conditions,

with

of

these

of

other

as

material

the

extraction

are

which

as

class,

air,

tree

Chuskas to

ecological

industry

evergreens,

Kuletz

that burgundy,

which

wasteland.

one

Kuletz,

(the

land desert

made

high

is

what

resources The to

kinds

Energy

death to

industries

worldview,

andlor

forgotten

environmen nor

newspaper

sees

post—World

representa

he

framework

wasteland

conditions

as have the

itself,

stakes

framed the

invisible

land,

country

and

she “always

are

on who

of well

are,

extrac to

deserts

condi (from

long

Com

Dine

sage

been

sexu lands and

This

and

the the

calls and

the

on

oc

be for

to

as ar

in

it,

I

a

in

is

9

be

on

for

an—

and

en

can

The

Na

and

dev

have

This

pro

after

it

terms

those

beach only

of

which

can

piles

energy

spaces

on

state. 50 signifier

of

and

has

in

material

day

environ

in treadmill

put

(uranium,

reliant

extracted

discursive

not

Lakes,

the

modernity,

a

indigenous

component

that

of

of

the

demand aesthetically

“Somewhere

which

is

To

way production

least

somewhere—

the environmental

The

tailings

For

spatial

of

the

and

it

products,

production

by

pollutable. 56

of find

Bahamian

a

Great

hours

of

injustice

the go

their

racialized

the

treadmill

pollutable. 51

it

of

sunshine)

for

that

degradation

materials

on

a

noted,

constituted

of

Patterns

as

way

the

and

out

dumping

Thus,

in that

place.” 54

and

and

increasingly

the

must

argued,

of

fact

raw

progress

been benefit

phenomenon

Mesa

inhabit

treadmill

and

radioactive

protection

underexplored

racial

are

feature

the

Orange

Americans

phenomena.

made

has

treadmill

wind

materials

a

disproportionately

marked

primary

has

twenty-four

dumped.

waste

the

is

that

by

shores

corollary. 55

exponentially. 49

is

delicate

find

a

often

and

through

Black

that

the

energy’s

environmental

are

America. 37

colonial

Agent

worthless,

imbricated

been

the

we

of

toxic of key

lights

inherent

very

and

energy—a

of

of

materials

which

often

bodies

a

resources

understanding

lands

are

has

regulatory

people

Here,

an

on

become

near

constituted

privilege

South

and

Blackhawk

and

this

while

to

territorial

the

is

no

raw

civilization

increasingly,

between

increasingly

the

cheap

of

been

resident

of

has complicated barrels

pollution

“wasteland”

its

of is as

marginal,

symbol

built

which which

and

through Ned

is

INTRODUCTION by

mines

is

Native

extraction

and,

markets,

have

and has

and

race

The

Dine

just

mutually

contrary,

injustice. 53 relegated

the

being

waste

space

from

leaking

contemporarily—raw

modernity”)

inequality

States,

as

waste

with

while

a

waste

wastelanding.

somewhere,

that one

wate;

as

conditioning

ultimate

copper

“other”

the

way,

argue,

people

rainforests

imbalance

ignored

only

environmental

relationality

extraction

find

historian

us

as

I

racism.

to

laid

air

“late

toxic)

laid

the

the

gas,

energy

us,

seen

or

environment

the

the

lands as

from

this

not

United

extraction

tell

is

of

is

also

life;

operates

as

process

development

be is

privilege

an

to

in

In

if,

land

quite

land

resources, 52

of

strong

which

the

rendering

we

(often

expanding

from

from

a

of

and

come

pain

in this

savagery,

in

“wastelands”

natural

of

environmental

Native

racism

period

electricity,

way:

are

in

mines

clearly

oil,

renders

call

II

land

desert,

away

where

must

dioxin-releasing

wasteland

I

Wastelanding,

environmental

economic

strip

es,

distasteful;

degradation

the

that

of

problem

indigenous

body

other

far contributed

cheap

shorthanded quite

tive

industry astated

indigenous of

coal,

vironmental

produces

process

constituted. through

industrialism the

all,

landscapes

Because

excluded

and mental

duction, requires

waste War matter deserts 10 velously

not waste

ies are land has and

lands them,

according industries. of it.’ ed rifice” industrial parlance,

tion taken-for-granted natural ing which real, of carceration, cruement, verse, by make are tialized Pred and moved Wastelanding constituted By Hudson’s just primary abracadabra, are “

spaces, been

how

racism disrourse”

real,

of the

and are

connected of a “wastelands” and

material, This made

look landscapes

abundant zones. space. puts “feat

is clear

by and

material environmental a deployed

or valueless,

from through a reification:

these to the F{ydroelectric

including modernity Euro-Amerwan

one very

environmental social

(threats of and on

it, comrrion to sic]

the ot the

This

subsequent through under acting

As

opportunity-yielding through of deserts seem

to lived—what

ontological two pollution through so

hocus-pocus, takes connections

National

Bay construction

consequences of these

sacrificial segregation

explore hook., in on), pollutable.

or

categories

(rut and

jungle-scapes forms on those

uninhabited and first,

uninhabitable multiple sense,

to valuable two

racial as

“feat[sl ideas

racism, those

racism rather

acts a

dams therelort, continue

wastelands results uncompensated devastation

social a

Audubon

of primary how protection60). of

NT

clistate

and magic,”

culturally

might about lands, between anict of

constructions.

the

wastelanding simsalabim—concretized.”6’ and

ROUUC;T

made of

contexts, Wasrelanding in a of only can

“The

second, of violence, this

construction

condrtion in

difference,

spatial uranium ontological James or

unequal

to can

environmental argues

the otherwise the he

social, forms: these

the for fur for material convergenLe unimportantly Society,

socially grow but

race

of

agreed-upon theorized

value

common

much the

“idea-logics Bay, what onte ON dusty

includiTig Politics those

Patterns that foreshortened

that landscapes

economic, and

labor, distribution industry the

in 9 process and

can

of which “‘make Canada,

by magic,” to Wastelanding builds barred of can be of which

wastelands colonial

aiid wastelanding. assumption very environments

the be make difference be

the designation at that

only

inequalities

of be

destruction

of nondesert of termed

multiple seen

embodied we

inhabited, logic on lua(cs environs wildlife

of on discourse even James mined and become

wherein rendcr environmental materializing,

for of discursive.

profits.

epistemologies of Dine cultural then

Kuletz’s

life as

extraction political that instance, resources.

of the

that

social

reifies—it Wastelanding that just

Bay that from

expectancy, scales. dependent understand of certain laud, Race many

locationally are by racialized in landscapes, consequences most derives

In

(or, represented

becomes and

wasteland

so racism nonwhite

and

polluting tenders manifested wealth

“waste construc scholarly Like

beneath

networks.”

and as in would, much

kinds of

space mar

As

hod

allow some makes

racism the “sac

mak from do

race, space Allan

are—

on

lands

spa

ac in as

in

is

re

as

a INTRODUCTION 11 worthless,and then—”abracadabra,hocus-pocus”—systematicallystripped of their material and ideologicalworth. Nuclearism makes a fitting site to study wastelanding because it is so clearly a multiscalar problem. Radiation is spatially inultiscalar, with im pacts that can he measured at the bodily,the ecosystemic,or the planetary level;it holds potential to change our verycellsor affectthe ways in which organs change over time. its effects can be traced from the subatomic to the ecosystenucand everythingin between (from cellsand organs to sheep and corn). It can be as unimaginablysmall as the split nucleus or as night marishly large as the mushroom cloud. Likewise,nuclearismnis temporally multiscalar:its impacts rangefrom the moment an explosion initiates a nu clear chain reaction, to the tedious process of a miner chipping away at an ore body, to the limits of the human temporal imagination (uranium 238, for example, uranium’smost common isotope and the one that is used to produceplutonium,has a half-lifeof 4.46 billionyears).Nuclearism’sdead liriesscan manifestin the immediacyand violence of acute radiation expo sure or, more commonly,in the slow growth of tumors in lungs and genetic mutations passed down through generations. And because its effects are not always felt immediately,because the causal relationship of radiation to health outcome is a moving and precarious target, and because is it impossible to see, feel, or taste your exposure to radiation, nuclearisin triggers human anxiety to an almost incomparable extent. Nuclearism’s af fective mnultiscalarity has produced gut -wrenching fear in communities downwind of nuclear test shots, defiant rage in envirommnientalactivists, and apocalyptic bravado in the culprits behind the Cold War’s mad doctrine of mutually assured destruction. These mnultiscalarnatures of nuclearism-— environmental, spatial, temporal, and affective—make it a particularly apt site for exploring wastelanclingas a racial and spatial process of signification that makes extreme environmental degradation possible, Wastelanding, too, is multiscalar: in uranium country, destroying the environment through uranium mining does not just mean destroying the nonhuman world and ecosystems.It means to wasteland, to render pollut able, the lungs,the cells,and the respiratory tracts of everyoneinvolved in the nuclear cycle.It also means to wasteland Navajo worldviews, episte mnology,history, and cultural arid religious j)ractices.In order for uranium mining to OCCILI on the level it did (and still does), indigenous ways of knowing landscapes and their worth must he themselves rendered poi lutable, marginal, unimportant. To borrow from poet Adrienne Rich, 62 are in wastelanding----renderingan environment pollutable in ways that both ideational arid material —‘Thewords are purposes. I The words are 6maps” Tha 12 western On open-mouthed thirty

belt uranium in, tive face Indian up

I vajo (more spread most sent to

the tion. tion, more

roads located the raked lars. national was gas

prices editorials

were with major

air, ment

could

The

view to July

Thirty

Words

This visible

of space dusty

price earth, my

country),

station

miles no of

where Filling a

Global

politically the abandoned inscriptions

Black Route

to Valley in out

coal

corner on

access leering 4,

the

not this in dog

exception. ore

part

record

fill

corporate radioactive

miles

2008, for

gas of Are water,

remote from

the that on

away

quarter

conveyor

out Mesa, coal see in people lurching

water a

cleared 41,

political—economic

were

of my a

point station of Dine. were

Porposes tank

at

tower

the had

later,

tank

Highway

of profits, but

I

Dine animals, Peabody charged from the

mining

passenger

after the

pulled

parts

of Tsé

stretching

continental

among That tanks,

tank

a

regularly

with the

to

capitalism

knew Navajo

trees.

