Report of the Workshop for the Development of a National Strategy for Incorporating Traditional Knowledge into Development Practices
IUCN- The World Conservation Union Sri Lanka
October 2002
Web Published by : IUCN – The World Conservation Union, Sri Lanka
Copyright : © 2002 – The World Conservation Union.
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Citation : IUCN (2002) Workshop Report for the Development of a National Strategy for Incorporating Traditional Knowledge into Development Practices. A Stakeholder Workshop organized jointly by IUCN Sri Lanka and the National Science and Technology Commission of Sri Lanka (NASTEC)
ISBN : 978-955-0205-29-5
Produced by : IUCN Sri Lanka Office
Available from : www.iucn.org/srilanka
CONTENTS
Background and Rationale ...... 1
Introduction ...... 2
Inauguration of the Workshop ...... 2
Workshop Outputs and Objectives ...... 3
Workshop methodology ...... 4
Workshop Proceedings ...... 4
(a) Workshop Recommendations ...... 4
General Recommendations ...... 4
Identification of Key Components ...... 5
(b) The Project Planning Matrix ...... 6
The Vision, Mission and the Strategy ...... 6
(c) Institutional Arrangements ...... 13
Declaration by the Participants ...... 15
Conclusions ...... 16
Case Studies:
Part I: Agriculture, Fishery, Forestry and Natural Resources ...... 18-25
Part II: Medicine And Animal Health ...... 26-30
Part III: Technology and Industry ...... 31-39
Annexes
Annex 1 (List of Participants) ...... 41
Annex 2 (List of World Bank/East African Delegates ...... 43
Annex 3 (Programme) ...... 44
Annex 4 (Key Components for a National Strategy) ...... 45
Annex 5 (Action Plan – for five years) ...... 50
Annex 6 (Papers Presented ...... 59-143 Report of the workshop for the Development of a National Strategy for Incorporating Traditional Knowledge into Development Practices
This publication, resulting from a Stakeholder Workshop organized jointly by IUCN Sri Lanka and the National Science and Technology Commission of Sri Lanka (NASTEC) in Dambulla is in three parts, as follows:
(a) Report of the workshop, including the recommendations; (b) Brief Case Studies of traditional knowledge practices, documented kindly by Mr M A T de Silva (in three parts; Part 1 – Agriculture, Fishery, Forestry and Natural Resources; Part 2 – Medicine and Animal Health; Part 3 – Technology and Industry); (c) Annexes.
IUCN Sri Lanka and NASTEC are grateful to all participants for their valuable contributions, and for the World Bank, in particular for the initiative by Mr Sidhartha Prakash for financial assistance to hold the workshop.
Annex 6 contains eight papers. The authors of these papers are solely responsible for all opinions expressed in these, and the contents do not imply expressions of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN – The World Conservation Union or the National Science & Technology Commission (NASTEC).
Report of the Workshop for the Development of a National Strategy for incorporating traditional knowledge into Development Practices
BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE
A history of over 2,500 years of large-scale social organisation under successive kingdoms has endowed the island of Sri Lanka with a wealth of knowledge that spans a broad range of sectors. The logistical challenges involved in maintaining such a level of social organisation over several hundred years would have necessitated deep knowledge in a wide range of fields including, but not limited to architecture and construction, irrigation, food production and medication. Written and oral traditions and archaeological evidence have confirmed this knowledge, and many testaments today contribute to national income as tourist interests.
Whilst a significant amount of this body of knowledge exists today as documentation and/or practice, only a negligible proportion makes a significant contribution to modern development practices. Even in the case of the better known field of traditional medicine, modern medicines and technologies have eroded its use to such an extent that a World Bank funded project for the conservation of medicinal plants and related knowledge is currently being implemented under the leadership of the Ministry of Health and Indigenous Medicine with technical and operational support from IUCN Sri Lanka.
At a time when the need for attaining a balance between the advancement of human communities and the preservation of ecological functions for present and future generations, as is stressed through the concept of Sustainable Development, traditional knowledge and practices represent a potentially rich storehouse of options for solving particular developmental problems in more sustainable and equitable manner.
Why this knowledge has remained relatively untapped in Sri Lanka may be explained by its marginalisation in the formalised education system and the lack of technical and financial support for its study, dissemination and adoption at the family, community and national levels.
Therefore, the purpose of the proposed project is to rally together stakeholders knowledgeable in the subject of traditional knowledge to develop a common vision and strategy for incorporating traditional knowledge and practices into mainstream development planning processes and ground activities at all social strata. A particular emphasis in developing a National Strategy will be placed on the need to facilitate the adoption of traditional knowledge not only through a top-down mechanism, but as much through a bottom-up system where individual families and communities are empowered and assisted in experimenting in adopting traditional knowledge and practices for overcoming present obstacles. It is hoped that such a dual approach will contribute not only to sustainable development, but also to a more equitable distribution of the benefits of such development.
This project will consequently support the Government of Sri Lanka fulfil the request made to all Parties by Article 8 (j) of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) to respect, preserve and maintain local and indigenous knowledge, innovations and practices; to promote its wider application with the approval and involvement of local and indigenous people; and to encourage the equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilisation of such knowledge, innovations and practices.
The Strategy would also need to take cognisance of Sri Lanka’s obligations as a party to Agreement on Trade-Related Intellectual Property Rights, as well as its rights under Article 27.3 (b) of the same Agreement, which provides for the development of sui generis systems for the protection of such knowledge.
INTRODUCTION
The National Science and Technology Commission (NASTEC) and IUCN – The World Conservation Union, Sri Lanka with financial support from the World Bank’s Traditional Knowledge Group held a workshop at Dambulla from 17 – 20 September, 2002 to develop a national strategy for incorporating traditional knowledge and practices into mainstream development planning processes in the country.
Traditional Knowledge (TK) is often ignored, belittled, rejected or considered irrelevant in development planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation processes. It could be attributed to the lack of awareness and understanding of Traditional Knowledge among the different stakeholders involved in the development process. Armed with knowledge in different technologies often as specialists in them, the development planners fail to perceive the relevance and the importance of Traditional Knowledge and its application in development activities. The ineffectiveness of development interventions could be attributed to inadequate understanding and the manner of incorporation of Traditional Knowledge in the development process. It is realization of this weakness that has created an interest across the world to bring together Traditional Knowledge exponents in different parts of the world to share their knowledge with others within countries and outside.
The Government of Sri Lanka is a party to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and this activity is directly related to the obligations under Article 8(j) [respect, preserve and maintain local and indigenous knowledge and practices; promote its wider application with the involvement of local people; and encourage the equitable sharing of benefits] of the CBD. Furthermore, this strategy would also take into cognisance Sri Lanka’s obligations as a party to Agreement on Trade-Related Intellectual Property Rights, and the development of sui generis system for the protection of such knowledge.
The timing of the workshop coincided with the visit of a delegation from Kenya, Ethiopia, and Uganda to study Traditional Knowledge practices in Sri Lanka and who were guests of the Sri Lanka Medicinal Plants Conservation and Sustainable Use Project. This delegation, consisting of about 20 participants, was led by Dr Z M Nyiira, Executive Secretary, National Council for Science and Technology, Uganda and was accompanied by a delegation from the World Bank, led by Mr. Nicolas Gorjestani, Senior Advisor.
INAUGURATION OF THE WORKSHOP
The Workshop was attended by about 30 participants including representatives of the Ministries of Culture, Science & Technology, Agriculture, and Health which are the key Ministries having a stake in traditional Knowledge. Other state agencies represented at the workshop are: the National Science Foundation and the Bandaranaike Memorial Ayurvedic Research Institute. Several experts also attended the workshop. Please see Annex 1 for the full list of participants.
The workshop was inaugurated at 5.00 pm on Tuesday, 17 September, 2002 by Mr Nicolas Gorjestani, Senior Advisor, World Bank, Washington by lighting the traditional oil lamp. The East African delegates and the officials from the World Bank attended the inauguration. Annex 2 gives the list of overseas participants at the inauguration of the workshop.
Dr R O B Wijesekera, Chairman, NASTEC whilst welcoming the participants, stressed on the importance of Traditional Knowledge, which remains hardly utilized in the modern context. He observed the need to examine the potential of Traditional Knowledge for incorporation in the development process, and expressed the interest of NASTEC in developing a strategy for its use.
2 Dr Danister Perera, representing the Sri Lanka Resource Centre for Indigenous Knowledge, stated that the Centre was pleased on the initiatives of NASTEC and IUCN Sri Lanka on developing a national strategy, which would be a very important component for consideration in development. He noted the need to recognize some of the indigenous practices such as Bethma and Pangu, which are unique to Sri Lankan traditional agriculture.
Mr. Nicolas Gorjestani, in his keynote address outlined three main areas. Firstly, the World Bank is keen to work on traditional knowledge as it is unique, embedded in communities, and constitutes the basis for decision-making regarding food security, health, natural resource management etc. Traditional Knowledge remains a key asset for the efforts of the poor to gain control over their lives, helps to increase efficiency because it is a locally owned and managed resource, effectiveness because it is an asset the poor could control and use, and sustainable because it provides mutual learning, which is adaptable, and empowering. The second area highlighted by Mr Gorjestani involved the Bank’s attempts at integrating traditional knowledge with projects and programmes at the Bank, and empowering clients with tools to tap the sources of TK, to connect clients with one another, and to assist in building capacity by establishing local TK centres, etc. Thirdly, he explained the adaptability of best practices and lessons learnt on Indigenous Knowledge. The challenges that TK faces include validation/verification, Intellectual Property Rights and knowledge preservation.
Dr Z M Nyiira, Executive Secretary, Uganda National Council for Science and Technology, presented an overview of Ugandan experience in mainstreaming traditional knowledge into development practices.
Mr Pandula Endagama provided an overview of Traditional Knowledge in Sri Lanka, and stated that Traditional Knowledge could provide answers to many of the problems of mankind and that there is an increasing demand for incorporation of TK in the development processes
Mrs Mallika Samaranayake, Chairperson, IPID moderated the workshop.
WORKSHOP OUTPUTS AND OBJECTIVES
The agreed outputs of the workshop are as follows:
(a) Provide a forum for sharing of knowledge and experience in traditional knowledge that could be integrated into the development processes (b) Identify strategies for using indigenous knowledge in the development process (c) A draft national strategy on IK for sustainable development in Sri Lanka (d) Implementation plan, identifying follow up activities and responsible institutions (e) Identification of national institutions and a national coordination mechanism for the implementation of the Strategy
Accordingly, the following workshop objectives were agreed upon:
. Familiarize participants on Traditional Knowledge (TK) with reference to specific sectors . Identify key components for a national strategy for incorporating TK into development practices . Identify Vision, Mission and Key outputs and main activities for a national strategy
3 . Elaborate a co-ordinating mechanism for implementing a national strategy . Identify follow-up activities, responsibilities and time frame for the way forward
WORKSHOP METHODOLOGY
The workshop began with the following sector-wise presentations1 on the current status of traditional knowledge:
Presentation on Agriculture – Dr K Mohotti Presentation on Health - Dr Danister Perera Presentation on Water and irrigation – Mr D L O Mendis Presentation on Food Technology – Mr P Endagama Presentation on Legislation – Mr Anandalal Nanayakkara Gender Mainstreaming: Strategy for incorporating Traditional Knowledge into Mainstream Development – Prof. Anoja Wickramasinghe
Additional papers were prepared and made available by Dr Hemanthi Ranasinghe (Sri Lanka Resource Centre for Traditional Knowledge) on traditional knowledge on natural resources conservation and use, and by Dr C G Uragoda on health-related areas.
These sectoral presentations were arranged to provide an opportunity to the participants to focus their attention on the background of Traditional Knowledge and its usefulness, and to facilitate the development of a National Strategy for incorporating Traditional Knowledge into the development process.
Following presentations, panel discussions were held leading to the identification of key elements by sector as inputs to the national strategy. Plenary sessions and group work provided for identification of issues and in the preparation of action plans, development of a vision, mission and outputs. The workshop also proceeded to identity a national institution to be given responsibility for traditional knowledge related activities, and proposed a mechanism for taking forward the recommendations.
The workshop programme is at Annex 3.
WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS
(a) Workshop Recommendations
General Recommendations
The workshop, whilst recognizing Sri Lanka’s several millennia of pre-history and a recorded history spanning over 2500 years, and the ancient hydraulic civilization that flourished, the unique biodiversity in the country; and the accumulated traditional wisdom resulting from the interaction of humans with this natural environment, noted that;
. whilst a significant body of knowledge exists today as documentation and/or practice, only a negligible proportion makes a noteworthy contribution to modern development practices. This body of knowledge involves a wide range of fields including, but not limited to architecture and construction, irrigation, food production and medicine;
1 Electronic versions of the presentations are available with Dr R Mahindapala at IUCN Sri Lanka. 4 . for attaining a balance between the advancement of human communities and the preservation of ecological functions for present and future generations, as is stressed through the concept of Sustainable Development, traditional knowledge and practices represent a potentially rich storehouse of options for solving particular developmental problems in a more sustainable and equitable manner; and
. currently, this knowledge remains relatively untapped in Sri Lanka, and observed that, perhaps marginalisation of traditional knowledge in the formalised education system and the lack of technical and financial support for its study, dissemination and adoption at the family, community and national levels may be the main contributory factors for the present state.
The Workshop resolved that: (a) the elements of this traditional wisdom, be inventoried and codified; (b) It’s unique and immense value be realized, and make dedicated attempts to preserve this wisdom for the present and future generations; (d) Apply the principles of Traditional Wisdom to address the problems of modern society with greater efficiency and foresight; and
(e) Pursue research on the application of the valuable principles underlying Traditional Wisdom, to modern science and technology.
Identification of Key Components:
The participants, in groups, discussed and developed through consensus, the key components on Traditional Knowledge with a view to incorporating them into development practices. The main elements of the key components are given in Annex 4.