central, I of resource onto

200-yard

guts

on

that

Bikéyah stretched

where

coasted

the bii’nidzisgai

the

of

and headquarters

gas

of

into summer

monolith. the

and

gas,

activity The

Coal

160—a get climax the

of

the

western the presides was

Four gas

INTRODUCTION

seat.

a

shot

Nation,

the to east I

driving human the drive

country. Wast&and groceries, barrel

during

floorboards

had

extraction

first

into

I is

Company

United

occupied the section

there

forbiddingly

had

mines

miles

Making

town

of not up

forces the than

side

highway,

stopped

mesa’s

to reservation’s large

Kayenta (Monument

over the

of

population. left on

to

focLis:

Navajo this

just

of

from

be

During of

to

usual, oil States, of exposed

of uranium

almost

an

visit

the

of seeking

pickups

the exploited as

a an on Access 160.

the

Kayenta,

home particular horizon

cost

the in

empty

sudden on

resource not the the

coal

iontag

on

the elephantine

the town’s

family,

Times

especially across

west,

the

and To Black the

an

incapacitating

$5 incidentally,

fumes crinkled

nakedly

Valley)

to

The

boom a built

uranium Road, back

mining

gas long summer the

unprecedented

side

in

better

a

this turn

coal Arizona,

in

at

was

the single the

mines summer, or Mesa gallon;

extraction

Sg&fler

tank.

west, enviromnent

the

of

to the

of

and distances

and

particular

and attend up

in

mines

oddly

highway, to

full topographic angle my operation,

fill

presence the

early mine

intersections

months

the

in a

left I major the coal

Haulage it

usher

up Jeep, built

was

oil in of dirt

road

nearby

cut was

effects

linear Navajo from unreclaimed,

hut to surrounding

the

articles my years sites,

companies

conveyor and

over road less

$145

to

livestock into I intersec tourists

to 7-Eleven angling of

an

in is north

tank wasted of

which

which usher

nega Monu Road

gape

than

2008, trans which of also

of every map

hard even

Na that

Na the

dol

and

gas of

the

at

a

in

of

of

at

the

to

out

13

en thus

op

and

into

con

high-

land

office

their

Colo

haul Here,

name.

940s,

when

Moab

famil

Valley

clearly

miners

water,

1

arrived

famous

of

country,

how

an

any

its

In

legacy

mines

so

Colorado

symptom

Os)

rock

the

existence,

stark worked

arrived

after

reaches

juxtaposed,

the

yellowcake

laborers—

named

of

of

on

Utah.

a

at

the

the

striking

mine

mapped and

of of

the

195 most

racks

ore

Uravan,

and

uranium

dangerous

in

presumably,

well-developed

uranium

polluted

of

farm

years

sign on

the

out

closely

and

industry.

all

Monument

mural

nowhere

and Main,”

as

posed

gazed

western

workers

Moab, hosts

Now,

were

jobs before—a

the

I

course

most

so

of

equally

of

heavy

take

N.

and

landscape 64 —I

advantage

shafts,

the

in

non-Native

the of famous

the thriving,

Dine

11

Shop

transform on. 66

since

there

in

differently,

largest

town:

sit

season

blasted

a

prefer

where non-Native

unchanged,

perhaps

940s

uranium

of

towns,

Junction

to

so

mine

I

to

these

of

California

taking had

Over most

Bike

the

roadways

left

been

traffic

personal

the

graffiti-style

it

in

to

were

geography were

booms,

day

towns

and Offices,

desert

of

(the

some

milling

the

antiquelooking

Valley,

a

the

Grand

summer and

three-quarters

had

sheen

new

the

own

tended

with

I

home. different

than

an

both

illustrated

postcard-ready

and

landscapes

the

1960s

some

uncovered

to

Bikéyah, Utah;

the

Uranium

days.

Valley

my

total,

behind

that

hours

among

very

of frenzy

uranium

decades

of

this

to

on

venturing

Moab:

that

sustain

more

In

differently

the

“Uranium

but

history

Street,

or

close

Dine

left

to

Navajos

changed

town

two

milling

Monument years,

Kayenta:

INTRODUCTION

three-foot-tall

fact

like

frame

sense

southwestern

with

town

early

form

difference a of

height

a

of

1950s

quite

during

to

of where

they

a

the

were

uranium

work

built

Main

the

the

boom

this

Monticello,

across

Monument

the

the

boom towns.”bS

inscribed

and

intimate

towns

with

in

the

twenty-four

reservation

and

expensive,

north

jobs in

work

uranium

kind

in

Redondo. of

come

and

of

has

Moab,

intimacy”

as despite

those

made

from

was

the

bridges

dramatically

I)uring

bikes

Moab’s

matter-of-factly

Kayenta,

surrounding

experiences

buttes

wage

hours

for

just

legacies

in

each

remembered

uranium

milling

mesas

1960s,

Project,

booms

sites

height

Bosque

new

operated

for different two

and is

strikes

yellowcake

reads

“yellowcake

area

along

to

the

gripped

homes. was

the

and

evennially

Kayenta,

the

three

the

destination

and

than

in

and

Marysvale

uranium

“imagined

downtown

mine options—railroad

to

mouTitain

the very

mills

Entire

hot

gas

reservation

These

mesas nostalgia

in

Not

a

my

how

would

during

building of

as Farther

uranium end

rado; towns

mines

during

uranium

during Plateau’s

scapes,

tourist

trast

in

of the

yellowcake. iar

and

paved

1950s, and ers.

because

the

other

poverty

portunity removal

these

and

vironmental Manhattan 14

one F1(TJRE

this built the

radioactive metals Kayenta,

Junction,

disasters. ing

that ing porary offering mine

histories ing extent,

display

The of

image,

extent,

destinations.

meanings.

environments

lends

the

country,

and .

contrast

site

the

tourists

many

The with

Colorado, and In

the

windows.

local

leaving

minerals

very

of

ore

Moab

shup’s

Uranium

in

These

euergyextractive struggle

ways

it

between

flavor

the

came,

In unnatural

and

an

is

behind

and

and

Photo

name

in

a mining Navajo

towns, alternative

that

political

colorful

Bike which

to

around

over

over

former

Kayenta

is

have

by

ski

scarred

Shop

evolution

painted

less

has

rYAODU(

Nation

the

the

land,

time,

areas, economies

been

the

uranium

than narrative

assumed

author.

activity

legacy

sits

industrialism.

and

earth

in jobs,

Navajo

to

near camping in

extracted

200

a

of

Moab

general,

acquire

of

three1oor-tall

[ION

of

starkly and

on

and

downtown

boointowns

an miles

uranium

of

former

Nation,

rainy

oddly

ongoing

suggests national

sovereignty;

hot

from

apart,

uranium

very

This

different

uranium

mining spots,

days.

nostalgic

mining

Moab,

the

faux

curious difference

have

that

environmental

like

history,

is

land

and

is

political—.econom

graffiti

hoomtowns.

Utah,

it,

deserts

one radically

in

inscribed is

affect,

such a

mountain

other

to

meanings.

of

very

its

is,

illustrating

tag

a

a

have

as devastat museuir

to

a

litany

conterr differet

parts

over

on

histor

Cram

a healtl

In

shif the

1ar

hik

Ii o

c INTRODUCTION 15 histories of mining in different places. These different evolutions of pol lution and geography in turn suggestthat that wastelanding—aracial and spatial signifier that renders landscapes pollutable—is only incidentally about deserts.The wasteland,I argue, is a floating signifierin the Western environmental imagination: it does not always have a specificsomatic or material referent, but rather it flexibly(floatingly)marks different objects, landscapes,and bodies.Deserts,thus, are not the reason for wastelanding. They are, rather, its frequent hut not exclusivetarget. Just as race is a dis cursivetechnologywith often deadlymaterial effects,so too iswastelanding the process by which pollutahility is materialized. My explorations of the wasteland are thus very much about race, not only becauseenvironmental racism and wastelanding are conceptual inti mates, but also becauserace is a discoursethat is only incidentallya refer ent to different human body types. Just so, wastelanding is a discourse that is only incidentally a referent to different kinds of landscapes (in cluding deserts). Race is quite deeply involved in wastelanding the envi ronments that are deemed resource-rich for settler industrialism, just as certain human bodies are deemed productive reserves of labor (itself a resource) for settler industrialism,and rendered exploitable via race. One might go so far as to say that racialized bodies are in many ways them selveswastelanded. Race intersects with the environmental imagination, even as it intersects with gender and sexuality, to produce wastelands: places that are marked, physically and ideologically,for exploitation, re source extraction, and national sacrifice.Just as race is embodied, often violently,despite being in essencestrictly a discourse (as I tell my students, race is a discoursepowerful enough to make genocidepossible), “waste landing” is a discourse-made-material through the degradations of tar getedenvironmentsand their human and nonhuman denizens,It is through this process that even verdant landscapes—or nonlush places that are nonetheless aestheticallypleasing or otherwise fitting for American envi ronmentalistaffect—canherenderedpollutahle,and desertscapesembraced as protectable. The referent of wastelanding is inconsistent; the outcome is not. As scholars of ethnic and women’sstudies have long pointed out, we can recognizecategoriesof human differenceas being sociallyconstructed by the ways in which their meaningschange over time, space, and culture. Race, for example, can be recognizedas a social construct rather than an expressionof essential,or inherent, human differenceby the ways in which racialcategoriesareconstantlyin flux:what it means to hewhitehas changed dramaticallyover the course of just the twentieth century, often in response to negotiations betweenlegaland cultural constructions of 67whiteness; for Hidalgci,

or South, MeKicaus 16 gairizes innate and Feminist sotml

ways, and

organi7ing range ity am

come scalar

become, ity clothes, precisely so

tion about

social, sider

material white wasteland ertoires

rial essential “ghetto” ascribed white ties) dant historically

“New

“common

on.

If are

intersecting

Just

made

SI)

culture.69

and

conditions

of we

the

landscapes.71 of or

to

constructions, difference

race

the

range

1)11.

settlement: Western

structures populations’

cultural,

World.”

how

so,

places,

symbolic,

legal

even talk

of

materiality extend scholars

because as

inner-city meaning-making

or

to

in

moves discursive.

inherent

As

status

social

to

there

dispossession

inherent we constituted

it.

the

the

sense” of

about

thest race

initially,

“Back

The

costs

web

disdain

inaterialities

Environmental

say,

white

of ecological, but Southwest this

from is

could

resources

race

of

psychical,

have

the taws

value

argunlent This

nothing “ghetto” the examples

the race

to

life

a

Yard”

racialiwd: exploitation

that

analysis

of to

on

Bodies

Western

meaning

malleable

is

about

spaces, being

change place

myriad

the

labor, with and experiences

likewise is

a

of

status;68 the

was

renders

arid

precisely

discourse

practices,

wastelanded

(as

urban accordmg

iii about

INIFtODUCTION

or

contingent

and

that

basis

its and

pollutable bodies

can tied

here attest,

derive

of

gestures,

we

the

environmental

displacement.

juridical—-that

in,

by

historians

things,

of

clear

they

structure

the

physical

denronstrated

becomes

symbols.7° tot

can to

be that

space

Not exploitable,

the the

after

is of the

because

and

made themselves. rare

relationship

from

that

racialized;

rtizerrship as take

cultural Afritair

their

simple see

desert

to

space

are

iii bodies,

words,

math

on

itself

to well

nutcolnes places

types

is

entities—rn how

My

have of

social

material

gentrified

the the on

only

being

not malleability

that

itself

feeling

act

shifts

In as of that

imagination

Ibis

AlrLericarrs

Back

preferences

or

particularities

wastelanding

we

hegemonic ideas, foods, of

as

negligible,

pointed

and

a

racialized

the must how that

preference

Race, of constructions

so

protectable—frorn

reflection

between seem

it

human

invites

that

make

is arid

crossing

through

rather

Yard).

is

and too differed

Treaty

how by

and other

shift

jobs,

about

gender

spectacularly

gender,

access

invites

to

out

upper-middle-class

exclusion can

over out

disdain;

in

bodies.

feelings

has

scholars

There than and

for

inhere and social

in

meaning

sexualities,

words,

is

uf

tn

how the

the state is

discursive

from

of

voices,

(and

to

culturally

and

meaning,

evolved

time,

disdain, lush

not essential

and

Guadahipe

classed marginal

are

them.

a

meaning—

iiri

resources.

is

wilderness

construc

They material

borders;

the

raciality

peculiari that

so

that a

sex

and sexual

nitural

not nothing of

space,

Crow

multi about

that

ideas,

urban

much

mate

Con

in

race

even

and

are can rep

or are and

ver al

and or

the

the

a

is

at

in 17

“

not

get

that

wil

the cen

Na

wild

or

been

a

took,

(what

lands

inter

West

rather

“envi

comes

to

to

meant

beheld

settler

deserts

‘bleak,’

specter

the

it

tribes,

mythical

trend

distinctly

have

of legislation.

settlement

the Forest

and

a

often

race

themselves

creation.” 75

desert

agricultural

as

“wilderness”

chose

the

of

became

vacant

of rotectecl

meanings,

environmental

when

‘revolting.’

environmental

“environments

environmental

and

desert

to

too,

could

upon

been

1905

ol

rich

masculine

their

as

‘desolate,’

and

superiority

of

for

and

animal

rnountainOu,

in

sacred

Petriuied

differentially

aesthetics

preservationist

project

flourished—in

and

which,

travelers

Canyon,

theories

cultural

environmental

harrier

the

logician.” 76

white

view

the

looked

conservation

in

understood

areas

mere

uncultivated—”wild”—-

American

of

nineteenth-century American

likewise

tribes’

fact

settlers,

a

I)eserts

an

of

been

category

struggled

the

threatened,

around wildemncss,

the

larger

of

Arizona

the

as

by

the

so thc

coasts,

Grand

the

been of

of

ways

have

‘repulsive,’

part

American

American

to

uncultivated

the

This

range

in

that

overland

have

‘inhospitable,’

of

table

saga

biological

a

as the

nature.

fit

the

develop

advocacy,

that,

past

geographic

eyes

Pathfinder,

wildutiess

seemingly visited

and

reviled

the

of

revolved

settlers

to

being

his

“wilderness”

with

them route

imagined

the

the survived—in

the

in

prttec

beautiful

deserts

‘dismal,’ and

of

to

With

savage

were

closely

acquire

approach

Great Muir

in

in be

as

landscapes (il)logic,

out

settler

c’onstitutive

white

movement.

is

to

what

largely

to

settlers

the

tribes

as

part

particularly

incorporated

example

sense

they

desert-scape

“forbidding,’ Progressive-era

INTRODUCTION

mines,

coupled

more

have

John

through

tourism

particularly

marks

‘barren,’

be

and

as

nearest

deserts

the

came

which

the

verdant

came

this

distinctly “logic

constituted

understand

large

racialist

point,

Particularly

that

continent,

desert

to

matter

it

gold

in

a

in

pass

see

masculine

When

in

now were

country,

“the

profane,

because

Frémont,

them

of

no

excellent

Lush,

to

that

that

settler. 73

now

included,

as

or

first same

C.

came

deserts ‘savage,’

deserts

[sic],”

an

that

demise.

explorers

white

saw

included

storied determinism

to

tribes

constitute

we

fact Western

thanks

the until

however,

environmentalist)

canyon

began

scarcity”

Those

he

his

he

Led

landscapes

John

the to

negative.

environmental

as

precisely

sacred

had

forests

Thus, words,

evidence

the

desert

by

the

of

as

constructions,

call

quality of

had, arid

as ‘dreary,’

now,

desert

European

California;

of

“E)esarts or

Park,

the

West,

a

they

is

them

lush as

When

inferiority, green,

lives.

of

helped

the

as

now

locales

of exploration,

of

same

As

social

scarcity”

the

California’s

Deserts

grew terpiece

imagination

places

least

that

tional derness

imagination,

what

all

than

to

Ironically,

ronments evidence,

Frérnont’s

knvironrnental

of

‘sterile,’ seemingly

that

of

itself.

their

lands,

land threatening

em

to

pellated

subject

eye

seen

protection. 72

the

areas,

evil

s; C

a 1

Y

I-

al fl

W S. e, I- it The profitable mid-twentieth

desert 18 Picture ination west.’ mountain “winning desert

conflated Southwest, and

nation we es degradation cans’ even cased symbolic busily symbolized who ily, family

course enormous woman outside the included,

mines.81 his died care. an as given

‘The

of

In

the

can

That told

adult,

family’s

Canyon,

family

ourselves.