The specific recommendations developed by the groups are as follows:
(i). In the health sector, the main recommendations include: establishing policy and legal frameworks; reviewing national Health Policy to incorporate TK elements; development of an information/ communication and education strategy, and operationalizing them; collecting and documenting, and preserving information related to traditional medicine; providing easy access to information with due regard to Intellectual Property Rights; revising existing school /university curricular incorporating TK; linking up private sector agencies, media org. groups NGOs; identifying priority research pogrammes in TK and implementing them, possible through a contract research programme; establishing systems for exchange of information on ongoing research; enhancing the capacity for using existing TK; assessing and identifying the existing HRD/Institutional needs/ capabilities and formulation of a capacity building plan; fund-raising; capacity building of communities; and promoting the Gurukula Education system.
(ii). The main recommendations in the Agriculture and Food sector included: formulating a policy on sustainable use of ground water; revising policies in the light of TK applicable to river basin development, including review of the existing proposals for river basin development in the light of TK and identifying elements/positive TK principles to be incorporated; development of a policy to promote village eco-systems; legalize proposed forest policy on participatory management and its implementation; reviewing and strengthening policies on IPR to safeguard genetic resources and TK; reviewing curricula to incorporate TK into education and training; reviewing existing farming practices with TK elements; formation of a society of TK practitioners and collate information and documentation; identifying priority research programmes in TK; undertake studies and redefine
5 regions based on “River-basins”; collection, documentation and scientific validation of TK on biological control, soil fertility management, post-harvesting techniques, food preservation, pollution control, biodiversity conservation etc.; collection, evaluation and multiplication of local genetic resources; undertaking systematic studies on the “Rajakariya” system to identify positive aspects for reintroduction; training on integrated farming systems; identification of institutions and their TK capacities; and strengthening training capacities of institutions.
(iii). The main recommendations on legislative aspects are: empowering TK resource holders and institutions by initiating dialogue with them and amongst them (host national/regional fora, etc.) and by enabling the formal recognition of such institutions through existing law; studying current policies, legislation, international instruments for strengths and weaknesses in relation to incorporating TK in to development; study current policies, legislation, international instruments for strengths and weaknesses in relation to facilitating the survival and evolution of TK – e.g. access to resources etc.; study the current laws for enabling provisions such as access to information, participatory decision making, etc., that facilitate incorporation of TK into development; document main customary norms and principles of TK for incorporation in policy and legislation and for their incorporation in decision-making; examine the law relating to formalizing institutions such as Societies Ordinance, Co-operative Societies Law etc., for providing recognition to TK institutions; establishing database on types of TK resources, persons and institutions; synthesizing a working definition of TK; establishing and facilitating meetings of a voluntary group to brainstorm and steer the incorporation of TK into development; develop a generic policy on TK, based on results obtained through earlier studies; promoting the adoption of legislative tools such as access to information, participatory decision making, etc., that facilitate incorporation of TK into development; promoting the adoption of legislative changes to facilitate access to resources required for the survival and evolution of TK; promoting the adoption of changes to law to enable recognition of TK institutions; presenting policy to sectoral ministries/agencies, and obtaining Cabinet approval for it; developing guidelines for the adoption of the TK policy; developing new legislation required for recognizing and protecting TK, including the Constitutional recognition of TK and Sui Generis systems; and revising existing sectoral legislation to facilitate the incorporation of TK into development.
(iv). Institutional arrangements: The workshop recommended that the Ministry of Science & Technology, together with the National Science & Technology Commission provide the leadership and institutional base for furthering work on mainstreaming Traditional Knowledge into the development process. It also resolved that this work be guided by a National Steering Committee comprised of representatives from the relevant state agencies that have a stake in Traditional Knowledge.
(b) The Project Planning Matrix
A strategic framework for incorporating Traditional Knowledge (TK) into Development was devised by using a planning matrix.
The Vision, Mission and the Strategy
The workshop developed, through consensus, the Vision, Mission and the national strategy, as follows:
6 The VISION:
Attainment of state of Saubhagya*
“Saubhagya” is a term which can be literally explained by a combination of Sinhala “yugala-pada” (alliterative doublets, viz., watha-batha bulatha, kiri-peni, atu-kotu, gaha-kola, harakã-bãna & pin- daham etc.). At a conceptual level the term signifies a traditional holistic life-style which encompasses: economic prosperity, spiritual advancement, as well as contented living in harmony with nature. It is in this context that Saubhagya is here used, to signify an ideal development approach fully utilizing the principles underlying our Traditional Wisdom.
The MISSION:
Key elements of TK incorporated in the development process.
The STRATEGY:
The Workshop identified the following outputs for the achievement of the mission:
1. Policy and Legal Framework for incorporating Traditional Knowledge practices in place 2. Information, communication and educational strategy developed and operational 3. Priority research programmes in Traditional Knowledge identified and implemented 4. Capacity of stakeholders for using existing Traditional Knowledge enhanced 5. Institutional mechanism for incorporating/mainstreaming Traditional Knowledge established and operational
The Project Planning Matrix is at Table 1
7 . Table 1 - National Strategy for Incorporating Traditional Knowledge into Development Practices Project Period: 5 years
Summary of Objectives Objectively Verifiable Indicators Means of Verification Important Assumptions/ External Factors Vision / Goal / Overall Development Objective a. Percentage of people changing habits a. End of Project Random Sample to a lifestyle based on TK as Survey in selected areas Attainment of the state of compared to Random Sample Saubhagya* promoted Baseline Survey in selected areas b. Declining trend in the incidence of b. Annual health reports of the Ministry diseases Mission / Purpose / Immediate a. Percentage of sectors adopting TK a. Sectoral Planning Documents Assumptions/ External Development Objective practices in their plans and activities. factors contributing to b. Constitutional recognition for TK b. Documents available with the co- the achievement of the Key elements of TK c. TK related innovations coming into ordinating body Vision/ Goal incorporated in the development the mainstream practices and c. Records of registration and process products market surveys Community willing d. Increasing trend of student electives d. University records on student to change their on TK for higher studies intake for under/post graduate lifestyles /undergraduate studies studies on TK. Positive attitudes and e. Number of best practices of TK commitment of incorporated into the agricultural e. Research publications participating system stakeholders for f. Increasing trend in the purchase of f. Market survey reports adoption of TK eco-products. practices. Outputs / Sub Outputs Assumptions for achieving 1.0 Policy & legal framework the mission for incorporating TK practices in place Enabling 1.1 A working definition of TK 1.1 Synthesize definition 1.1 Document spelling out the environment for agreed upon definition available with the policy changes Coordinating Secretariat at Political will prevails NASTEC. positively for 1.2 Generic Policy on TK 1.2 Policy document 1.2 Documents available with the incorporation of TK developed Secretariat into the development 1.3 Current policy related to 1.3 1.3 process relevant sectors reviewed a. Policy gaps identified in respect of a. Documents available with the and revised in the context of selected sectors. Secretariat at NASTEC and incorporating TK practices b. Revised policies relating to selected relevant line Ministries and gaps identified based on sectors enabling incorporation of TK b. Revised policy documents with generic policy. practices. (Health, Irrigation and the Secretariat and the relevant Water Management, Agriculture, line Ministries etc)
8 Summary of Objectives Objectively Verifiable Indicators Means of Verification Important Assumptions/ External Factors 1.4 New legislation for 1.4 1.4 recognising and protecting New legislation and amendments to Relevant legal documents TK, inclu-ding the existing laws. constitutional recognition of TK and Sui-Generic Systems developed
2.0 Information, communication & education strategy developed & operational 2.1 2.1 2.1 Information related to TK a. Information related to TK practices a. Records with relevant Ministries Practices in relevant available by sector sectors (including b. Established databases on TK related Irrigation and water information available by sector management, agriculture and health sector) collected, documented and database developed
9 Summary of Objectives Objectively Verifiable Indicators Means of Verification Important Assumptions/ External Factors 2.2 2.2 2.2 Education and training a. Percentage of actively participating a. Records of the proposed curricula reviewed and members of the proposed Associations revised to incorporate TK Associations of TK Practitioners in irrigation and water (Agriculture, Irrigation and Water management, agriculture Management ) and health sectors b. Number of projects undertaken by school children b. Records available at schools and relevant authorities c. Number of universities c. Records maintained by incorporating TK into university universities / Theses curricula d. Revised school curriculum d. Records of NIE and school text incorporating TK (agriculture, books in relevant subject areas irrigation and water management and health ) e. Modules available with the e. Number of modules related to TK Department of Agriculture introduced into the agricultural extension content f. Records with Health Ministry f. Number of messages related to TK disseminated through Western Medicine Sector Network (Health Sector) 3.0 Priority Research programs in TK identified & implemented 3.1 3.1 3.1 Regions based on river a. List of defined regions on the basis a. Study reports with Ministry of basins (TK) defined on the of studies conducted Irrigation and Water Management basis of studies 3.2 Scientific validation of TK 3.2 3.2 practices conducted a. Findings on validated best practices of a. Research reports with relevant TK Research Institutions and b. Number of Postgraduate studies Universities completed on TK practices 3.3 TK related comparative 3.3 Recommendations based on 3.3 Reports on comparative studies studies on farming systems comparative studies with the Ministry of Agriculture and post harvest and Environment techniques, pollution control and bio-diversity conservation conducted
3.4 Collection, evaluation and 3.4 Identified volume of resources (DNA 3.4 Reports available with PGRC and multiplication of local profile) Proposed Coordinating Committee genetic resources conducted
10 Summary of Objectives Objectively Verifiable Indicators Means of Verification Important Assumptions/ External Factors 3.5 Studies to identify positive aspects of Rajakariya 3.5 Recommendations based on studies 3.5 Consultancy Reports with HARTI System for reintroduction for the purpose of reintroduction and Agrarian Services Department 4.0 Capacity of stakeholders for using existing TK enhanced 4.1 4.1 4.1 Capacity building a. TK practices adopted by more than 75% a. Records of training and feedback programs implemented of the stakeholders exposed to reports on follow up available with based on needs analysis training programs within 6 months relevant Agencies (GO/NGO) after the training (health, agriculture, irrigation and water management ) b. Declining trends in using synthetic agro-chemicals b. Survey reports with relevant c. Number of registered /labeled eco- agencies farms c. Registration details d. Increasing number of patients receiving treatment at Ayurvedic d. Records available at Ayurvedic Centres centres e. Proactive responses/ events/ programs implemented by e. Records of events with relevant institutions agencies –Survey Reports f. Number of indigenous products f. Survey reports with relevant introduced /substituted agencies g. Number of economically viable medicinal plant species and acres g. Records with Ministry of Indigenous cultivated/ volume harvested Medicine for selected areas
4.2 Gurukula Education System reviewed and 4.2 Increasing number of students 4.2 Records of Ministry of Indigenous promoted graduating Medicine
5.0 5.0 5.0 Institutional mechanism a. Steering Committee appointed and a. Appointment letters issued to the for incorporating / functioning within first quarter of members and minutes of meetings mainstreaming TK commencement of project established & operational b. More than 90 % of planned activities b. Quarterly and Annual Progress (annual plans) accomplished on reports of National Steering schedule. Committee (NSC) c. Network of TK focal points c. Progress Reports of NSC established in relevant Ministries and operational
11 Summary of Objectives Objectively Verifiable Indicators Means of Verification Important Assumptions/ External Factors Activities Inputs Assumptions / External factors for achieving Please see plan of activities Physical resources : Space for establishing secretariat will be provided by Outputs NASTEC; Equipment and other facilities to be decided Political will prevails Human Resources : Members of Steering Committee, Convenor positively at local and (NASTEC), voluntary group functioning until NSC is national levels for in operation, secretariat services etc. promoting TK. Financial Resources : Fund raising for activities will be the responsibility of Participating Agencies NSC ; Medicinal Plants Project /IUCN will support (Ministries, until NSC comes into operation, and rest to be Universities, Research decided. National Fund for TK promotion proposed Institutes etc.) willing Time period : Proposed planning period is 5 years to collaborate
Legal framework favourable. Practitioners willing to share TK without reservation
12 The Action Plan, for a period of five (5) years is at Annex 5. The pre-conditions are: Adequate funding available on time Relevant Agencies release / designate / recruit personnel for the purpose. Basic facilities available for the NASTEC Secretariat to function
(c) Institutional Arrangements
The workshop noted that the past attempts to develop TK studies have failed due to the lack of a responsible state organization to provide the required leadership for TK-related aspects, and deliberated on a number of options that are possible.
The main recommendations for institutional arrangements are as follows: (i). The Ministry in charge of Science & Technology shall be the Ministry responsible for mainstreaming Traditional Knowledge into development processes. (ii). NASTEC shall be the main coordinating body. (iii). There shall be a National Steering Committee (NSC) comprised of: Secretary, M/S&T (or nominee) Nominees from Ministries in charge of the following subjects: Agriculture, Health, Irrigation, Culture, Education, Environment, Finance 5 Experts NASTEC (iv). NASTEC shall be the Convenor, and the Secretariat will be located at NASTEC. (v). The Chairperson shall be elected by the NSC (vi). A Voluntary Group will function(under the aegis of IUCN/Project On Medicinal Plants) until the NSC comes into operation, which will continue to function afterwards.A meeting will be convened by the Ministry of Science & Technology with other relevant Ministries to (i) present the recommendations of this meeting, and (ii) to appoint the National Steering Committee. (The Director Planning of the Ministry kindly agreed to arrange this meeting). (viii). The NSC will meet as often as necessary and will form its own rules (including the Terms of Reference). (ix). The NSC will identify TK focal points in the relevant Ministries, and will facilitate networking. (x). The NSC will initiate TK groups at all levels. (xi). National Fund for IK Promotion (a priority for NSC) (xii). The workshop noted that the Sri Lanka Resource Centre for Traditional Knowledge has been dormant for several years, and recommended that it be transferred to the Department of Ayurveda’s National Institute for Traditional Medicine at an early date. (xiii). The workshop noted that NASTEC has a mandate to undertake these activities (under its Act of Incorporation) and has pledged its support at the recently concluded BICOST II.