depicted

of desert as

collective

The

locales,

Monument country, inside.

him was, blasting

was

primary a

image of

will

rightly lung

of film

in

in

pair

Upon

youngest

If

the

subsequent with setting

locale’

moreover, coming

child

passes—a

America” changes

their the

in

by first

materially making these

matriarch,

nowhere

country.

more

of

disease

in crews

This of

west” what

them

of thanks John

2000

century, During

its nothing the a “imagined say

her particular,

captured emotional

was Old

hogan.

deserts place to

for

narratives

than famous from

simultaneity

Valley,

desert

under

son

the death, shot

that

herding Wayne

centered

the the

in West

gives documentary never

for

their

decades, so

place,

in

and

Happy

the 1960,

surrounded

Clys

Kennedy’s

bears likely

‘sublimest

as both less

well desert

the large

the the

changed

on

way

occurred

gunslingers

the her intimacy” went

red

ideologically, just

draw

imagined returned,

uranium cultural

himself

widely sheep,

film

than

westerns

thought in are INTRODUCTION

settler

as

which

the

on

Cly,

call

film part an the

youngest

mesas

for

central

short,

outside

in

of

in

part

of

in narratives

film

uncanny

the

Cly

once Monument

the up

most work, a

film its weaving

valorization

thing to

circulated

the simultaneously the

while

state by

her representations

booms,

very

and with

community,

into would

of

the very name.)

family headed a

and that

story

“no

sagebrush, to 1950s film. described

The

family

dusty

remaking grandchild

of what

dramatically,

on

his however,

short

has

rise

the

this

nonexistence

how

the

survival

would

name: more

Navajo

Kayenta,

that,

Return of

earth.’ be

(His

in

came

connection

actor postcards into by

grounded

Valley of

part town

“America”

uranium

Monument

attributed

which space

teniporary

we

and

the

director

as

quite

eventual

specific

uranium

itself

John

underscore a

to

piñon

made of

in

understand 77

“the was

was

rugs,

of

of

saloon,

scene

1-lollywood

degradation

Dine

of

embody

of

Navajo

the

the

uranium

Navajo

perhaps, the

often,

through

for

the industries. bearing Wayne

most-photographed

adopted in

time

itself

to

no

Robert

and

to pines,

now

[940s

than in

valorization

return in

Valley’s nation-state,

missionary

the

companies

the

his

and

“frontier” nearby

reference

the

the

from

cooking country

those

took

white

in

Boy.

valley

means,

family

uranium

‘the

the

our

Cly, was her and

your

during

and

1

J.

western,78

away

the

middle

is

to

950s,

Kennedy,

“an

Cly

Over

place

resourc

changes: uranium

The

image,8°

perhaps

history

them

South craggy closely Ameri

a

I

desert on

inlag

as

to

meals 950s;

serves

foster

name then were

‘un

from fam and

Clys

and the

the

Cly

the en one

the

the

of

in

as

of

of

of

to

re

the

by

not

19

the

and

into

very

part

over

with mid

a

they

float

to

home Hara

reser

waste

of

finally

whole;

annual

impera

context

the

diseases,

a

uranium

are

and

are

the

ticket

its

domain

American away

potentially

“Indians,”

In

course,

coloniality

children

these

as

changed

unregulated control

that

story

l)onna

before

of

mountain

they

a

representation

of

larger

connect

turn, of

near

and

a

a

consequences

doing

locate

interweavings

iconic golden

in

northeastern

colonialism:

state

exert

much

Native

was,

released

western

what

tells

and

part

to

they

mines,

an

nowhere,”

embodied—and

and

uncharted

the

the

unregulated

away

Kayenta’s

on

out

effect

resources. 83

in

state’s

within

in states

settler

powerful

evolution

to

the

family sexuality,

in

to

how

small

up

desire

a

complex

wastelands:

radiation-related from

Borderlands,

century

by

Agency

with

the

deeply

causes

the

icon

no

rush

episteme,

as

uranium

country.

therefore, rich

the

arid

Wastelands,

hauling

archetypal

which

grew

home

mere

map—in

in

adopting

from

by

industry gender,

as are

by

from

mapping

of

Boy,

Cly

Valley—a

marked

serves

Cly,

desert

Shop.

plane

than

Mapping

importance

attendant

colonial

that

everything

powerfully

film uranium a

occupied

work,

exploring

in

considered

class,

view

century,

American

pollutable.

means

ecosystemic

of

kindled

a

Bike In

mid-iwenrieth

the

uranium

an

members

Cartographies,

image

and

as

State

Wayne

Navajo

practice

Wayne

those

race,

wage

topographic

multiply

and

seeing

produced,

the

critical

was

INTRODUCTION

complex widely

of

modern

the

were

to

Monument

The uranium

image

booming

it

of

space

problems

after in

flat John

of

of

John

of

thus

a

twentieth

was

family

in all,

other spaces

powerful

nuclearism

was

an

Uranium

age.

on

Justice

Mexico

Colonial

reflecting more

and

a

bodily,

of

of

of

and

trick

Return joined

the

of

for

charts.

health

were

after

are

are

assimilative

particularly

bore

shoots. again

image

photography

practice

project

in

smooth,

New

among

of

Maps:

midst

The

a

a

Moab’s

in

the

“god nowhere”;

uranium

death

Clys

the

film

Wayne

deeply

the

familial,

deposits,

industrial

maps

cover

universalis;n

implications

the

Are

clearly,

spaces,

family child—namned

the

and

the

favor

was

projects,

-perspectives

The

colonialism, in

from

extraction ore

a

1955,

Production

demarcation

that

behind

John

when

The

in

his

working,

state,

false

families.

discourses

several

sites

archived

calls

By

state

Words

lost the

modern

signifiers

environmental

colonial,

Cartographic

1955,

the

the

Deserts,

both

settler their

“view

his land

specific-

1 9 50s,

a

the

mninable

napping tive.

the

minder

leaving peripheral

o.

way

report. nature

of

and

The In

in

mine ing

to

of resource

the

landscape—to multiscalar

and white

were

mining. 82

of the witnessed

finding

vation,

in

of

.78

nd gy

ry r

s

S

en ls

rt ly ly n

d n 1fl :he

he re 20 INTIODIJCTION environniental degiadarions of the uranium industry,maycentral questions revolve ainund the subjectmvityof dominant cartographic dmsoursesand the construction of Dine Bikéyahas peripheral, distant, marginal, desert, or deserted:“emptyexcept fo Indians,”Geographyand ilutionsabout space have,of ourse,long beemimatters “of considerableimperial84significance” Colonized terrain has been representarionallycontained and restrained in maps, just as the practiceof surveyingand cartography,the productivelabor of mapping, represents a repertoireof colonial action--a practice of power 85relations. Central to the work of understanding settler colonialism,then, is the project of explicating the ways in which the production of knowl edge about space is historical, social, and deeply leaden with 8power. Suf&e to say: as Ann Laura Stoler calls historians to turn from “archive— as-source to archive-as-subject,” so must those of us who are geographi cally inclined begin to read cartographic discoursesas revelations of colonial ontology and technology, as subjects of our research and theory, rather than as objective representations of the natural, social, or political 81world. In the Southwest, cartographic discourses and articulations of territo riality are deeply complex. This region is in multiple senses spatially and ideologically liminal—in other words, it is a borderland. The history of ura niuni mining aptly illustrates this limninality:uranium country is simulta neously Navajo country, which, more often than not, is also claimed by Pueblo nations, by Nuevonexicano land grant communities, and by mul tiple state and federal agencies. Uranium mining, moreover, has existed at multiple kinds of ideological or affective borders. Assuch, each chapter of the book addresses spatiality and borderlands in a different way. In chapter 1,1explore how the pre—uraniummining history of federal relations to the Dine constituted a kind of economic borderland: during the period

of livestock reduction in the 1930s, in which i)iné herds were “reduced” (a euphemism,often, for slaughter) by tens of thousands, Navajo poverty was treated as a result of what was deemed irrational land use. The Na vajos came to be seenas occupyingthe spacebetweenrational conservation practice and abject povertyduring a timewhen both conservationand pov erty were crucialconcernsfor Americansin general.Duringthis period, the Navajo herd owner as a “socialproblem” constituted a grim counterpoint to the trope of the “ecological Indian,” and Dine poverty was seen as the direct result of the tribe’s failure to understand its land base and resources. Chapter 2 explores the early years of the uranirim boom, looking to the ways in which uranium in the Southwest seemedto constitute a temporal borderland betweenthe anachronistic past and the techniological(nuclear) future.As Timemagazineso artfullyput it in 1952,“For years, the parched, mountainous wastelandsof the ColoradoPlateauwereknown for their scat tering of dinosaur bones and the ruined homes of prehistoric cliff-dwelling

a

to

in

of

to

ra

or

in-

the

be

ap

21

the

halt

the

the

ura

and

1968,

Dine using

other of

a

large

“pre

closed

in

mines

proper

by

public

called

future

millers

Taylor)

the

in Navajo

also

or

making in

little

to

environ

their

how

(self

and

created

waste”

traces

and

normative

the

resources,”