In terms of the above recommendations for institutional responsibilities and working arrangements, the workshop identified following activities with the responsible institutions as given below:
13
Activity Responsibility Initiate Collaboration action 1. Presentation of the Report to the NASTEC NASTEC M/S&T Commission 2. Ministry convenes a meeting of relevant M/S&T NASTEC Secretaries 3. Appointment of the Steering Committee M/S&T 4. Draft Terms of Reference and set up sub- NASTEC M/S&T committees and other cells 5. Prepare annual action plan NASTEC NSC
6. Appointment of focal points/networking M/S&T Relevant Ministries 7. Grass-roots level network establishment NASTEC NGOs/CBOs 8. Identify priority research areas NASTEC Other agencies 9. Facilitate implementation of the identified NASTEC Research research program centres 10. Progress Monitoring NASTEC Other agencies 11. Annual Workshop NASTEC Other agencies
Note:
M/S&T - Ministry in charge of the subject of Science & Technology NASTEC - National Science & Technology Commission NSC - National Steering Committee
14 Declaration by the participants
KANDALAMA DECLARATION Swasthi Siddham
Whereas, Sri Lanka with several millenia of pre-history and a recorded history spanning over 2500 years, during which an ancient hydraulic civilization flourished, and with a geographic location where major cultures from the East and West have met;
Considering the conducive climate and environment which led to the unique biodiversity in the country; and
Recognizing the accumulated traditional wisdom resulting from the interaction of humans with this natural environment;
We the inheritors of this great culture and its fruits, saddened by the destruction caused during the turbulence of our history declare that:
(a) the elements of this traditional wisdom, be inventoried and codified; (b) It’s unique and immense value be realized by sons and daughters of Sri Lanka, and make dedicated attempts to preserve this wisdom for the present and future generations; (c) Apply the principles of Traditional Wisdom to address the problems of modern society with greater efficiency and foresight; and (d) Pursue research on the application of the valuable principles underlying Traditional Wisdom, to modern science and technology.
And therefore, we, and all those who value Traditional Wisdom of this country, dedicate ourselves for the cause of its preservation, proliferation, application and enhancement towards our own well-being and that of all living beings.
Sabbe Saththã bhavanthu sukhithaththã
15 Conclusions
There is renewed and growing interest of TK as a means of enriching development initiatives and the connected processes.
The tendency to overlook its value and significance is an outcome of the emphasis placed on development based on modernization at the expense of all what was considered to be traditional.
Lately the World Bank itself seems to have realized the necessity have a fresh look at the possibility of identifying strengths, value and relevance of TK for development purposes.
The workshop in fact, took note of this background and examined the key issues at the outset. Then it proceeded to identify and draw up a strategy to bring out the value of TK and its relevance to modern day development.
Incidentally, the highly experienced professionals, erudite scholars and various leading personalities in the field of social and economic development, made valuable contributions to this effort. Particular mention should be made of the contributions of those who outlined the conceptual and situational background and set the themes for the productive participatory group work that followed.
As identified at the group sessions, TK can make a specific contribution to the improvement of number of activities connected to Agriculture and Food, Health, Water and irrigation and legal policy sectors.
In this regard the variety of practices and initiatives that can be adopted are highlighted in the relevant sections of this report.
A more positive approach to incorporating TK into the development process has to be adopted specially in the light of the challenges posed by the heavy influx of both ideas and practices that could have adverse effects on our society, the economy and the environment.
The necessity of a national strategy to achieve this goal should be stressed here. Towards this end, the workshop has identified both a vision and a mission, which are vital.
Policy and legal framework for incorporating TK practices, information, education, means of dissemination, training and research capacity building and so essential for its use and sustenance are crucial. The Government as well as those key groups has to cooperate in realizing this vital goal as partners of the effort involved.
Recognizing the importance of a plan of action to realize the objectives set out in the strategic planning matrix, a broad plan of action with timeframe and responsibilities, was developed by the participants. This needs further elaboration, as responsibilities for some activities have not been worked out.
16 It is time for revival of the use of TK to generate new thinking as well as new practices that could combine with modern forms of knowledge and technology that creates a new equilibrium in people friendly environmentally sustainable development
The participants who joined the reflection at the workshop decided to prepare a declaration, which was agreed upon and signed as “the Kandalama Declaration”. This can be considered a significant landmark and as an indication of the dedication of a group committed to the cause of preserving and incorporating TK in the development process.
17 Case Studies
PART I – AGRICULTURE, FISHERY, FORESTRY AND NATURAL RESOURCES
1. A COST EFFECTIVE INDIGENOUS METHOD FOR PADDY CULTIVATION2
A revived and refined system of ecological paddy cultivation referred to as “Nawa Kekulama” is practiced by about 100 farmers in the villages of Villachchi and Galnewa in the North-Central Province. These farmers are fortunate to receive the patronage and encouragement of the Janodaya Centre and the NGO, Eco Conservation Organization.
A characteristic feature of this system of farming is the technique of ground preparation with zero tillage. The weeds, if over-grown, are slashed and removed from the paddy field, leaving the stubble intact. However, such weeding is done only within the “liyadda”, and not on the “niyara” (bunds).
The paddy seeds are then dry-sown in the field over the stubble, and immediately thereafter covered with a 3-inch thick mat of dry-paddy straws. A critical point is the time of dry sowing.
Where irrigation water is provided, an auspicious time and date are determined by the elders through astrological consultation depending on the date fixed by the authorities for the release of water. For rain-fed areas the time is determined through astrological considerations and religious ceremonies. In either case a significant aspect is the spiritual exercises and pirith ceremonies conducted either by the priests in the village temple, or by lay elders.
Among the interesting rituals is the use of a new mammoty to cut the first sod (referred to as the archarya pidella), and depositing it in the lower field (liyadda), the offering of alms to the fellow villagers, and the determination and use of the system of shared labour.
With the first showers or with the first release of irrigation waters, the paddy seeds germinate and sprout above the mulch of paddy straw, thereby keeping the weed growth well under control. It was observed in some areas, that even without any standing water, paddy plants were well established with no evidence of weed growth. Farmers have claimed that this system of cultivation needs much less water than the commonly practiced method. These farmers do not use any chemical fertilizers, weedicides or pesticides, and with low-cost land preparation, the profitability is exceptionally high, although average yields per hectare are about 20 to 30 percent less than with modern techniques.
The system of paddy cultivation with zero tillage has been studied at various times by researchers of the Department of Agriculture. In an early study, Dias and Somapala(1969), clean weeded the paddy field with Grammoxone and successfully cultivated paddy with zero tillage, demonstrating the potential for this technique. However, the technique of weed suppression with a thick mulch was not included, and hence its cost effectiveness was not shown.
2 I.P.S. Dias and A.D. Somapala (1968). Zero Tillage in Rice Cultivation Proc. Annual Session SLAAS. Part 1, p.44.
18 Case Studies
2. PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT IN PADDY THROUGH TRADITIONAL METHODS3
The Nawakekulama method of paddy cultivation apparently has a built-in system of pest management. According to those farmers who practice this system, most of the insect pests that are known to attack paddy plants, do so because there are no other plant material available for their survival. The paddy plant, according to their knowledge, is the least important base for survival of most pests.
Thus, when the bunds or “niyara” are left untouched and wild, the insects tend to live on the plant life standing on the niyara, without being unduly concerned about the paddy plant.
However, these same farmers also employ spiritual and other techniques. For instance, one pious young farmer said that he picks up a few of the known insect pests, and recites a series of pirith stanza several times at a time before releasing the pests alive. He claims that these pests do not return to his field again. As evidence, he showed the difference between his paddy plants and the plants in another nearby paddy field, which had been severely affected by pests.
Another technique used by paddy farmers is the use of pest repellent plant material. In the Uva Province several farmers who depend on ecological farming are known to prepare a crude paste by crushing the leaves of Neam and Mahapatta, wrapping it in a piece of cloth, and placing the pack near the canal water entry point (Wakkade).
Yet another method mentioned by Sunil Shantha (1996) is the dragging of a log or the trunk of a banana plant over the paddy plants about 4 weeks after sowing. This is known to eliminate both pests and weeds.
3 M.Sunil Shantha (1969). The Use of Traditional Weedicides and Pesticides in Conventional Agriculture Proceedings of the First National Symposin on Indigenous Knowledge and Sustainable Development, Colombo March 1994, P.17-22.
19 Case Studies
3. INDIGENOUS SYSTEMS OF WEED CONTROL IN PADDY4
The Nawakekulama paddy cultivation system also has a built-in mechanism for weed control. The thick mat of dry straw placed in the paddy field after dry sowing of paddy has a profound effect in controlling weed growth.
Sunil Shantha (1996) describes another popular indigenous technique of weed control. About 3 to 4 weeks after sowing a paddy field, the standing water level in the field is maintained at about half the height of the paddy plant. A log or preferably banana trunk about 5 ft in length is then taken. On to the trunk and throughout its length are fixed wooden spikes 2 inches in circumference, and set about 4 inches apart. A short pole is fixed at each end of the trunk to function as an axle. The trunk is then rolled over the paddy plant smoothly in one direction, and during this process, common weeds such as Kudamatta and Tunessa are removed, and the soil is also loosened. This process is known to destroy many paddy pests that are found on the leaves.
Weed control is also effected through a consistent and phased control of water. Usually 10-14 days after sowing, the paddy field is kept covered with water for a continuous period of 3 days. On the 4th day, the water is drained out and the field is allowed to dry out for 2 days. After that, water is again allowed into the field and left standing for 3 days. When this process is carried out several times, the growth of weeds is substantially controlled (Sunil Shantha, 1996).
4 M. Sunil Shantha (1996). The Use of Traditional Weedicide and Pesticide in Conventional Agriculture Proceedings of the First National Symposium on Indigenous Knowledge and Sustainable Development, Colombo, March 1994, pp17 – 22.
20 Case Studies
4. INDIGENOUS PEST CONTROL MEASURES FOR VEGETABLE CULTIVATION
Several farmers engaged in ecological farming in the villages of Lunuwatte, Rahupola/ Thiyapola in the Uva – Paranagama and Moneragala areas (Badulla District), resort to rotational cropping. They have the encouragement and patronage of active non-governmental organizations such as FIOH (Future in Our Hands) based in Badulla.
The general sequence in rotational cropping is common to both traditional farmers and those who resort to modern techniques.
Paddy cultivation is followed usually by a vegetable crop such as beans, which is quite susceptible to insect pest infestation.
The farmers practicing indigenous systems employ one or two of several simple organic treatments to repel insect pests. One of the commonest methods is to dust the plants with kitchen ash at down when the plants are wet with dew. Another approach is to spray the plants with a suspension of cattle dung in water.
An interesting technique is the use of the crushed leaves and bark of the plant commonly known as “mahapatta”, combined with the crushed leaves of Neam and a plant known as “gora”. This mixture of crushed plant material is shaken with water in a large bottle and kept aside in the field for several days for “maturation”. The maturation process, according to these farmers, take place with dew-fall. The matured water suspension is then sprayed over the bean plants. The effectiveness of this pest control measure was quite evident in the vegetable plots of these villages.
21 Case Studies
5. INTEGRATED CROP-LIVESTOCK FARMING SYSTEMS
The use of the buffalo as a multipurpose animal has been a traditional farming approach. The common use of the buffalo is for draught power for ploughing and threshing. But its use in weed control and fertilizer production has also been systematically done. It has been known for generations that some of the noxious weeds such as Illuk in coconut plantations, can best be eradicated or controlled by buffalo grazing.
It has also been a tradition to tether a pair of buffalo for 10 nights to fertilize each coconut tree. This has been done even in large coconut estates, where large herds of buffalo were kept primarily for paddy land preparation, and secondarily for weed control in coconut plantations.
Studies conducted by the Coconut Research Institute (CRI) more than 50 years ago established the fact that the quantity of buffalo dung and urine produced by a pair of buffalo heads tethered for 10 nights to a tree, supplied nitrogen and phosphate nutrients adequate for two years. However, potassium, which is the most important major nutrient for coconut, was grossly inadequate. But by tradition, farmers also used kitchen ash as a fertilizer. It had been the practice to spread a 4 – gallon oil can full of kitchen ash round the coconut palm as a supplementary fertilizer. Though the composition of kitchen ash varies considerably, the use of dried coconut husks as a fuel in the traditional kitchen hearth ensures adequate potassium in the ash. Dried coconut husks can contain as much as 25 percent of K2O in ash, and this enriches kitchen ash as a good source of potassium. This combination of dung, urine and kitchen ash provides the correct proportions of the three major nutrients to coconut, in quantities adequate for two years. This traditional system of organic fertilizer treatment thus became an official recommendation of the CRI since the early 1950’s.
22 Case Studies
6. HOME GARDENS5
The system of multi-tiered cropping with a variety of trees, food crops, herbs, and even some animal life in small land holdings in the Central Province, and in a few other localities in the North-Western and North Central areas, is an internationally recognized ecosystem. It is a natural, self- contained heterogeneous mix of plant forms, providing the landowner with food, vegetables, fruits, timber, fuel, herbs and medicines, whilst contributing to the conservation of biodiversity. Largely concentrated in the sloping landscapes of the Central Province, these homesteads are popularly called Kandyan Home Gardens, or Forest Gardens.
The land holdings are small and are on average about one hectare in extent. An average home garden of one hectare may accommodate as much as 400 different species of plants, contributing significantly to the conservation of biodiversity.
It is estimated that there are now a total of around 1.33 million home gardens in Sri Lanka, accounting for about 367,800 ha of cultivated land. Unfortunately, this unique system of conservation agriculture is now disintegrating due to land fragmentation caused by the rapidly changing socio-economic conditions in these areas (Biodiversity Conservation in Sri Lanka 1998).
Home gardens as a traditional system of perennial cropping, are considered important sites for in situ conservation of crop germplasm.
5 Biodiversity Conservation in Sri Lanka. A Framework for Action. Ministry of Forestry and Environment, Sri Lanka, page 33. 23 Case Studies
7. TECHNIQUES OF INLAND FISHERY IN ANCIENT SRI LANKA6
Rock inscriptions dating back to the third century BC seem to indicate the significance of fish in ancient Sri Lanka, according to Siriweera (1996) who undertook an extensive study of the socio- cultural aspects of the indigenous inland fishery sector.
It is in the First Century AD that clear references are made to inland fishery activities in reservoirs and canals in the early Anuradhapura era. The inscriptions, as reported by Siriweera (1996), indicate that the revenue from water, and a share of the fish caught in the channels of the village tanks of Palonakara and Ketavalaka in the district of Tihalaka were granted (as a tax) to two village assemblies for the purpose of spreading dear skins in the meditation hall of the temple of these villages”. This tax, referred to as “matera majibaka”, is said to be referred to in several other inscriptions from the first to the third century A.D.
The recorded references to inland fishery techniques were apparently from the Thirteenth Century onwards. The techniques commonly used include the hook (bili), net (jala) and the long basket trap (kumina). The long basket was a fish trap, that was placed in flowing water in small streams. The fish that entered the basket were thus trapped, so that the fisherman could catch them by hand at the time he wanted. Interestingly, during times of drought, people had introduced various toxic inedible fruits into water holes to make the fish insensible, and had thereby facilitated an easy catch. Significantly, most of these traditional techniques of inland fishery practiced in the early Anuradhapura period had been observed by the British writer Robert Knox in the Seventeenth Century, and these have continued to present times; there is also a reference to the use of a long tunnel-shaped basket (kemana) made of small sticks, which was broad at the bottom and narrow at the top. The opening at the top was big enough for a man to thrust his arm in to pick up the fish (Siriweera, 1996).
It is clear that inland fishery was an age-old economic activity in Sri Lanka, using techniques of which some continue todate. However, there seems to have been a stigma in the use of the fishing hook in certain areas, especially in the Kandyan Kingdom and the Vanni region of the dry zone, where apparently there had been a feeling of impropriety in its use.
6 W. I. Siriweera (1996) The Socio-Cultural Antecedents of Inland Fisheries in Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the First Symposium on Indigenous Knowledge and Sustainable Develpoment. Colombo, 1994. pp 113-120. 24 Case Studies
8. RITUALISTIC TRADITIONS IN PARTICIPATORY NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT7
The traditional agricultural rituals known as the “pot ceremony” or “Muttimangallaya” in the dry zone of Sri Lanka, provides significant evidence of the self-correcting sustainable agriculture pattern of the “hydraulic society” of Sri Lanka. It is a genuine participatory management system founded on collective conscience, enshrining community-based commitments, rights, obligations, and decision making.
The ceremony has been studied and reviewed by a number of Sri Lankan and foreign scholars, because of its unique and cost effective regulatory process for eco-system protection, irrigation, water management and organized crop production.
A summarized description of the ceremony, based on the studies carried out by Herath (1996) in the Anuradhapura and Kurunegala Districts, is presented here.
Muttimangallaya with a long history as a cultural festival or agricultural ritual, is carried out in two stages. The first page is the “vow making” (or panduru bandime mangallaya) ritual, where the village elders, and the so-called “Anumethirala” (probably the authorizing agent) assemble after the reservoirs (tanks) are filled, to fix a suitable date. Then the elders proceed to the “muttinamana” (pot fastening) tree, where they address the God, and announce that the tank is filled, and that cultivation can commence. Two copper coins are wrapped in a piece of cloth and tied to a branch of the tree, while the vow is made with the chanting of a specially structured verse (yathika). This yathika is meant to invoke the blessings of the gods (Aiyanayake, Kadawara and veldeviya), to protect the tank, the anicut, the village people, the harvests, the livestock, and also to prevent harm from wild animals, diseases and famine. This tradition(the vow) sets in motion the time and season for farming by elders, the collective organization for protection of the ecosystem, the irrigation channels, and water supply, and collective and shared participation in achieving the common goals of the community.
The second part is the muttimangallaya proper, where commitment and obligation ensures common decision making at the end of the season when the crop is harvested and processed. This ceremony is again organized by the elders, and significantly, with the participation of all castes. Each share holder (usually referred to as “pangukaraya”) donates a handful of paddy for the alms offering (dhana), and in addition, contributes coins, oil, honey, coconut and other things for the pot ceremony. Once the date is fixed, the farmer families prepare milk rice, oil cakes, sweets, plantains, betel etc.
On the selected night, drummers and all caste groups are invited to perform their respective services near the “muttinamana”tree. Then the anumathirala, accompanied by all members of the village, proceed in a procession, carrying with them a number of new clay pots. The number of pots is determined in terms of equal numbers for each God. At the tank, a betel offering is prepared for the Gods, and the anumathirala begins a yathika chanting to the Gods. After the offerings, dancing and drumming continues until dawn.
The most important component of the ritual is at dawn, when two young people (representing the youth of the village), dressed in clean clothes walk in procession with the anumathirala to inform the Gods of their desire to fulfill the vow with the chanting of a “yathika”. These two youths then plunge into the tank with two of the pots, and then climb up the tree (muttinamana tree) to tie the pots to two branches, with the firm conviction that the Gods have accepted the offering, and that divine protection will be provided throughout the year for human, and for non-human natural resources.
7 H.M.D.R. Herath (1996). Traditional Rituals and Resource Management Practices in the North Central Province of Sri Lanka: Sociological Aspects of “Muthumangallaya”. Proceedings of the First National Symposium n Indigenous Knowledge and Sustainable Development, Colombo, March 1994 pp. 73-78. 25 Case Studies
PART II – MEDICINE AND ANIMAL HEALTH
9. THE HOLISTIC CONCEPT OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE8
The indigenous system of medicine is probably the biggest and the most comprehensive storehouse of traditional knowledge. However, components of it in various forms and levels are dispersed throughout the length and breadth of the country. The indigenous system of medicine encompasses medicinal, psychological, cultural, religious and philosophical phenomena, creating in the process a holistic approach towards a long and healthy life ( Serasinghe, 1994).
It is also a significant fact that the concept of a hospital where a number of patients were collectively nursed in special centers, with consequent advantages to the sick, was recognized in Sri Lanka as early as the Fourth Century BC. Ancient Kings are known to have built hospitals, both general and specialized, in Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa and elsewhere in the country (Uragoda, 1999).
It is said that the earliest system of medicine that prevailed in Sri Lanka was “desiya chikitsa”, which had been handed down from generation to generation (Uragoda, 1999). Among the very many techniques and technologies used by the physicians of a bygone era is immersion therapy, where the body of a patient is kept immersed in a medicinal bath. Many types of diseases including fever and rheumatism were treated in this manner using various prescriptions of medicinal baths. The medicine troughs were made of metal, wood or stone.
Uragoda (1999) states that the mode of action of immersion therapy was thought to be through fomentation or absorption of the medicinal fluid through the skin. He says that skepticism prevailed in western medical circles till recent times about the ability of medicinal oils to penetrate the undamaged intact skin. However, such doubts have now been dispelled.
Snakebites and fractures are two popular conditions treated by traditional physicians, especially among those living in remote rural areas, or in forest zones. The commonality in the approach by which these physicians, residing in villages far apart, identify the nature and virulence of toxic substances imbibed during snakebites is very significant. It is based on a verification of the day and time at which the incident occurred.
8 C.G.Uragoda (1999) Medicine and Surgery. Vidurawa, 19 (1), pp 9-11 26 Case Studies
10. THE FADING SOCIO-CULTURAL TRADITIONS OF CHILDBIRTH IN RURAL 9 SRI LANKA
This case review is based on a study carried out by Premkumar (1996) on the disappearing role of the midwife in rural society, as depicted by the social tradition in the tea plantations.
The center piece in this event is the midwife who although without formal training in the art of assisting child birth, is very well versed in its socio-cultural and procedural aspects learnt through an apprenticeship under an earlier generation, and through ones own personal experiences. The important feature of the midwife is the recognition and faith placed on her by the community at large in performing an onerous task, which in the modern society is performed by a highly qualified and skilled team of doctors, nurses and attendants. The traditional role of the midwife begins at an advanced stage of pregnancy of a woman, when preliminary preparations have to be made to receive the newcomer to the community. The initial step is to sweep the improvised labour room and sprinkle turmeric (Curuma domestica) in the powder form or as a suspension. Although this is considered a ritual to chase away the ‘evil spirits’, in practice it also disinfects the room, thereby providing a scientific basis.
She gently applies oil prepared from margosa (Azadirachta indica), gingelly (Sasamum indicum) and castor oil (Ricinus communis), from the loins towards the epigastria. This substance is supposed to give more flexibility and elasticity to muscles permitting easier contraction. Sometimes she may administer a little snuff to induce sneezing that helps to push the baby out. At the time of delivery, assisted by a few other women, several postures and positions are adopted according to the frame of the pregnant mother’s body.
The placenta is severed with a sharp knife, usually the tea-pruning knife (or sometimes a pair of scissors), that had been previously treated with turmeric water and held over incense several times. This activity, though ritualistic in the Hindu tradition since it represents a plea for the blessings of Brahma (the creator), Vishnu (the protector) and Shiva (the destroyer), is also a process of sterilization. The wound is then dressed with a medication made from the ash of the dung of a calf, mixed with pepper (Piper nigrum) and a herb known as vasambu (Acorus calamus). Castor oil is given to drink after the ejection of the placenta, which is then burnt outside the entrance to the house. A stone is placed on top of the placenta, and a rope to which mango and margosa leaves are tied, is wrapped round it. This ritual is believed to prevent evil spirits (inclusive of germs and bacteria) from entering the house. It is also symbolic to the extent that anyone seeing this object would not enter the house, thereby ensuring that the mother and new born baby are safe from communicable diseases and infections. This symbol is retained for 30 days, during which period the midwife, assisted by older women, would attend to the baby and the lactating mother.
Finally, there is the month-long aftercare which is an even more exacting programme of diet management, primary healthcare, purification, and ritualistic or spiritual events to mark the entry of the mother and the newborn to the community fold. These are discussed in some detail by Premkumar (1996) in a review on traditional midwifery.
9 R.H. Sam Premkumar (1996). Traditional Midwifery. Proceedings of the First National Symposium on Indigenous Knowledge and Sustainable Development, Colombo, March 1994. Pages 55-58. 27 Case Studies
11. INGENUITY IN TRADITIONAL TREATMENT OF HEPATITIS10,11
Some work carried out by the Institute of Indigenous Medicine through an analysis of ola leaf manuscripts have been described by Serasinghe (1996). In 158 such manuscripts studied, eight plant species have been identified as being used as single drugs for the treatment of hepatitis, referred to in this literature as “Kamala”. This ailment is also called “Sengamala”, or “Kaha Una” by various people.
Kamala or hepatitis, is a viral infection of the liver causing hepatic necrosis of varying degrees. Modern treatment usually involves bed rest, intake of fluids, glucose, vitamin B and dietary measures.
The indigenous system of medicine largely involves the intake of a rice-based herbal porridge (Cunge or Kola kenda) for which the leaf of Osbeckia octandra is the commonest ingredient.
Osbeckia octandra, locally known as “Heenbovitiya” is a small shrub with purplish-blue flowers found growing freely in the low-country, especially near paddy fields and wet low lying areas.
The writer is personally aware of at least one case where the usual liver function laboratory test had provided a somewhat distorted picture of a patient who used to take kola kenda regularly made from Osbeckia octandra, and who had otherwise been diagnosed to suffer from viral hepatitis.
A research grant awarded to Ruhuna University in 1986 (Pathirana et.al. 1989) by the Natural Resources, Energy and Science Authority (NARESA) for a project titled “Studies of Medicinal Plants in Southern Sri Lanka”, involved a chemical examination of six herbs that included Heenbovitiya. In this study, sequential methonolic extraction of Osbeckia octandra leaves, followed by chemical screening of the extracts including the residual aqueous solution was done. Three compounds were identified in the extracts of which one was a mixture of three flavonoids. The products from active extracts were used for antihepatotoxic activity and liver dysfunction assessment in male albino rats of the Sprague Dawley strain, in whom liver damage was induced by an injection of CCl4. All three compounds were found active in a preventive sense. The study, though inconclusive, seems to indicate the presence of a protective or preventive agent in the leaf extracts of Heenbovitiya. Unfortunately, there has been no follow up on this interesting line of study.
10 P Serasinghe (1996) . Reseaerch and Development in the Indigenous Systems of Medicine: An Agenda for Planning and Practice. Proceedings of the First National Symposium on Indigenous Knowledge and Sustainable Developments, Colombo. March 1994.pp.43-48 11 C Pathirana, R N Pathirana and M P De Silva (1988). Final Report of the NARESA Research Grant awarded in 1986. 28 Case Studies
12. INDIGENOUS SYSTEMS IN DISEASE DIAGNOSIS IN CATTLE12
Through the examination of a 150-year-old ola leaf manuscript, Jayatilake (1996) has described an indigenous system of disease diagnosis and treatment of diseases in cattle.
An important aspect of this treatment philosophy is the classification of cattle into a system of breeds referred to as “Gothra”. Thus, the preliminary stage in the treatment of these animals is the correct identification of the ‘gothra’, which apparently gives an indication of the susceptibility to particular types of diseases.
Disease identification is by an in-depth clinical experience, comprising visual observations and the time-tested system of indigenous knowledge and wisdom. Skills in diagnosis and treatment are based on practical experience and careful observation of sick animals, using investigations such as behaviour, pulse rate, respiration, dryness of the muzzle, rumination, defecation, urination, movement and posture of ears, changes and reddening of the eye, movements of the eye ball, tearing, nasal discharges, gestation, lactates etc. The diseases are diagnosed in relation to the site of origin, such as the diseases of head (nervous conditions,) ear (kannal)i, intestines (veppu), blood vascular, and respiratory (adappan).
An important aspect of the treatment regime used by these physicians is the incorporation of biophysical and spiritual aspects of medication. The spiritual medication is reported by Jayatilake (1996), as an advanced system of treatment of epidemiological significance, and known to have a visible impact in bringing about an immediate cure, or prevention of the entry, or spread of contagious diseases. Subjecting animals to spiritual medications and/or casting spells for immobilization are specialized aspects that are not fully understood. It is also a traditional practice to perform rituals annually in various parts of the country to bless livestock herds, and thereby prevent the entry and spread of contagious diseases. An example quoted by Jayatillake (1996) is the so-called “Mangara” ritual for buffaloes practiced in the Moneragala District. In addition, animals are guarded against evil spirits using “yanthra”, “manthra” and “kem”.