“fiction

Mountains

were

and

were

important:

uranium

borderland

between

over

technologi

for

risk

that

nature

were

of

private

on

understood

of

down

uranium

of

also

and

between

(Mount

ground

Indian

magazine

western,

through

more

reservation

explores

and

Valley

bones”

trend

taken

rhetoric

industry;

the miners

shut

Carrizo

3

borders

assimilating

worthless

companies

in

activism

the

of

booms

far the

temporal and

moreovei

the

children

in

impacts

often

chapter

slowly

the

of

division Dine

land

important”

the officially

mill

spatiality

public

of

predicated

a

this

territories

public/private Tsoodzil

counter-mapping,

kind

in

and to

.

what the

off

chapter 200

.

the

ttansboundary

was

This

work

Hollywood

“dinosaur laborers

.

uranium

Monument

more

geographic

was

cowboy

women’s

uranium

such

this

that

placed,

near

crossed

of

effects

“waterless,

in

the

Bikéyah

to

something

the

risk

than

mines

between

Shiprock

around

1960s:

that

past.

cLaims

“far

the

wage

women

manning

which

of

creating

Thus

work

for

compensation,

were

children),

in of

of

in

general

Similarly,

from

Dine

the

late

fact

the

space

part

nhines

more

health

between

claims

obviated their

star

for

Lease

Bikéyah

of

violating

the

with

McGee

radiation the

all

the

and

division wage

site. 91

and

into

radiation

tribes

reputation,”

spheres—men

ways

large

diseases,

in

known

and

of

when

INTRODUCTION Dine

in

position country

is parts

Kerr

the

adverse

imagination.

a

new

work

wives

follow

uranium. 89

importance of

formalize

Despite

risks

decade;

1

spheres,

counter-mapping

gender

because

in

uranium

to

the

The

borderland

area

because

imagined

Dine

Indians” the

1960s,

increasingly government 6,

by

other

anachronistic

Reservation

the

and

this

beginning

The

of

of

and

attraction

furure—ushering

revolved

in

the

part

the

popular

examine

own,

late

disappearing

and

of

and

the

glorious

binary

southwestern

1967.

I home

reaches

counter-mapping

East

5

1970s

took

economy. has

and

4, domestic

the

touted ignored

by

U.S.

affective

now

half

Crediting

large

their

radiation-related

and

spaces.

tourist

promised

experience

borders

The

By

and

or

activity

delineate

other

of risk 92

of

quietly

of

industry,

the

wages

(in

and

past

wage

shattered

to industry

But

senses:

between

cliff-dwelling

eastern

justice

roles

the

latter

in

“to

industry closed

chapters

to

chapter

and

wasteland’s died

at

private

then kind

1968.

1960s

the

In

two

futurity

the

denied

action

In

a

by

were

in

niuin

diation’s to

Uranium

maps

in uranium

mental

ly

peals end

had

dustrial ginning

and

gender.” 9 °

bringing

the

industrialists

gender

other) uranium workers

it Bikéyah

spectacular

between

transmogrification

and

“the

Dine no

cal

historic

tension

uranium.” 88

Indians.

in

at

En

of

l)y

and

ions her

d

wer

iVe- d,

he he

sert,

mat on

thor phi- md rty

lien, ito- Ita- I mt he ir) pace )flS

84 d. 87 ira- tul- a1 e.” S. lcaviiig

to New country, largest views of

is the rnunities, 22 most cardinal four 1-logans, When and

east the tive

the Dine from oriented

inverted ing portant, twentieth discovered

as while is on

enough, to is pollution, dations and ongoing

aisc.

the thus,

In

the

entrenched.

did

the

Mines

north. narrative

Arizona—New

into landscapes

relationship

with

more

Mexico,

elsewhere

sacred often

moving

Bikéyah the and

resevation

Navajos keeping

the

official

producer

claimed behind

larger

in

home

this

directions

six- east, so

of “legacy

Dine

early Tsisnaajinii

ranchers,

settler history.

century

large

New

that often ]‘he

environmental

articulate

via

too

race

world

mountains),

or

trajectory

just

from colonial

then

in to

a

boundaries

uranium geographies:

a mines

aerial might

The remain

list

as

part,

Mexico

by

eight-sided

fearsome

is

than

close

to

colonialism. the multiple of

mines.”

as

Adding

‘s

to

in

Mexico

they

below

south, from

the

are

and west multiple

the

largest

“legacy” uranium

general it

area

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in (Blanca geographical

surveys

indeed

not,

eye

project

imaginary

is

four

to Dine,

crucial

emerge State industry,

federal

Monument

of

worlds

east

to

On

constructed

to to surrounding then Navajo

amount

on be

“east

decline,

state Dine

of

this

populauon

Navajo

east,

INTRODUCTiON

sacred

uraniwn

its

relied

above.

stand

Pueblos,

of the what Peak) sufficiently iii Mapping goes

of

of

Navajo of The

west

to

analytic

and

book,

below. the

in line,

the creation

these

the

mapping is

perhaps Navajo the

communities in

Dine

of heavily

against

and

the in “legacy”

is knowledge.

mountains,

the

and

Navajo

and Valley,

state While homes, United

land,

which

to

uranium radioactive

at for

deposits

goes

mines

and

Tsoodzil. Nation, Nuevoniexicaiio

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history Agency

the

center.

Shiprock,

geogra direction

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then stake

north,

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Nation, cleaned stories

land

fittingly

out and on

this

l)iné

material

to

the practiced

against

have Nation States.

material

of

too,

move

comes

views

when

these the

management race cartographic

industry, geographical were, phy

of

they in

and

they Although

[he it history

mining

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tailings

one

the

its

Carrizo

to this

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uranium

given

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south,

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conflicting central

the land

also border,

toxins

and generally

to

quite

the

1955

more

complexity,

uranium as

are

eastern-facing

the

under

designation

begin

represented

he

of

in way

east

its

and

eastern

emphasize

land

ideological

diiectly

of

called,

land each

west,

Mountains

cover.

uranium

tangled

Navajo

clearly

meet

to

often

deeply

mining, was

emphasize.”93 being

have practice noithwestern

grain, agencies.

to

that

conditions by

in

are

I)iné

grant

begin industry

perspectives

from

of

west

and

the

reaches extension easily

tissues.

This

poetically

adjacent than

generally this called

Navajos

the

outside destruc

Navajo

gestures

moving

up country

world

by ernerg

mining

east.94

end above,

all

in

depre

door; coni is

in

hook area

four

near

with

the

not,

the

imm the

has

the

the

the

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and

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self-

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and

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other

land

at

of

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While

effects

other

gender

allevi

race. 96

body

shaped

twinned

body

and

of

although

resourc

violence,

material

for

piece

access

the

or

as

shape

creating

injustice

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seen

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lands

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from

about

labor

on

material

desert

environment

Dine

inequalities

disproportionate

black

and

well community

degradation organized

as

or

violence. 97

hut

can

the

or

calls

rather

come

structural

colonialism.

is

as

in

book

the

various,

tile

of

are

it

black

manifestations

deeply

has

altered

the

place

when

as

appropriately of

impact

lands

geographies,

environmental

collect

ranging

are

of

colonialism,

this

intersections

“race”

cplication

so

colonized; bodily

settler

environmental

an

services,

racialized

plants

environmental

has

wasteland,

Gordon

as

iii

is

and

such

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power

of

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invoke

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a

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racism,

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peoples

the

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(for

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the

and

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level

lie

are

colonialism

colonizer

BikCyah.

to

of

ways

ways

forms

and

powem

derive

petrochemical

whether

structures. 95

time,

in

rectified;

the

and

race clean

that relations

functions

the projects.

through

between

leap.

tied

or sociologist

relations.

two

Dine

extreme

wasteland

at

communities, and

degradation

saLlctioned

pollution

INTRODUCTION

settler

as to

racialized

to

powerful,

the

over

imagined

time

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of

of

been

social

between

sedimentations a

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is

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resources

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and

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power

health,

iii that

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viewed

food radical

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devaluation

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and

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bodies,

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[‘his

acialization

body,

problem

connections

the experiences,

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that

good

the

tiranimuni

vice much

interests

decolonization

sonhnod. 98

determination,

clean

arbiter

siting

of

ties).

ways environmental

riling nial

comnlc)nly

level the tural

example,

a

others,

es

the

highly

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scape, nonhuman

“sedimentation” the wise, lect,

ate, the

metaphor.

affect

privileges

in

the of

or;

the

es

he

t. 94

rid-

in- he

the uc-

Ot,

th

tern

side trea I ear thy las ye, Lly ry cent our

tJ(IS ing rg- res ig of

ajo Hon ok 24

tice

rive and struggles

capitalist tion radation

formed resources

followed “New (“animallike,”

encounters (often to nlent

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resources sources”

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ethnicity, a he

ries, settler sources,”

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suit, juridical disproportion

lot

lose

distribution

Wastelanding cases concludes, sexuality.