12 T.N. Jayatileke (1996). Indigenous Animal Health Practices in Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the First National Symposium on Indigenous Knowledge and Sustainable Development, Colombo. March 1994 pp.59-65. 29 Case Studies
13. INDIGENOUS METHODS FOR BIOPHYSICAL MEDICATION OF CATTLE13,14
The administration of treatment to cattle is through a number of routes and mechanisms, decided upon by the practitioner on the basis of disease diagnosis.
The biophysical treatments are by the use of medicinal herbs whose curative and preventive potentials are well known and documented by these traditional physicians.
The following natural ingredients were employed in the preparation of the medicines: various components of medicinal herbs that included rhizomes, roots, bark of trees, flowers and seeds, cannabis or ganja (Cerba Serrate), ant hill mud, and animal products such as whey, ghee, eggs, eggshells, bone meal, bat excreta, human and urine. The required ingredients in specified quantities are usually combined with a carrier such as ginger (Zingiber cylindricum) essence, betel (Centell asiatica) juice, thippili (Piper longum) juice, lemon juice, salt water, coconut milk, king coconut water, young coconut water, or cold or hot water. The ingredients are combined into a fine consistency by crushing and rolling a medicinal stone or powdered using a pestle and mortar, and administered in specified quantities or does (Jayatilleke, 1996).
The administration of medicines is through various specified routes Jayatilleke (1996) and Piyadasa (1996) describe at least 12 different mechanisms and routes for the administration of medicines by traditional practitioners. These include a) nasal, for inhalation of medicinal fumes or infiltration of ear cavities by blowing through a small bamboo tube, b) oral, where treatment is done as a drench or an electuary, c) tongue, for application of powders and pastes, d) topical, for application of oils and pastes, e) branding and skin burns on particular nerve points of the body called “nila”areas, f) bleeding by stabbing with a pointed bamboo or blade, held over a flame before use, g) skin opening which is largely a diagnostic tool, where the skin is opened at the tip of the tail to examine the colour of blood, and thereby diagnose the disease, h) rectal, where medicinal decoctions are administered to the colon, via the rectum i) hand manipulation, where medications combined with ‘kem’ (spiritual) are used, especially to treat cases of difficult births.
13 T.N. Jayatilleke (1996). Indigenous Animal Health Practices in Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the First National Symposium on Indigenous Knowledge and Sustainable Development, Colombo, March 1994. p. 59-66 14 H.D.W. Piyadasa (1996). Indigenous Veterinary Treatment Methods in Sri Lanka, Proceedings of the First National Symposium on Indigenous Knowledge and Sustainable Development, Colombo, March 1994. p. 67-72. 30 Case Studies
PART III – TECHNOLOGY AND INDUSTRY
14. INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN TEXTILE WEAVING15
The studies of Lakdusinghe (1999) have indicated the extra-ordinarily wide and complex techniques and technologies used by our ancestors in producing cotton-based textiles and garments for use by various segments of society.
Two groups of textile weavers had been in the country. One group comprised the so-called Salagamas and the drummers who had come from India, while the second category were people who played drums, and also engaged themselves in astrology.
The first category were both drummers and weavers of cloth, while the second group were textile weavers, who used their spare time for playing drums and astrological forecasting.
Drummers who became the local cloth weavers had woven cotton cloth using plain yarn in the villages. It is said that the entire hill country had become well recognized for the processing of cotton yarn and textile weaving. This type of weaving of cotton cloth is known to continue to this day in the hamlet of Thalagune in Uda Dumbara, and recently such weaving of cotton cloth has also been seen in a village close to Balangoda.
The textile items that are woven at present at the village of Thalagune are mostly plain sheets, referred to as “Erattuwa”. The large sheets are about 11x5 feet (or 4 ½ x 2 riyanas), while the smaller ones are 6x3 feet or smaller (Lakdusinghe, 1990).
15 S. Lakdusinghe (1999). Our Ancestors who Exported Textiles, Vidurawa, 19 (1), pp.20-24 31 Case Studies
15. THE ANCESTRAL CLOTH AND GARMENT INDUSTRY16
Cotton had been grown in ancient times as chena cultivation in the highland areas. It had been a major trading material from the hill country to Anuradhapura. The cotton picked from the chena lands were dried and cleaned in homesteads. The seeds were removed by passing the cotton between bars in the cotton gin. The threads suitable for spinning were then prepared by beating the cotton with a bar, and winnowing and rolling. Cotton was spun by women who gathered in large numbers to spin while they sang songs selected from Jathaka Stories (Lakdusinghe, 1999).
The weaving machines and techniques were said to be similar to those found in India and Burma. The loom, referred to as the “Aluva” was fitted in a loom house (alge), which was an open shed. In weaving the fabric, alternate threads are selected from the warp by the shuttle ropes, when the shuttle moves either way. The motion is imparted to the loom by treadle.
The garments woven in ancient times were not made by the present process of designing, cutting and stitching, but were woven on the batten as a complete item of cloth or dress. Hence the cloth and garments were of various sizes, shapes and designs. In this manner a variety of garments for men, women and chieftains, and other items such as towels, napkins, shawls, handkerchiefs, bedspreads, etc. were woven. It is significant that the size and design of the garments made were determined by the caste of the wearer (Lakdusinghe, 1999).
16 S. Lakdusinghe (1999). Our Ancestors who Exported Textiles, Vidurawa, 19 (1), pp.20-24 32 Case Studies
16. INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN WEATHER FORECASTING17,18
A few historical records in the indigenous knowledge on how changes in weather were understood and forecast have been reported by Abhayasinghe Bandara (1999).
Short range forecasts of weather changes were based essentially on personal experiences and feelings such as humidity and hotness. But other visual observations have also been used in such forecasts. Cold nights with mist and dew were usually considered signs of impending dry weather, while hot and warm feelings during the day signaled rainy evenings.
Traditional farmers had their own wisdom in predicting weather, through observations of the sky and the movement of clouds. The movement of clouds in one particular direction was a sign of rainy weather, while a movement in the opposite direction meant dry weather. A red sky at sunrise and sun set was considered a warming for rainless days ahead.
Animal behavior was also used by our ancestors to predict weather changes. A sharp and peculiar sound made by frogs and toads was considered a sign for the arrival of rainy weather conditions, while bees were known to remain in-doors if rains are expected. Buffaloes and cats on the other hand, were known to indicate an impending harsh weather situation such as a cyclone, by being restless and making unusual noises.
A fairly common traditional system of expecting a break in the weather pattern, especially the arrival of rain, is the onset of the full moon day each month. However, a study conducted by Alles (1973) using recorded meteorological data failed to establish a relationship between the occurrence of rain and the dawn of the full moon day. Since this study recorded rainfall data only on the full moon days, and not on the day immediately preceding or following the full moon day, the findings of this study remained inconclusive, because the traditional belief is that a break in the weather occurs with the onset of the Poya. The onset of Poya, and the official full moon holiday may not necessarily coincide.
17 K.R. Abhayasinghe Bandara (1999). Ancient Knowledge in Meteorology. Vidurava , 19 (1), pp.25-29. 18 W.S. Alles and Ratnasili Ratnayake (1973). Raining on Poya Days. Proc. Annual Session of SLAAS part 1 (vol.29) page 61. 33 Case Studies
17. INDIGENOUS IRON SMELTING19
The traditional iron and steel production industry in Sri Lanka during ancient times has received world recognition as being of a very high standard.
Solangaarachchi (1999) describes findings of several researchers on indigenous metallurgical works at Alakolava Village in the precincts of the Sigiriya Aligala prehistoric caves within the citadel of Sigiriya, at Ibankatuwa in the Dambulla area, and the sites at Samanalawewa and Ridiyagama. However the most significant feature is the fact that Aligala iron smelting works in Sigiriya predates the Kashyapan era (500 AD) by around 1500 years, and hence can be considered to be around 3000 years old.
It is said that the iron masters of ancient times had known the art of ‘quenching’, a process of strengthening steel by immersing red hot iron in cold water. The process of ‘case hardening’ or ‘cementing’ which is a method of carbonizing wrought iron followed by quenching to produce steel suitable for hard cutting edges, had also been used, demonstrating the existence of a highly advanced knowledge system among the iron masters of ancient times.
Solangaarachchi (1999) describes at length the findings at the Dehigaha-ela Kanda production “factory” in the village of Alakolawewa, where a series of smelting furnaces and heaps of iron slag had been discovered. The iron slags here cover an area of nearly 3750 square meters. The archaeological findings indicate large-scale production of iron in the solid form in this area using an advanced reduction process of magnetite iron ore (Bloomery Process). The approximate quantity of iron produced at Alakolawewa , estimated on the basis of the remaining slag , is more than 10,000 tons (Solangaarachchi, 1999).
The furnaces were made by carving the bedrock into an oval–shaped pit, with two rounded steps in front. Since the heat generated by charcoal may reach only about 7000 C, the furnaces had facilities to increase the heat with the aid of either natural draught or forced draught for smelting the ore. The forced draught is produced by air blown with bellows through a series of ceramic tubes (tuyere). Chemical studies have shown that the composition of clays used in the furnace walls were different from those used for the tuyers, which should have the capability to withstand much higher temperatures.
19 Rose Solangaarachchi (1999). History of Metallurgy and Ancient Iron Smelting. Vidurava, 19 (1) pp.30-40 34 Case Studies
18. ANCIENT CRAFTS AND TECHNOLOGY OF SHIPBUILDING IN SRI LANKA20
“Sri Lanka has had a long-standing tradition of shipbuilding technology, based upon knowledge of the seas. This enabled traditional naval craftsman to design, or develop appropriate forms; to use available resources wisely; and to benefit from the interaction with other cultures. It was no accidental process, but one upon experience, experimentation and application of knowledge of materials”.
This is the gist of a concluding remark of S. Devendra, a retired naval officer of the Sri Lanka Navy, in an interesting write-up on the ancient and medieval arts and crafts of shipbuilding in Sri Lanka. This study is largely based on material evidence that included remains of watercraft models, drawings or paintings, and drawings inscribed on rock, as for example the Second Century BC rock carving of a ship at Duvegala, Polonnaruwa.
Utilizing an evolutionary model that has worldwide recognition, the indigenous genesis and the evolution of current day Sri Lankan ships and boats have been re-created and established. This process of watercraft development follows the progressive advancement from floats (comprising reed bundles, logs and rafts), through primitive boats (comprising dugouts, dugouts combined with planks, multi-hulled dugouts, etc.), wooden planked boats (shell construction with carvel and tenons, etc.), to metal/plastic/cement boats.
In accordance with this evolutionary model, the earlier Sri Lankan crafts evolved from log dugouts which were by themselves watertight shells, and the most advanced traditional crafts were shell built, carvel planked crafts.
Devendra (1999) makes the point that our shipbuilders in their most advanced stage, had a firm grasp of the fundamental concepts of shipbuilding, and the techniques available to them. In addition, they had a sense of the continuity of tradition. Significantly, it is said that the overwhelming evidence is that carpentry, with its sub-skill of shipbuilding cuts across the castes, but the process of knowledge transfer is not clear. There was a clear understanding of environmental parameters especially the nature of the coastal water and deep sea, and the biological resources available to them, with which they had to build the craft. Hence, the ancient shipbuilder was no primitive experimenter, but the product of a tradition, a technology, and interaction with a cosmopolitan community of seafarers (Devendra, 1999).
Beyond the raft stage, these shipbuilders evolved the craft that derived buoyancy from the whole vessel and not from individual parts. Initially, hollowed-out logs were taken one or two were attached together by platform decks to form a multi-hulled craft. These were then extended vertically by attaching planks, and horizontally by replacing one or two dugouts by an outrigger log, which is a log projecting from or over the ship’s side, to maintain balance. Later, the dugout components were reduced to vestigial proportions, and finally developed to keel-like axial beams of shell built, carvel planked ships. The resultant craft was of shallow draught, and able to skim over the surface of the water, flexible enough to take inshore waves head-on, and tough bottomed enough to cross the sand pits at low tide. This was the basic “oruwa”. These single outrigger crafts are said to be the fastest traditional crafts in the world. Exceptions to this model of development include a Jaffna lagoon boat – a “skeleton built” boat; one example of a boat with shaped hull-log (vallams) and one with warping floor timbers (madel paruwa).
20 S. Devendra (1990) Ships and Shipbuilding Technology in Ancient and Medieval Times. Presented at the Seminar on History of Science and Technology in Sri Lanka – Some Glimpses. National Science Foundation, Colombo. 35 Case Studies
Devendra (1999 ) finally states that although he is convinced that the people of Jaffna , particularly those from Velvetithurai and Kayts, were the last and best of Sri Lanka’s mariners and shipbuilders, the last sailing ships that belonged to the specifically Sri Lankan traditional technology remained in use longest in the Southern parts of Sri Lanka.
36 Case Studies
19. TRADITIONAL TECHNOLOGIES IN FOOD PROCESSING AND STORAGE21
Processing and preserving food is an activity that is almost exclusively handled by women. The general techniques are known to the elder women in each family, which are then passed down vertically to the younger people within the family. Cross transfer of knowledge also takes place to some extent, although the intricate details learnt by experience largely flow within the family from generation to generation.
The processing and preservation of food is an important aspect among the farming families because of the seasonality in the agricultural food production. The techniques, though simple, have been found to be very effective and harmless.
Of the common methods used, sun drying is the most widely practiced. Grains such as paddy or rice, when subjected to sun drying, are usually spread thinly over large mats with a sprinkling of crushed or whole leaves of plants such as karapincha, rampe or citrus which help to repel insects, and also prevent fungus formation. Grain storage is also done in special bins called “bissa” a large basket shaped storage bin usually made of cane. Hidellage (1994) states that materials used in ancient times for wrapping or packaging was quite specific to the particular food product. Studies have shown that these materials have been selected carefully based on “scientific” reasoning. The packaging material had been selected to withstand potential problems (such as spoilage) for a desired period of time. Also, the properties of the material such as absorption of moisture, permeability to oxygen and light, have also been considered (Hidellage, 1994).