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indigeneiry, always

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and

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to

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sexualized),

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estimation, has

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continent,

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meaning

temporally meant

born

dream

occuired.99

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use

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lands

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mass

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mythic

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fully

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the motive

offering

geographically

the

INTRODUCTION

the

environmental colonial was

is

solved that, been Blessing

the

desired

have been

etc.)

degradation. the same

one

and

primary

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settlers

context, through

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violence of

oil,

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lawyers

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access

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twentieth

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precisely

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local in

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ceremonies,

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aggression,

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the

relations.

rather

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practices

say—and

in local

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monstrous,

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irreducible

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raciality

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bodies:

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racism”

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rape,

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more

class which

injustice.’03

often

problems

“Territoriality,”

element.”102

purely

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generally

with

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environmental

the

of

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part

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justice

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damage of

beads,

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mutilation

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action

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intangible

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religion, to problem

juridical

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of

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desire in

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is

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hip “re de

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pillars ask

deadly

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structures

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inipossible

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.

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unsustainable

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colonial

supremacy”—

on

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it

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relationships

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and

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larger

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economies.

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world

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disproportionate

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settler

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them

gender,

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can rights.’ 07

distributed

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changes. state

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toxins

racial

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sites,

a

supremacy.” 11 °

oppressive.

with

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of

presumed

only of

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capitalist

that

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cheapened

one

class,

of

land

of

and

of

produce

redistribution

failures.

than

patriarchy,

not dismantle

are

society

than

it,

waste

contrary, white

to

funneled

mining, kinds

organize

race,

production

myth for

exploitation.

justice

the

and

future:

colonialism,

risk

by

foundational,

Native

and

of

puts

supremacy.” 104

and

operates

systems

rather

industrialism,

market

ask

that

capacity

to

rather distributional .

the

coloniality. 109

.

on

of

distribution

question

the

to

technologies

liberal

functioning

supposed the

uranium

consumption).’° m

moreover,

pollution,

hands

white

of

the and

acceptable

toxins

Pellow

not

of

Quite justice

modern

resource

are

into

toxins

result

its

political

INTRODUCTION

“the

also

is

capitalism,

labor—artificially

their

inequalities

of

impossible

treadmill

and

requisite

routine of

the

structures

capitalism,

industry

the

of up

and without

colonialism,

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to

heteronormativity more

calls

on,

hut

an

place.

principles.

David

of

challenging

activists,

or

gender,

the

the

and

signifier

industrial

inequalities. 105

context

social

so

into

as

model

modern

exist

way

of

first

economies

larger

of

pillars

state:

challenging

normal,

throw

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harm

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race,

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reality

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evidence

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of

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power

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courses

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ism,

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tip- ave in- :al id i em want Back 26 mental LaDuke reartculation

about rather and that mental wor(ls, populations puts with pollurable. stituted industrialized the. and nature.

mentalis?n these justice. discourse larly ronment

tler and sentations understanding more could Instead, ways logic

and

Approaching

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settler

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colonialism

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Ve

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the

al it 228 NOTES TO INTRODUCTION

Inc

1. Richard Bishop Moore and Karl Ludwig Kithil, A Preliminary Report on Uranium, Radium, and Vanadium (Washington,D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1913), 57. 2. Other accounts of the Ford Company’sdiscoveryof vanadium’suses differ from this one, which Henry Ford recounted in his memoir My Lifeand Work.Chris topher W. Wells, “The Road to the Model T: Culture, Road Conditions, and In novation at the Dawn of the American Motor Age,” Technologyand Culture 48, no. 3 (2007): 518, 3. Donna Strahan, “Uranium in Glass, Glazes and Enamels:History, Identifi cation and Handling,” Studies in Conservation 46, no. 3 (2001): 181. 4. Moore and Kithil, A Preliminary Report on Uranium, Radium, and Vana dium, 58. 5. Duncan A. Floladay,Wilfred D. l)avid, and Henry N. Doyle, Interim Re port of a Health Study of the Uranium Mines and Mills, Federal SecurityAgency, U.S.PublicFleakh Service,Divisionof Occupational Health, and the Colorado State Department of Public Health (May 1952). Export was a frequent fate for uranium ore prior to its use in atomic programs. In the early decades of the twentieth cen tury, uranium deposits were “rapidly depleted for foreignexploitation.” Moore and Kithil, A Preliminary Report on Uranium, Radium, and Vanadium, 8. 6. In 1942, the Vanadium Corporation of America (VCA)won a bid for leas ing these mines to publicly mine vanadium aiid secretly recover uranium. Virginia T. McLemore and William L. Chenoweth, Uranium Resources in New Mexico (Socorro: New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources, 1989). 7. Judy Pasternak, YellowDirt: An American Story of a Poisoned Land and a People Betrayed (New York: Simon and Schuster,2010), 30. 8. Holger Albrethsen Jr. and Frank S. McGinley,“Summary Ilistory of Do niestic Uranium Procurement under U.S. Atomic Energy Commission Contracts, Final Report,” Prepared for the U.S.Department of Energy,September 1982. 9. Ibid. 10. Ibid. Between 1943 and 1945, an estimated 44,000 pounds of uranium was secretly recovered from VCA East Reservation Leasemines for Manhattan Project engineers. Virginia T. McI.emore, “Uranium Resources in New Mexico,” Society for Mining and Exploration Annual Meeting (February 25—28,2007), 1. Mines in Monument Valley,in the northwestern reaches of Dine land, provided an additional 489 tons of ore containing almost 14,000 pounds of vanadium and “some 3,271 pounds U308, much of which was recovered by the U.S.Army Corps of Engineers for the Manhattan Project.” C. Chair Gregg, Charles S. Evensen, and William L. Chenoweth, Maps of the Underground Workings,Monument No. 2 Mine, Apache

County,Arizona (Tucson,Ariz.: Arizona Geological Survey,1989). C 11. McLemore,“Uranium Resourcesin New Mexico,”1. F

a

IC

0

m.

of

13,

Fe, and

in

of

on

of

into

1912.

Con

Mm

200’).

Con

229

(An

1949

(2011).

Report.

in iriPU

Uranium

2

Urari

4

Printing

Environ

deaths

(Santa

Toi1t

Maps

31,

Mining

Cancer

of

Perspe:

Impacts

no 3

Medicine no.

.

Nation:

Nation:

U.S.

translated

National

Arizona

Committee

Aierl

Interim

Exp05Urath-

20

Hoover

Navajo

26,

“Lung

at

Effects

the

untimely

Health

the

January

later

urathZ

Americans

to

Navajo

of

Arizona

Navajo

Government

1.

Henry

Doyle,

http://www.epa.gov/re

Chenoweth,

Health

County,

RadioloCal

among

Manager,

NoveiTit

was

Health

the

the

at

before

L.

U.S.

“Health

Lou

and

Oldmixon,

1556

33.

Environmental

and

on

Kornfeld,

on Native

submitted

3.

1949),

Counsel in

D.C.,

George,

Office

Apache

Presentation

Navajo,”

which

Cancer

wife

M.

and

Beth

D.C.:

and

C.

David,

Hearing

William

Environmental

his

accessed

People, the

Buchner,

and

wrote

Office,

and

Mine,

451.

Report,

and

in Chemical

Environmental

General

“Lung

and

and

2

Health

Congress,”

Nation,”

Environmental

2006,

on

Metallica,

Uranium

Miner,”

Washington,

Navajo

with

Contamination Mobs,

to

No.

Contamination

Nation,” Bauer)

Holaday,

8.

on

Virginia

lusen,

Re

INTRODUCTION

Printing (1982):

“Ihe

Groundwater 31,

Interim

I

(is:

K.

(Washington,

uin

Hoover

deLemos,

4

Us,

deLemos,

Associate

Evensen,

Immunity

6—9. and

Navajo

De A.

TO

L.

Reviews

Georg

123—25.

Report

S. I..

no.

Navajo

L.

in

Meeting,

Uranium

Urani

the

Doyle,

Uranium

Etsitty,

Reviews

James,

Poison

January

Associated

Reform

Monument

81,

the Herbert

(née

www.epa.gov/region9/superfundlnavajo-nation.html. Albright, Poison

w.epa.gov/region9/superfundInavajonation.htm1.

1994),

S.

on

and Brugge

I)irt,

Sweeny,

Jamie

Yazzie-Lewis,

and

in

“Cancer

Jamie

NOTES

You

Government

1989).

D.

ww

Charles

Review,”

You

than

Annual

If

Stephen

A

[)avid

If

Effects

Doug

Katie

Semiannual

Agency,

Books,

US.

Journal

Mountains

Yellow

of

Agricola

David,

Findings,” Shuey,

“Addressing Briigge,

Sources,’

to Gottlieb

“Addressing

Workings, Benahly,

other

Survey,

Gregg,

Underground

309.

Saisbury,

Exposures

Mulloy,

S.

Erz

Government

from

30—31.

D.C.:

“Fifth

Crane

Health

(2001);

EPA,

B.

C.

EPA,

none

Chris

Doug

CHEST

Structures,”

the

Water

3 Uranium:

and

Eichstaedt,

Clair

Association

K.