The various equipment used in processing (packing and grinding ) of food such as the stone mortar, finger millet grinder, curry-stuff grinder, thosai grinder, are made of stone or wood and have been described by Jayakody (1996). These equipment are also used in the preparation of indigenous medicine. The ground quality of food is preferred because of the perception that food processed in this manner gives a better flavour, colour, taste and smell .
Food preservation is an age-old art. The technologies used include drying, dehydration, fermentation, smoking, salt treatment and submerging in cold water, which are absolutely safe and help to retain the required flavours.
Thus, the shelf life of lime (Citrus medica) and cassava (Manthot esculentus) could be increased by burying under soil, or dry sand plus dried sawdust. Smoking or sun drying of fish tends to enhance the flavour, and smoking fish with specific types of firewood e.g. cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) gives a special flavour to the product. Ripening of matured jak fruit (Artocarpus hetorophyllus) could be delayed when the whole fruit is submerged in cold water. (Jayakody, 1994).
Referring to jak fruit as an important food, Robert Knox (1681) makes the following comment:
“There being cut in pieces they boil them, and eat to save Rice and fill their bellies: they eat them as we would do Turnips or cabbage, and taste and smell much like the latter: one may suffice six or seven men.”
Referring to drying and preservation of jak seeds, Knox (1681) says;
“The kernels do very much resemble Chestnuts both in colour and taste, and are almost as good; the poor people will boil them or roast them in the embers, there being usually a good
21 Robert Knox (1681). A Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon, in the East Indies. Richard Chefwell, London page 20. 37 Case Studies
heap of them lying in a corner by the fire side, and when they go Journey, they will put them in a bag for their Provisions by the way.” Several components of jak fruit are used for processing the bulbs, seeds and pericarp. Processing can be done after boiling, and includes different stages such as slicing, blanching, draining, sun drying and storing in smoke racks. Jak seeds are also processed and stored in sand (Abeywardena, 1994). :
38 Case Studies
20. TECHNOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF THE ANCIENT IRRIGATION SYSTEM22,23,24
The ancient irrigation system of Sri Lanka has been the subject of much discussion, debate and review. Yet this world renown Sri Lankan heritage has not received the discriminating archaeological, scientific and technological enquiry that it deserves.
Discussing this intricate irrigation system, Prickett-Fernando (1994) states that some of the inter-links between larger (irrigation) systems have been documented, but never studied archaeologically; nor have the inter connections of the smaller systems been studied, whether it is the small tank down slope cascades, the lateral series of tanks linked by contour channels, or the series of sluiceless water retaining structures.
Denis Fernando (1979) refers to a statement made by Henry Parker in 1907, in which he had said that if the present day engineers try to change or make improvements to the general design of these ancient works, they will soon realize how wrong they are, and how correct were the ancient engineers.
Fernando (1979) also quotes the comments made by the Netherlands Engineering Consultants, in a study carried out in 1978 on the Mahaweli Ganga, where it is stated that“----over and above the irrigation of fields under Parakrama Samudra, Minneriya, Giritale, Medirigiriya and Kandulla, there is sufficient run of the river water in the Mahaweli to irrigate over another 100,000 acres,---” clearly implying the technical feasibility of the Kalinga anicut with its system of canals and downstream channels.
The Jaya Ganga which is the channel from Kalawewa to Tissawewa in Anuradhapura, constructed by King Dhatusena in 459 AD, is said to be an engineering marvel, because in the first twenty miles of its run, the gradient in this channel is only 6 inches to the mile.
This channel is a unique piece of engineering construction, incorporating the principle of converting potential energy to kinetic energy. Though the Newtonian principle of gravity (postulated in 1742 AD) was not known to Dhatusena (5th Century AD), the inherent wisdom and genius of the master engineer performed what appeared to be an impossible task, states Denis Fernando (1979).
In a later treatise, based on new discoveries such as the pre-Vijayan city of Vijithapura in the outskirts of Polonnaruwa; the evidence to indicate a change of course of the Mahaweli Ganga, and the discovery in 1981 of the pre-Christian era Bisokotuwa (sluice gate) inclusive of the bund at Maduru Oya, Denis Fernando (1982) has formulated a thesis that certain hydraulic structures were prerequisites for the evolution and development of the hydraulic civilization of Sri Lanka.
The first stage in this evolutionary process is the building of the simplest hydraulic structure for irrigation under settled agriculture. This structure is claimed to be the amuna or anicut with a delivery channel. The amuna is a simple contraption across a river or a stream, possibly built of rocks and boulders, to divert water through canals without storage. This device may have possibly been the first major hydraulic structure after man moved out from hunting and gathering to settled agriculture. The second stage as perceived by Fernando (1982), is the construction of reservoirs by building a dam across a river so as to impound water for later use. The stored water can then be released to the fields under a controlled system of issuing water. All the dams constructed by the ancient kings were
22 A. Denis N. Fernando (1979). Major Ancient Irrigation Works of Sri Lanka. Royal Asiatic Society (Sri Lanka Branch) Colombo. 24 pages. 23 A. Denis N. Fernando (1982) – The Ancient Hydraulic Civilization of Sri Lanka in Relation to its Natural Resources. Royal Asiatic Society (Sri Lanka Branch) 24 Martha Prickett – Fernando (1994) Ancient Irrigation Systems and Sustainable Development (Abstract). National Symposium on Indigenous Knowledge and Sustainable Development, Colombo.pp 13-14. 39 Case Studies earth dams that conformed to the scientific principles as known today. This type of construction required ingenuity and high engineering skills, because it necessitated a contraption to control the release of stored water.
The development of the controlling valve or sluice is considered the piece de resistance, and the turning point in the development of the hydraulic civilization of Sri Lanka. The Bisokotuwa, or the sluice gate is a totally indigenous Sri Lankan invention.
Although there are no lithic or epigraphic evidence for the evaluation of this unique hydraulic civilization, Fernando (1982) concludes that the oral traditions of cultural, scientific and technological values were usually passed from father to son, from one generation to another, and were not recorded, though they existed long before lithic records evolved.
40 Annex 1 List of Participants at the Workshop Representation of State Institutions
9. Dr Keerthi Mohotti 1. Dr Mohan Abeyratne Tea Research Institute Director (Scientific & Research) St. Coombs, Talawakele Ministry of Cultural Affairs Tel: 051-23803-6 Central Cultural Fund Email: [email protected] 11, Independence Avenue
Colombo 07 10. Mr Cyril Pallegedera Tel: 01-679919 Medicinal Plants Project Email: [email protected] Ministry of Health, Nutrition & Welfare
No. 4, Woodlands Avenue 2. Prof. A M Abeysekera Kohuwala, Nugegoda Director Tel: 01-812881 Bandaranaike Memorial Ayurvedic Research Email: [email protected] Institute
Department of Ayurveda 11. Dr Danister L Perera Nawinna Medicinal Plants Project Maharagama Ministry of Health, Nutrition & Welfare Tel: 01-850333 No. 4, Woodlands Avenue Email: [email protected] Kohuwala, Nugegoda
Tel: 075-523653 3. Mr M B Dissanayake Email: [email protected] Asst. Director of Agriculture (Fertilizer Unit)
Department of Agriculture 12. Mr R H M Piyasena Extension and Training Centre Director, Institute of Indigenous Medicine Peradeniya University of Colombo Tel. 08-388229 Rajagiriya
Tel: 01-861399 4. Dr M C N Jayasuriya Email: [email protected] Executive Director
National Science & Technology Commission 13. Dr R O B Wijesekera 2, Galpotta Road Chairman,National Science & Technology Nawala Commission Tel: 01-861205 No. 2, Galpotta Road, Email: [email protected] Nawala
Tel: 01-889050-1 5. Dr Mervyn Joseph Email: [email protected] Medicinal Plants Project
Ministry of Health, Nutrition & Welfare 14. Mr M A T de Silva No. 4, Woodlands Avenue 6/9, De Silva Road Kohuwala, Nugegoda Kalubowila Tel: 075-523653 Dehiwala Email: [email protected] Tel: 01-822933
Email: [email protected] 6. Mr K G Janaka Karunasena
Scientific Officer 15. Mr Sanjiv de Silva National Science Foundation Programme Officer 47/5, Maitland Place IUCN – The World Conservation Union Colombo 07 53, Horton Place Tel: 01-696771-3 Colombo 07 Email: [email protected] Tel: 01-694094
Email: [email protected] 7. Mr Sisira Kumarasiri
Medicinal Plants Project 16. Mr Pandula Endagama Ministry of Health, Nutrition & Welfare 4A, 7th Lane, No. 4, Woodlands Avenue Pagoda Road Kohuwala, Nugegoda Nugegoda Tel: 075-523653 Tel. 01-854255 Email: [email protected] email: [email protected]
8. Ms W A S Mahawewa 17. Prof. C M Maddumabandara Ministry of Economics Reforms, Science & 45-C, Angampitiya Road, Technology Bowala Path 561/3, Elvitigala Mawatha Kandy Colombo 05 Tel: 08-388397 Tel: 01-678851; 01-698289/90 Email: [email protected] Fax: 01-682498
Email: [email protected] 41
Email: [email protected] 18. Dr R Mahindapala Director Programme 28. Ms Dayanie Wijerathna IUCN – The World Conservation Union IPID 53, Horton Place 591, Havelock Road Colombo 07 Colombo 06 Tel: 01-682420 Tel: 01-587361 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]
19. Mr D L O Mendis Falcon Flats 16, Amarasekera Mawatha Colombo 06 Tel: 01-593210/586308 Emial: [email protected]
20. Mr Anandalal Nanayakkara No. 18/10, 1st Lane, Allan Avenue, Dehiwela Tel: 01-716567 Email: [email protected]
21. Mr Thennakoon Ranbanda NK/Thimiriyava K.V Nikaweratiya
22. Mr Mudiyanse Thennakoon Ulpothawatta Embogama Via Galgamuwa
23. Mr G K Upawansa Jathika Parisara Selasum Svanvidhanaya (National Environmental Planning Organization) Hyneford, Dekinda Nawalapitiya Tel: 054--22580 Email: [email protected]
24. Prof. Anoja Wickramasinghe Department of Geography, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya. Tel: 08-374536 Email: [email protected]
Facilitation of the Workshop
25. Mr M B Agalawatta IPID 591, Havelock Road Colombo 06 Tel: 01-587361 Email: [email protected]
26. Ms Mallika Samaranayake Chairperson IPID 591, Havelock Road Colombo 06 Tel: 01587361 Email: [email protected]
27. Mr S W K J Samaranayake Executive Director IPID 591, Havelock Road Colombo 06 Tel: 01587361
42
Annex 2 List of World Bank/East African delegates 16/17 September, 2002
Name Designation World Bank Officials 1. Mr Nicolas M Gorjestani, Sr. Adviser, Washington (AFTKL) 2. Mr. Assaye Legasse Agric. Economist, World Bank, Ethiopia (AFTRI) 3. Ms.Carla Bertoncino Economist, (AFTHI) Washington 4. Ms.E.V. Shantha, Consultant, (AFTHI) Washington 5. Mr. Krishna Pidatala Sr. Info. Officer, (AFTKL) Washington 6. Mr. Siddhartha Prakash Consultant, (AFTKL) Washington 7. Ms. Aisha Rahman Khan Consultant, Washingon (AFTQK) Ethiopian delegates 8. Mr. Abera Geyid Woldetsadik Director of the Ethiopian Health & Nutrition Research Institute 9. Mr. Girma Balcha Mojo Deputy General Manager, Institute of Biodiversity Conservation & Research (IBCR) 10. Ms. Medhin Zewdu Tsehaiu CSMPP Project Coordinator 11. Mr. Engidasew Agonafir Chairman of Traditional Healers Association 12. Mr. Tesfaye Awas Feye Head, Department of Medicinal Plants Genetic Resources, IBCR Ugandan delegates 13. Dr. (Mr.) John KMutumba Project Coordinator, CHILD Project 14. Ms. Anne Barabogoza Communication Specialist, CHILD Project Gamurorwa 15. Mr. Fred Ngabirano Community Dev. Officer, Bushenyi District 16. Ms. Beatrice, M Wabudeya Minister of State, Primary Health Care 17. Ms. Dorothy Samali Hyuha Chairperson, Social Services Committee 18. Mrs. Resty, Nantaba Muziribi Assistant Commissioner, Pre-Primary 19. Dr. Z.M. Nyiira Executive Secretary, Uganda National Council for Science & Technology 20. Mrs. Lucy Gathoni Kihara Project Coordinator, ECD project 21. Mr. Henry Kemoli Manani Director of NACECE (National Center for Early Childhood Education) 22. Mrs. Francesca Akelo Opondo Community Grants Component Coordinator, ECD project Omuom 23. Ms. Monica Akiny Okoth Health & Nutrition Component Coordinator, ECD project 24. Mr. Samuel Ngaruiya Education Officer I, Ministry of Education and Sports
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Annex 3 PROGRAMME Date Time Item 17th 5.00 pm Registration of participants September 5.30 pm Inauguration of the Workshop by lighting the traditional oil lamp 5.40 pm Welcome address – Dr R O B Wijesekera, Chairman, NASTEC 5.50 pm Introduction of Participants _ Ms M Samaranayke, Moderator 6.10 pm Address – Dr R Mahindapala, Director Programme, IUCN Sri Lanka 6.20 pm Address – Dr Danister L Perera, Representing the Sri Lanka Resource Centre for Indigenous Knowledge 6.30 pm Keynote address – Mr Nicolas M Gorjestani, Senior Advisor, AFTKL, World Bank 6.50 pm Developing a national strategy for IK – Experience from Uganda – Dr Z M Nyiira, Executive Secretary, Uganda National Council for Science and Technology 7.10 pm An overview of traditional knowledge; Sri Lankan Perspective – Mr Pandula Endagama 7.15 – 8.15 pm Reception 18th 8.30 am Objectives of the Workshop – Dr Ranjith Mahindapala, IUCN Sri September Lanka 8.45 am Workshop Methodology – Ms Mallika Samaranayake, Workshop Facilitator 9.00 am Presentation on Agriculture – Dr K Mohotti 9.20 am Presentation on Health - Dr Danister Perera 9.40 am Presentation on Water management, construction materials – Mr D L O Mendis 10.00 am Presentation on Legislation – Mr A Nanayakkara 10.20 am Presentation on Food Preservation – Mr P Endagama 10.40 am Gender Mainstreaming: Strategy for incorporating Traditional Knowledge into Mainstream Development – Prof. Anoja Wickramasinghe 11.00 am Tea 11.15 am Panel discussion 11.45 – 1.15 Identification of Key elements by sector-wise inputs for national pm strategy (in groups) 1.15 – 2.15 pm Lunch 2.15 – 4.15 pm Group work presentation (5 groups) in plenary 4.15 – 4.45 pm Tea 4.45 – 5.30 pm Identification of Vision & Mission for a national strategy (Plenary) 19th 8.30 – 10.30 Framework for a national strategy September am 10.30 – 11.00 Tea am 11.00 – 1.00 Identification of main activities per outputs (Group) pm 1.00 – 2.00 pm Lunch 2.00 – 3.30 pm Group work presentation 3.30 – 4.00 pm Tea 4.00 – 5.30 pm Identification of responsible institutions for implementation (Plenary) 20th 8.30 – 10.30 Elaboration of a national coordination mechanism for September am implementation (Plenary) 10.30 – 11.00 Tea am 11.00 – 1.00 Broad plan of follow-up activities, responsibilities and time frames pm 1.00 – 2.00 pm Lunch 2.00 – 3.00 pm Closing session
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Annex 4 Key Components for a National Strategy for Incorporating Traditional Knowledge Sector Specific Cross - Sectoral Component Traditional Development Traditional Development Knowledge Practices Knowledge Practices Agriculture and Food Sector
1. Traditional plant varieties for saving water Local varieties Collection and preservation Knowledge on Patenting Intellectual Genetic Resources Evaluation collective rights Property Rights (IPR) (varieties, breeds) Incorporation into new varieties TK crop/management Production with traditional varieties for production systems specific markets
2. Soil fertility and moisture Crop mixtures and crop Promote appropriate farming systems management rotation to maintain soil fertility Mixed cropping Minimum tillage Use of organic manure
3. Pest and disease Lunar pattern and pest Timely cultivation management population /incidences Rituals Yaya systems Adoption of best practices Natural means of control Biological control 4. Conservation of bio- Bio diversity for sustainability Integrated agriculture practices Conservation of bio- Lobbying and motivation diversity diversity Natural Functions Government Policy Eco village concept Bio diversity conservations and bio prospecting Market opportunities, education and extension, research 5. Post harvest practices Methods and practices on Promote best practices of local harvesting, drying and storage technologies
6. Food processing and Local drying and dehydration Adaptation of appropriate technologies preservation /SALT preservation etc.