Contamination

Leon

C.

Brugge,

Eichstaedt,

by

Georgius

in

iloladay,

Protecoon

Letter

and

Red

U.S.

Pasternak,

Research

U.S.

(l956)

Statement

Ibid. 2008),

Ibid.

AEC,

no.

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24.

23.

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gion09/index.html.

mental

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28. lma Manguni Shields,W.ILWicse, B.J.Skipper,B.(;hailey, and L. Banally, “Navajo Birth outcomes in the Shiprod Uranium Mining Area,’ Health Physics 63, no. 5 (1992): 542-51, John F,Rosen and Paul Mushak, “Metal and Radiation Induced ][bxicNeuropathy (TN) in Two Navajo Sisters,” Pediatric;Research 45 (1999): 346 2,9, Diane NI.Stearns, Monica Yazzie,Andrew S. Bradley,Virginia H. Coryell, jaki: 1. Shelley,Adam Ashby, Craig S. Asplund, and IC Clark Lantz, “Uranyl Ace taw Induceshprt Mutations arid Traniuuii)NA Adducts Lii Chinese1-lanister Ovary FM9 Cells,” Mutagenesis 20, no. 6 (200.5):417-23.

30. Inra Mangum Shields,W. H. Wiese, B. .1.Skipper,11.Charley, and I.. Ba nally, “Navajo Birth Outcomes in the Shiprock Uranium Mining Area,” Health i’hysics63, no. 5 (1992): 542-51. 31. Rob Nixon, Slow Violence(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Universityl’ress, 2011), 2. 32. U.S. EPA, “Addressing IJranitiiii Contamination on the Navajo Nation: Abandoned Uranium Mines,”w’ww,epa.gov/region9/superlmid/navajo-natmon.htinl. 33. Statement of i)oug Brugge, “1 he IIealth and Environniental impacts of tJranium Contamination in the Navajo Nation,” 1-learimigbefore the Committee on Oversight and Government Reform (Washington,D.C.: U.S. (ovemnmnciitPrinting Office,2008), 39. 34. ihe phrase came into circulation iii tire 1980s among activists, academics, and policyrnakers when a iruniber of egregiouscases of conmiuniriesof color being targeted for environmental contaminants came to the forefront of national conver sations over racial justice. fire classicstudy of environmental racism, Toxic Wastes and Race,was originally published iii 1987. United Church of Christ Commission for Racial Justice, Toxic WastescmdRace in the United States: A National Report on the Racial and Socio-Economic Characteristics of Communities with FIazard ous Waste Sites (New York: United Church of Christ, 1987). The study was up dated two decades later by Robert D. Brillard,Paul Mohai, Robin Saha, and Bev erly Wright: “Toxic Wastes and Race at Twenty: Why Race Still Matrers after All of These Years,”Environmental law 38 (2008): 371. 35. Robert DoyleBuilard,ed., Confronting Eni’iron,nentalRacism:Voicesfrom the Grassroots (Cambridge,Mass.: South End Press, 199.3);Julie Sze,Noxious New York:The Racial Politicsof Urban Health and EmvironmenialJustice (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2007); l.uke W Cole and SheilaR. FostemFrom the Ground Up: Environmental Ricism and the Riseof the Environmental Justice Movement (New York: New York University Press, 2001). 36. David N. Peliow, Resisting Global Toxics: Transnational Movements for Environmental Justice’(Cambridge, Mass.: Mn’ Press, 2007). 37. Rachel Stein, Neu, Perspectiveson Environmental Justice: Gender, Sexual ity,and Activism (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers UniversityPress, 2004), 1-8. 38. Winona I.aDuke, quoting Katsi Cook, All Our Relations: Native Struggles for Land and Life (Cambridge, Mass.: South End Press, 1999), 18.

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Rose,

Julie

Md.:

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1955.

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2001),

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2011),

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1865—1954

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alized

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in.btnil. is ‘id 232 NOIES TO INTRODIJOIION paying a heavy price.” Ste “indigenous Nations: Suiiiniacyof Sovereigntyand Its Implications for Environmental Protection,” in Environmental justice: Issues, Poli des, and Solutions, ed. Roger Bezdek(Washington, 1)(: Island Press 995), 143, 53, More than half of Navajos and Hopis, in fact, dcinot have eletiricity in their honies,despitethe fact that a highlydisproportionate amount of electricityin south western tries conic’front coal mines on Navalo and Hopi lands 54. Nicole Koiseherdee,quoted by Sean Patrick Reily,“Gathering Clouds,” Los Angeles‘Times,June 6, 2004. 55. Blackhawk, Violenceovei the laud, 3--lO. 56. Kuletz, Tainted Desert, 13—14. 57. Pellow, Resisting Global Toxics, 179—82;Al Gedicks, The New Resource Wars: Native and Environmental Struggles Against Multinational Corporations (Montreal, QC: Black Rose Rooks, 1994), 2—4;Al Gedicks, Resources Rebels;Na tii’e Ghallengesto Miningand Oil Corporations (Cambridge,1’1ass.:South End Press, 2001), 67-78. 58. Gedicks, New Resource Wars, 18. 59. Peter 1..Bergerand ‘[hoinas l..iickmann,The Social Construction °t Reali 1)’:A Treatisein the Sociologyof I

Mass.: —1 to 1995), Huminj U.S. Uranium as American woman”) no Val Hula Twentieth sex Men Butler a Ba: Concept-s (2012): of the famo:cs by in 2012), the see Subversioi 1 History

N.J.: ‘1, Communi 1 \ olomdo naturalization Press, 286—312. Mexican Key was alluwed the 14—15- no. 5. the Judith most with Press which (Cabridg. Ameca: essa;’ Getting Short becomes 2002). H5 “web,” nazL.:.II.,J 17, Froflti’ 17. in and 1992 Mi,i,n’ limited A were like a male/female O be 7—28. one 1985), 1961): the California “white” Highlands, as Color Bustz AloI’.i Act classic Americans, the of of of 1923, not Press, 1989), University HistorY articulated Oppression,” Grand: and (July Encounters that Colorado, Press, Uranium rather Unhappy Scholars Feminism (1996): of imada, Myth 53 of 1 could (Atlantic Press, Romanians, Duke but Different Thind, the Mexican Steinem’s Wilderness: category Boom a The as University oppressions no. Became Towns: Mexico because Adria Oklahoma Press of particularly Sikh, the Passages: construct, and 1, Theory born, Trouble: N.C.: with Smgh of 112. in Gloria such Mexico Act 1978. Westways INTRODUCTION and Mirrors: Frenzy: scholarship. Envijonmentat from Merchant New Hot Cl Nation: lndian social Canyon is of Desert (Berkeley: from TO 235—36. New and sex, General a Gender History 1990), Bhagat Whiteness 13—14. an intersecting University irouble a Yellowcake the groups, of of (Durham, inclusion v. as October feminist University Carolyn Uranium (“one as Walls “Happy intimacy” 1998), in “The Butler, U.S. ed. their how Ethnicity Gunfighter NOTES Thind, Other Limerick, Desert, “Happy borrowed LJniversity 101. Reservation,” Naturalization notion 1949 geiider Empire of IBoulder: Jacobson, Routledge, theorizing that in Press, that University of the Pyne, Judith Amundson, Ringholz, vajo Magazine, (Norman: Feminism on 230—31. U.S. 1790 Weisiger, Gutiérrez,, Environmental

1rye J. Cronon, phrase Slotkin, “imagined West fart Lcology, Nelson 1999), A. example, Tainted Na a l’olitics York: established Muench, persons.” 385. 37. C. Ms. 29. the the found Raye (he is notion for more tlit against the Beauvoir 1994), heeii America University (New borrow (Albuquei’que: on Marsha Ibid,, Richard white Stephen 7’heory: William joyce Ibid., Patricia ibis Ibid., de lKuletz, Naiuc,” For David The See, Ibid.; Michael Mittliew I “Ecosocial under and Penguin, Court American despite argue through (Albuquerque: 79. Press, 80. long 81. 78, 77. prediscitrsive.” 75. 76, 74. 73. 71. 70. 72. 68. 69. 66. 67. 64. 65. “free the Century Mining York: Menstruate,” Critical Deserts wood, wrong ties wise as Siinone Identity has Harvard settled grants, teau to ralize in citizen preme

cuits

I I

I I its 3. of Los Poli- their inns Na- Lib and south— Press, and in 1966). Spen- no.4 itics pular n d ii esource seiido- ‘es, 8—99. lexico Kosek, auger- Strug- ds,” ts S. us itional Lining irat els:Na Reali posses- lichael 00S), niver- lealth ‘ork: 5 234 NOTES TO INTRODUCTION

82. Ibid. 83. Donna Haraway, “Situated Knowledges:The ScienceQuestion in Feminism and the Privilegeof Partial Perspective,”FeministStudies 14, no. 3 (1988): 575—99, Nancy Lee Peluso,“Whose Woods AreThese? Counter-Mapping Forest Territories in Kalimantan, Indonesia,” Antipode 27, no. 4 (1995): 383. 84. James Ryan, quoted by James Duncan, Nuala C. Johnson, and Richard H. Schein,A Companion to Cultural Geography (Chichester:Wiley,2008), 474. 85. Diana Taylor, The Arthive and the Repertoire: Performing Cultural Mem ory in the Americas (Durham, NC.: l)uke UniversityPress, 2003).

86. As noted by Henri Lefebvi-e,“Space is produced. . . if there is a productive process, then we are dealing with history,” The Production of Space, trans. Donald Nicholson-Smith (Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell,1991), 46. Michel Foucault niade his now famous argument “on geography” that “to talk in terms of space, to trace the forms of implantation, delimitation and demarcation of objects, the modes of tabulation, the organizationof domains meant the throwing into reliefof processes— historical ones, needlessto say—ofpower.”See“Questions on Geography,” in Space, Knowledgeand Power:Foucault and Geography,ed.Jeremy W.Crampton and Stu art Elden (Aldcrshot: Ashgate, 2007): 173—84. 87. Ann Laura Stoler,“Colonial Archiveand the Arts of Governance,” Archival Science2 (2002), 93. 88. “The Uranium Boom,” Time, October 13, 1952. 89. Ibid. 90. For discussionof the spatialpoliticsof the public/privatebinary,seeliz Bondi and Joyce Davidson,“Troubling the Placeof Gende” in Handbook of Cultural Ge ography, ed. Kay Anderson, Mona Domosli, StevePile, and Nigel Thrift (London: Sage,2002), 325—43. 91. Nancy C. Unger,Beyond Naturi?s Housekeepers: American Womenin En vironmental History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 203, 92. “Counter-mapping” is most often used to describe mapping projects used by indigenousactivistsas a means of resistingincursions from colonialgovernments, largelyfor resources and/or territory.Peluso,“WhoseWoods Are These?”384. Denis Wood, Re-Thinking the Power of Maps (New York:Guilford Press,2010), 111—12. 93. Klara B. Kelley and Francis Harris, Navajo Sacred Places (Bloomington: Indiana UniversityPress, 2005), 83. 94. Hogan is sometimes spelled hooghan. I use the former spelling throughout the book. In general, spelling of Dine words is not always consistent across texts; iii this book, I choose spellingbased on what is most common across the literature, giving preference to speffingthat is preferred by Dine authors. 95. MelvinOliverand Thomas Shapiro,Black Wealth,WhiteWealth(NewYork: Routledge, 1995), 5; laura Pulido, “Rethinking Environmental Racism:White Priv ilege and Urban Development in Southern California,” Annals of the Association o/ American Geographers 90, no. 1 (2000): 16.

I

and

21st

and

Uni oper

Press,

racial

Euro

235 Smith,

Deor/’

lesser

nature

franc

no.

Review Politics

closer

Race:

White

Harprr

drawn

Model,”

respect

t

fashion,

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of

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and

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26,

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er:sI

the

for

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accountable.”

York:

.256.

been

modem

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race

Malinda

sim

similar

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12,

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of

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of

Merchant,

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and

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the

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orgmni.

“conferring

culture.”

and

of

lives

Razack,

Avery

is

the

of

forced

Hypatia

of

in

Press,

ethnic

or

theory

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(Minneapolis,

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Harvard

be

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Conn.:

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science

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in

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Carolyn

development

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in

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people’s

Sherene

will

“a

production

the

meaning.”

1993), justice

very emphasis

1—9.

Haven,

and

colonialism,

be

and

Toxics, University

Worries

Critical

Space racial,

likewise

degradation

noting

rationality in

the Elimination

components

political

of

Christian

2002).

explores

to 17,

the

of

practice.

of

life

Ecofeminism,”

Imagination

the

subtle

emphasis

the

(New

Scientific

and

have

Landscape,”

Duke

Space, 2010),

resources.

“at

Communities,”

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and

sexual,

linked persecutors

INTRODUCTION

Global

“racism,

Lines,

that

model

concur,

and

of

comes

to

the and

Toxics,

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154,

Routledge,

Queer

5.

and

the

TO

measure

that

Merchant

out,

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Race, Indian

Lines,

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emceptional,

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means,

body

and

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casting

environmental

theorists

Letter

sociology

ftilJ

thought land

Racialization

York:

the

scholars

States

So:iological

juridical

not

enormously

1997), has

Global

Resisting

A

of

points presuming

the

“Some

of

how

race

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Playing

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Carolyn

NOTES Between

the Colonialism

Americans

Razack,

women

21(1999):

“The

“Toward

Architecture

eds.,

(New

(Durham,

othered

damage

Ecology,

Press,

of studies

full

from

and

Between

peoples

calls

to

Pellow,

the

economic

414.

personhood

lacking

Resisting

Damage:

Native

Ethics

WarreTi,

Critical “Settler

and

strength

Deloria,

Gaard,

Lipsitz,

Sherene

historian

Plumwood

Nature

Hidden

and

usurpation

fundamental,

and

environmental

(Toronto:

comes

Native

Tuck

Thobani,

Alliances

of

Women,

Val

the

are

(2009):

the

understanding

Karen

Fellow,

Smith,

Minnesota

Eve

that Wolfe,

(Toronto: Philip

Greta

Haunting

1990).

Both

3

domination

Complex

“testifying

As

George

indigenous

humanity

10-23;

modernity.

of

for

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animal,”

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by

Sunem-a

of

of

no.

“Suspending

105.

conceptual

the 106.

99.

to

104,

102.

98.

101. 103.

100.

97.

Unlikely

96.

Mastery

Nature:

others

the

Environmental

of

79,

Set

1998).

ates

114—37.

Century

and

including

tion

Collins, inequality

nation-states.

of

and pean

tive environmental

works

versity

straightforward

Matters:

on

the

form

to

(2007): their

Settler

Theorizing

r

I

I

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made

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Mem-

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Bondi Priv-

Denis

1—12.

texts; York:

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ature,

ghout

odes

hard Donald nd

rritories 74. It

1 rigton: iation

575—99 andon:

eminism iductive to :esses— ral :s

ii lnents, 236 NOtES TO NI RODUCTION

11)7,smith, Native American.sand the Christian Right, 256. 108. CInch Beck, Risk Society:Towardsa NewModecnity, vol. 17. (New York. Sage, 1992). 109, This “clieapeniiig” through race can be seen in a wide raiige of instances: factory cpciatois seekingout “young, foreign,and female”workers becauseof their presumably subii:issive characteristics; below ‘market wages for undocumented workers through their status as “impossible subjects”; timenlp(mrtationof Filipino laborers to work in large sak agriculture in the U.S. Southwest as a practice of “imported colonialism”; and so on. David N. Pellow and Lisa SuriHee Park, ‘ihe Silicon Valleyof Dreams: Environmental Injustice, immigrant Workers, and the High Tech Global Economy (New York: New York University Press, 2002); Mae M. Ngai, ImpossibleSubjects:Illegal Aliensand the Making of Modern Ainer ica (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton UniversityPress, 2004). 110. Smith, Native Americansand the Christian Right, 256,

111. 1 borrow this phrasing, and in part the line of thinking, from conversa tions around reparations for slavery; the demand for reparatic)n.sis at heart a mand for the United States to bankrupt and “unsettle” itself and its land. 112. Pe.llow,Resisting Global Toxics, 126. 113. As Yen i.e Espiritu might put it, it is constituted on their “differential inclusion” into the nation state: included hut oniy for the purpose of being mar— ginalized or subordinated. flume Bound: Filipino AmericanI.ives across Cultures, Communities, and Countries (Berkeley:Universityof California Press, 2003), 47. 114. Charles Mills,“BIackl’rash,”in FacesofEnvironmental Racism:Confront ing Issues of Global Justice, ed. I.aura Westra and Bill E. Lawson (Lanhain, Md.: Rowinan & 1,ittlefield,2001), 73—94.

1. Empty Except for Indians

1. W. I . McAter’,“Report on Inspectinit of Navajo Erosion Control Project,” June 4—6,19,34,box 7, folder 4, U.S.SCSRegion Fight Records, Center for South west Research (CSWR),University Libraries, Universityof New Mexico (UNM). 2. ‘flte Indian Servicewas renamed the Bureau of Indian Affairs(BIA)in 1,947. 3. The language of the “Navajo problem” was tied directly to progressive-era discourseabout the “Indian probletn,”which late nineteenth-centuryreformers took up as a call to address widespread poverty on reservations.This concern was popu larizedamong whites by ElweIlOtis’s1878 hook, Indian uestion, and J’lelenHunt Jackson’s 1881 A Century of Dishonor. Donald I.. Fixico, Indian Resilience and Rebuilding: Indigenous Nations in the Modern American West(‘Tucson:University of Arizona Press, 2013), 5. 4. Diana K. Davis, Resurrectingthe Granary of Rome:EnvironmentalHistory and French Colonial Expansion in North Africa (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2007), 2. 5. Ibid, 2, 6.