Restoration through enrichment of 7. Eco system management Interactions within and among village eco system Multiple benefits components Participatory forest / resources management 45
Annex 4 Key Components for a National Strategy for Incorporating Traditional Knowledge Sector Specific Cross - Sectoral Component Traditional Development Traditional Development Knowledge Practices Knowledge Practices 8. Farm residue Recycling Promote recycling (natural) processes Eco system management and pollution management control
9. Collective engagement
10. Units in the related TK practices in labour sharing Address present day problems through Ministries for follow up TK e.g. Labour shortage Concentration on areas of comparative advantage e.g. Wood Apple ‘ Water conservation through crops- 60 day rice varieties
Health Sector
1. Policy framework for Multidisciplinary approach and Health care system in Ayurveda to be Policy declaration integration of TK Community oriented family developed to be on par with western Communication to stake operationalized medicine practices system holders Promote / establish an effective Resources information /education and Revise academic curricula communication system to incorporate sustainable use of resources Interface with main stream of development Integrate village level stakeholders (healers/practitioners) into the system
2. Positive health promoting Holistic approaches to patient Mainstream community based practices Legal provisions system established at care on natural resource management Financial provisions community level Promoting non formal education 3. Traditional healing Therapies for specified (Gurukula Education) based on TK Enhance the process disease state and conditions formal (school/university education (NIE/UGC)
4. Effective communication Traditional practices on child To revive and promote indigenous Promote regional /Global
46
Annex 4 Key Components for a National Strategy for Incorporating Traditional Knowledge Sector Specific Cross - Sectoral Component Traditional Development Traditional Development Knowledge Practices Knowledge Practices system established and care, ante-natal prenatal care system of medicine at village level networking to promote operationalized traditional practice Web site Home remedies Promote human resource development and research and development system Promote commercial 5. Capacity building process Stewardship of health approaches and institutionalized Enhance traditional primary health care marketing strategies to Cultural practices related to practices ensure investments 6. Cost effective resource health /financial stability utilization for traditional Integration with existing heath infra health care ensured Conservation of traditional structure network Address issues relating to resources Promote HRD and Research and benefit sharing of 7. Resources for development system traditional knowledge implementing TK related Sustainable use of natural activities made available resources Identify / document/enhance /integrate existing healthy cultural practices Address intellectual 8. Marketing strategies to Identify /document /enhance /promote property rights issues to ensure intellectual Traditional products and existing healthy food/nutrition practices ensure benefits to primary property rights formulated technology stakeholders and implemented Research on basic sources of Ayurveda Methods of transfer of Facilitate capacity building knowledge of related agencies Utilize print and electronic Safeguard the Intellectual media to \communicate Property Rights relating to traditional systems indigenous knowledge Conservation of medicinal Sources of knowledge plants through department of Agriculture Water and Irrigation
1. Rainfall Ability to predict seasonal Timely cultivation Astrology /rituals Harmonize Academic rainfall Selection of crops Cropping calendar calendar and cropping calendar Promote rainwater harvesting 2. Protection of watersheds Sanctity attached to Cascade based development Land use Zoning for Redefine regions based Reforestation of upper watersheds conservation on river basins watersheds Bio-diversity and ecology should be incorporated
3. Irrigation and water Optimum adaptation to nature Research for deeper understanding of Water and health Consider TK principles in supply systems kidney treatment new project design and Water purification through Study cascade systems in relation to water policy 47
Annex 4 Key Components for a National Strategy for Incorporating Traditional Knowledge Sector Specific Cross - Sectoral Component Traditional Development Traditional Development Knowledge Practices Knowledge Practices traditional methods groups of larger reservoirs and channels Apply Kondivaltavan spirit and principles 4. Water management Revive self sustaining Economical Reintroduce positive traditional practices such as management of elements of Rajakariya the Muttimangalya water (Parackramabahu 5. TK water Revival of traditional Philosophy) management in management systems Jaffna Bethma Thattumaru Velvidane 6. Water quality Irrigation systems designs had Use purified tank water for built drinking water supply
7. Hydraulics for Water fountains and In designing buildings , housing Use traditional Hydraulics environment landscaping etc. for enriching / schemes and large building complexes for urban planning and enhancement –e.g. cooling environment tourism (eco tourism) Sigiriya, Ranmasu Uyana
8. Conservation of Dry sowing of paddy Groundwater use should be appropriate Local expansion of water or improving and sustainable Kekulam cultivation irrigation efficiency Research and extension Appreciation of TK contribution by policy makers , planners and media
Policy and Legal Aspects
1. Natural resources Sustainable harvesting Sustainable use of resources Community based As an alternative to Inclusive of legal aspects especially fishing, forestry and Restricted area zone resource command and control with special reference to sustainable Chena practices Recognition of practice under irrigation management More participatory village information at Justice Prohibited forests – Social ordinance as Regulations practices based activities /initiatives Amarasinghe and Justice sanctions Recognition of the loss of resources etc. Traditional systems Present drive on good Weeramanthri centres Common property practices- due to development of governance and governance social sanctions accountability (e.g. decentralization) Traditional practices in water Guardianship of Supreme court management resources determination Recognition of opportunity Tradition/culture that Legal precedence that 48
Annex 4 Key Components for a National Strategy for Incorporating Traditional Knowledge Sector Specific Cross - Sectoral Component Traditional Development Traditional Development Knowledge Practices Knowledge Practices cost in traditional systems non-human living resources animals, trees, beings have have rights rights/spirit
Equitable cultivation practices- Modern water/resource allocation Customary law Allow greater village level bethma practice relating to autonomy and governing society, resource more towards concept of management, village level self harvesting, equity sufficiency (community etc. ownership)
2. Social justice Village based administration of Incorporation into modern justice system Customary law Allow greater village level justice for offences (at village level) practice relating to autonomy and governing Minor disputes society ,resource more towards concept of management , village level self harvesting , equity sufficiency (community etc. ownership) 3. Thesawalame, Kandyan Land Rights Law reforms law and Muslim Law Marriage rights Avoid discriminatory practices 4. Intellectual property rights Teacher selects pupil Study, examine and protections Rules (norms) of transmission Guru Kula system Rules for use
49
Annex 5 Action Plan (for five years) Main Activity per Output /Sub Time frame Indication of Completion Responsibilities for Remarks/Not Output Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 of Activity Initiating Collaborati es Action on 1.0 Policy & legal framework for incorporating TK practices in place 1.1 A working definition of TK Document containing agreed upon working definition 1.1.1 Establish and facilitate Participation and minutes meetings of a voluntary of working group group for discussion 1.1.2 Formulate a draft working Draft definition definition 1.1.3 Organize short consultation Documented results of meetings for feed back and consultation meetings elaboration 1.1.4 Finalise working definition Agreed upon working definition 1.2 Generic Policy on TK developed 1.2.1 Initiate dialogue among TK Participation in dialogue resource holders and institutions through National Regional Fora 1.2.2 Document main customary Document on customary norms and principles of TK norms and principles for incorporation in policy 1.2.3 Formulate generic policy Generic policy document based on consultation meetings with stakeholders 1.2.4 Obtain cabinet approval for Cabinet approval - official policy communication
1.3 Current policy related to relevant sectors reviewed and revised in the context of incorporating TK practices and gaps identified based on generic policy.
1.3.1 Identify relevant sectors for List of identified sectors policy review including irrigation and water management, agriculture and health. 1.3.2 Present policy to sectoral Participation list and Ministries / Agencies minutes of discussion 50
Main Activity per Output /Sub Time frame Indication of Completion Responsibilities for Remarks/Not Output Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 of Activity Initiating Collaborati es Action on 1.3.3 Review policies of relevant Document on gaps Co- Ministr sectors in the context of identified with relevant ordinating y of incorporating TK into sectors Committe Health development based on e (CC) Dept. Generic Policy and identify of gaps Ayurveda Ministr ies: Irrigation & Water Managem ent , agricultur e and others 1.3.4 Revise sectoral policies to Document containing CC address gaps sectoral gaps 1.3.5 Review and strengthen Updated document Office Water policies on Intellectual of the Heritage Property Rights (IPR) to IPR Foundation , safeguard genetic Ministr Agriculture resources and TK y of Museum at Justic Gannoruwa e as centres for promoting TK Policy on 1.3.6 Prepare guidelines for the Guidelines for the adoption CC sustainabl adoption of TK policy of TK policy e use of ground water (eg. Jaffna Peninsula) Policy revision on river basing developme nt Policy to promote village eco- systems
51
Main Activity per Output /Sub Time frame Indication of Completion Responsibilities for Remarks/Not Output Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 of Activity Initiating Collaborati es Action on
1.4 New legislation for recognising and protecting TK, including the constitutional recognition of TK and Sui-Generic Systems developed 1.4.1 Review existing laws in the context of agreed upon Review reports with Gaps policies in relation to incorporating TK into development and identify gaps 1.4.2 Prepare amendments and new legislation for Proposed new legislation incorporating TK in development 1.4.3 Get required laws enacted in The relevant act of the parliament parliament 1.4.4 Promote the adoption of Agencies adopting policy changes to policy and law 1.4.5 Legalize proposed forest CC Ministry of Legal policy on participatory Relevant legislation Environme consultancy management and nt and implementation Natural Resources 2.0 Information, communication & education strategy developed & operational 2.1 Information related to TK Practices in Irrigation and water management, agriculture and health sector, collected, documented and database developed
2.1.1 Review existing TK Review reports on TK CC Horticultur Research practices in relation to practices by sector e Institutes, irrigation and water Research Universities management, agriculture Institute and NGOs and health sectors Ministry of Could give Agricultur inputs from e their own experience Ministry of working with Health 52
Main Activity per Output /Sub Time frame Indication of Completion Responsibilities for Remarks/Not Output Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 of Activity Initiating Collaborati es Action on Ministry of communities Irrigation and Water Managem ent 2.1.2 Establish / Update Update databases with databases sectoral information 2.1.2 Formulation of an association of TK Registration of the CC Practitioner practitioners to collect and Association s collate information and Information databases documentation 2.1.3 Disseminate information and User records of Dept Medicinal enhance accessibility Databases . of Plant News letters,Manuals Ayur Project Leaflets veda Web sites Dept . of Seminars;Workshops Agri
cultu re 2.1.4 Collect record document and Database preserve information related Register to traditional medicine Resource map Library Museum Demonstrations
2.2 Education and training curricula reviewed and revised to incorporate TK in irrigation and water management, agriculture and health sectors 2.2.1 Revise existing university Revised curriculum Facult Ministry of curricular incorporating TK y Higher Boards education CC
53
Main Activity per Output /Sub Time frame Indication of Completion Responsibilities for Remarks/Not Output Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 of Activity Initiating Collaborati es Action on
Nation Ministr 2.2.2 Revise existing school Revised curriculum al y of curricula incorporating TK Institut Educa e of tion Educat ion CC 2.2.3 Link-up private sector Communication network NIT IIM Information agencies, Media operational M MPCP centres at organisations , GOs, NGOs MPCA level SLR NIE CTK and at BMARI exist 3.0 Priority Research programs in TK identified & implemented 3.1 Regions based on river basins defined (TK taken into account ) 3.1.1 Conduct studies Study reports CC Consult Outsource to ants Consultants Ministri es of Irrigation & Water Manage ment 3.1.2 Define regions based on Map of regions based on CC Ministri river basin studies river basins es of Agric. Min I/WM
3.2 Scientific validation of TK practices conducted Relevant Indigenou 3.2.1 Collection , documentation Study reports CC Line s/TK and scientific validation of TK Data bases Research Ministrie practices: on biological control Institutes s -Health Universiti /Depart - Irrigation es ments & Water Practitio Managem ners ent NGOs - Agriculture
54
Main Activity per Output /Sub Time frame Indication of Completion Responsibilities for Remarks/Not Output Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 of Activity Initiating Collaborati es Action on
Centres of Gender 3.2.2 Prioritise research areas Research Reports BMARI excellence sensitivity and determine modalities IIM Upgrade Universities NITM Best practices validated and field tested 3.2.3 Identify , contract and BMARI commission research/ Completed research Committe DOA, Line At National studies reports/results (published) e of Ministry /International excellenc level e Accommodat 3.2.4 Share research findings Seminars /exchange BMA DOA ed in line /enrich ongoing research programs RI Line ministries Cent Ministry action plans res Relevant of ministries exce Action/year llenc plans e 3.3 TK related comparative studies on farming systems and post harvest techniques, pollution control and bio-diversity conservation conducted CC Relevant 3.3.1 Soil fertility management Reports on Ministries post harvesting techniques comparative studies and food preservation, Institutes
3.2.2. Pollution control , bio- EIA reports CC Ministry of diversity conservation etc Environme nt and Natural Resources Number of entries NGOs 3.4 Collection, evaluation and Volume of resources CC Local multiplication of local DNA profile PGRC farmers genetic resources Ministry of conducted Environme nt and Natural 55
Main Activity per Output /Sub Time frame Indication of Completion Responsibilities for Remarks/Not Output Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 of Activity Initiating Collaborati es Action on Resources 3.5 Studies to identify positive aspects of Rajakariya System for reintroduction 6.0 Capacity of stakeholders for using existing TK enhanced 4.1 Capacity building programs implemented based on needs analysis 4.1.1 Identification of Institutions Data Base GOs and their TK capacities CC NGOs 4.1.2 Assess/ identify existing Proposed Line Accommodat human resource Needs /capacity agency Ministries: ed in line developmetn needs assessment reports for TK DOA ministries (CC) Health action plans:
MI&W
M
Other releva nt Line Capacity building /training Proposed Ministries: plan Agency DOA for TK Health 4.1.3 Prepare a capacity building (CC) plan (HRD/ Institutional MI&WM Development Plan Other relevant Ministrie s
4.1.4 Generate resources Line Community and implement Human Workshops / Monitoring Proposed Ministrie oriented Resource Development and evaluation reports Agency s: family / Institutional for DOA medical development plan TK(CC) Health practices accommodat MI&WM ed in the Other content relevant 4.1.5 Strengthening training Recogni Health capacities of institutions on Institutions covered CC sed Ministry updated information practition DOA
ers MI&WM Relevant Other Ministrie relevant s 56
Main Activity per Output /Sub Time frame Indication of Completion Responsibilities for Remarks/Not Output Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 of Activity Initiating Collaborati es Action on
4.1.6 Training on integrated farming systems Number of farmers trained CC Recognised volume of expertise practitioner s 4.1.7 Generate participation /partnership among relevant Partnership agreements Proposed DOA institutions through micro /Micro plans Agency Line plans for TK Ministry 4.1.8 Enhance entrepreneurial Number of community capabilities of community based productions / Proposed DOA based organizations organised Agency Line groups/community funds for TK Ministry established Min. Pilot project Number of trained acolytes Proposed in progress 4.2 Gurukula Education System Health Agency involving 25 reviewed and promoted BMRI for TK acolytes (CC) 5.0 Institutional mechanism for incorporating / mainstreaming TK established & operational 5.1 Presentation of the report to Chairman the NASTEC governing body Commission minutes NASTEC
5.2 Convene a meeting of NASTEC relevant Secretaries Notes of the meeting NASTEC Relevant 5.3 Appointing members to the Appointment letters Ministries Steering Committee 5.4 Draft TOR and set up sub Steering Relevant committees and other cells TOR of Sub Committees Committe Ministries e /Agencies 5.5 Prepare Annual Action Plans Annual plans Steering Relevant Committe Min/Agenci e es
Steering Relevant 5.6 Establish focal points Progress reports Committe Ministries e /Sub /Agencies Committe e
57
Main Activity per Output /Sub Time frame Indication of Completion Responsibilities for Remarks/Not Output Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 of Activity Initiating Collaborati es Action on
Steering Relevant 5.8 Network at grass root level Commission minutes Committe Ministries e /Sub /Agencies Committe e Monitoring and evaluation Secretari
reports at at 5.9 Progress monitoring NASTEC Steering Relevant
Workshop reports Committe Ministries/ 5. 10 Annual review workshop e Agencies
58
Annex 6
Papers Presented
59 DEVELOPMENT OF A NATIONAL STRATEGY FOR INCORPORATING TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
INTO DEVELOPMENT PRACTICES
Harnessing ‘Best Practices of Indigenous Knowledge in Agriculture’ for Development Practices in Sri Lanka. Dr Keerthi Mohotti Tea Research Institute St. Coombs, Talawakele, SRI LANKA
Summary Indigenous knowledge (IK) is a significant source of wealth of a country, which could contribute to the increased efficiency, effectiveness and sustainability of the development process to assure food security, human and animal health, education, biodiversity and natural resource management.
The study identified a considerable capacity of indigenous information, practices and technologies, beliefs, tools, materials, experimentation, biological and human resources, education, communication and institutions capable of contributing to the development of Sri Lanka as compared to other countries rich in IK.
An overview of the present exercise describes some of the best practices of IK under Sri Lankan context that demonstrates a value addition as well as some of the achievements and the challenges ahead towards the economic and social development of the country. The paper concludes that effective harnessing of IK shall uplift economic gains through the new niche markets for IK based agricultural produce both locally and internationally as well as bio prospecting of IK technologies and practices in legal terms. It could also empower local communities and improve the effectiveness in poverty reduction in Sri Lanka.
Dr Keerthi Mohotti is a Senior Research Officer attached to the Tea Research Institute of Sri Lanka. The views expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author and should not be attributed in any manner to the Institute affiliated or to the members of the resource persons coordinated by IUCN and NASTEC, Sri Lanka. Correspondence and any requests for materials should be addressed to Tea Research Institute, Talawakele 22100. Email: [email protected]
60 1. Introduction 1.1 Indigenous Knowledge Indigenous knowledge (IK) is the local Box 1 Definition of Indigenous Knowledge knowledge that is unique to a given Indigenous Knowledge is the local knowledge knowledge culture or society, which is embedded in that is unique to a given culture or society and also known as the community (Box 1). IK has been ‘local knowledge’, traditional (indigenous) knowledge (TIK), identified as one of the local-level traditional (ecological) knowledge (TEK), and community decision making tools in many aspects in knowledge. rural communities such as agriculture, Therefore, the term IK refers to the large body of knowledge human and animal health care, food and skills (Indigenous Knowledge Systems and preparation and security, education, Practices/IKSP, Indigenous Technological Knowledge/ITK) institutional management, natural that has been developed to enable communities to survive. resource management and social and IK is often contrasted with the "scientific", "western", cultural activities etc. in rural "international", or "modern" knowledge system generated by communities (Box 2). universities, research institutions and private firms using a It is encouraging to observe that, over formal scientific approach. IK is developed and adapted the past ten years, there has been a continuously to gradually changing environments and passed dramatic increase in the interest by down from generation to generation and closely interwoven academia and the development with people’s cultural values. institutions in the role of IK on
Box 2 Characteristics of Indigenous Knowledge participatory approaches and possible exploitation IK and harnessing of IK based systems and practices to is generated within communities sustainable development 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 14, 19, 20, 21, 33, 36, 39, is location and culture specific 40, 41, 46. is part of the local ecosystem Nevertheless, many IK systems are known to be at covers: human and animal life, primary the risk of extinction due to the fact that the rapidly production, natural resource management changing natural environments and fast pacing (basic needs) economic, political, and cultural changes and is cost-effective, sustainable and locally intrusion of foreign technologies or development manageable concepts on a global scale 43, 44, 45. As is dynamic, innovative, adaptive and open consequences, implications and detrimental effects for experimentation on skills, technologies and expertise of the is oral and rural in nature and communities will be lost. Although the promise of is not systematically documented. short-term gains or solutions to problems is fulfilled, the sustainability of the system is questionable 27.
1.2 Types of indigenous knowledge in agriculture IK is vast and much more than mere technologies and practices in the agriculture sector; it includes the following. 1. Information 2. Practices and technologies Box 3 Green food Agriculture 3. Beliefs Green food is a general term for contamination- 4. Tools free, safe, high-quality and nourishing food. It is 5. Materials produced under the principle of sustainable 6. Experimentation development in accordance with particular 7. Biological resources producing procedure and is granted the 8. Human resources permission of using green food logo by an 9. Education authoritative Institution.
61 10. Communication
Box 4 Organic Agriculture Organic farming is defined as a system of managing agricultural holdings that uses a variety of more environmentally friendly crop farming practices and involves major restrictions on the use of fertilizers and pesticides. Therefore, the concept of organic agriculture discourages total use of synthetic agro-inputs needed for maintaining productivity and fertility of soil and pest management and instead, promotes maximum use of organic materials such as bio-composts, crop residues, animal excreta, on- and off- farm organic wastes and bio-pesticides, etc. In this respect, it is a comprehensive and appropriate management approach integrating several organic recycling processes, indigenous knowledge systems and natural methods to achieve a sustainable system. The important feature is that the organic system is monitored as per basic standards specified by IFOAM (International Federation for Organic Agriculture Movement). This covers all aspects of production, processing and labeling of organic food ensuring high standards of human and animal welfare and environmental land management.
Traditional farming systems in the developing countries exhibit two salient features both of which are obviously highly interrelated. They are (a) high degree of vegetation diversity (biodiversity) and (b) a complex system of indigenous technical knowledge (ethnoscience).
The benefits of biodiversity and ethno-science 3, 5, 40 in the implementation of rural development projects and the potential exploitation of such applications in agriculture 23, 26, 27, 36 are very well understood (Box 3, Box 4 and Box 5).
Box 5 Biodynamic Agriculture Biodynamics is a science of life-forces, a recognition of the basic principles at work in nature, and an approach to agriculture which takes these principles into account to bring about balance and healing. In a very real way, then, Biodynamics is an ongoing path of knowledge rather than an assemblage of methods and techniques, which could be exploited for agricultural production as a nature farming method.
The Biodynamic movement originated in 1924 by the Austrian scientist and philosopher, Dr. Rudolf Steiner. Biodynamics is part of the work of Rudolf Steiner, known as anthroposophy a new approach to science which integrates precise observation of natural phenomena, clear thinking, and knowledge of the spirit. It offers an account of the spiritual history of the Earth as a living being, and describes the evolution of the constitution of humanity and the kingdoms of nature
1.3 Scientific validation of IK Although IK has proven its validity over centuries, there are areas where scientific validation may be required prior to sharing of such best (good) practices of IK beyond the original context and location 16, 22, 38, 47.
62 1.4 Best practices of IK Knowledge and experiences on traditional practices and technologies are scattered all over. Also, our wisdom is lost in information and we have forgotten the results of the old experiences and practices of our forefathers. Exposure of IK technologies and practices for scientific validation is therefore of vital importance for better utilization of the appropriate cases in agriculture, soil, water and nutrient management, crop protection and conservation and exploitation of biodiversity etc. in the development process (Box 3).
IK could also provide opportunities for designing Box 6: Indigenous knowledge and development projects that emerge from priority problems development identified within a community, and which build upon and Indigenous knowledge is an integral part of strengthen community-level knowledge systems and the culture and history of a local community. organizations. In the emerging global knowledge We need to learn from local communities to economy a country’s ability to build and mobilize enrich the development process. knowledge capital, is equally essential for sustainable Source: James D. Wolfensohn, President of development as the availability of physical and financial the World Bank capital 36, 37. Therefore indigenous knowledge of any country is of its basic component knowledge system (Box 6).
In this respect, an agriculture based country like ours, it is apparent therefore that (a) Documenting identified traditional knowledge practices on agriculture and related aspects such as conservation of biodiversity and natural resource management and (b) Incorporating and integrating best practices of traditional knowledge practices towards strengthening the development process and thereby empower poverty of the subsistence farmers in the country will create future attention 36.
1.5 Documentation of IK The documentation of information of IK is important. For clarity, documentation on IK uses should be carried out identifying the a) Indigenous people, b) Indigenous methods and c) Institutions to help benefit relevant Institutions and government agencies to work on conservation of biological diversity in respect of ‘Intellectual Property Rights’ (IPRs) while creating motivation and interest among farming community in conservation and proper utilization of best practices of IK methods for sustainable development in the country 16, 17, 30.
A database on best practices of IK is being maintained in cooperation with UNESCO as part of its MOST (Management of Social Transformations) programme 19, 20, 21.
1.6 New market opportunities for alternate agricultural produce The most sustainable agricultural management practices evolved in the different agro-ecological regions have been transmitting since ancient civilization until such time the erosion of indigenous practices and knowledge systems in agriculture started to occur with the green revolution commenced in the 1960s. Though the modern agriculture seems to be technically sound, its not sustainable as with ancient utilization methodologies.
Scientists have moved towards extreme development levels in agriculture such as high tech agricultural methods, gene manipulations and high efficacy agro-chemicals etc. Nevertheless, agriculturists now experience some evidences of degradation and depletion of natural resources, which seriously affect the sustainability of the whole gamete of agriculture (Box 3).
63 Despite mounting media attention to a wide range of issues such as disease, contaminations, environmental Box 7 The natural and organic foods run off, pesticide /antibiotic residues and GMOs, the marketplace most important factors motivating entry into the natural Organic, all-natural, additive / preservative- /organic marketplace are suffering from specific health free, non-GMO, free-range, and even kosher. conditions such as allergies and having children (Box Whatever you call these foods, they are 7). A food category growth rate of 8-10% for combined enjoying record-breaking sales as consumers natural/organic produce is expected while a marked demand cleaner, purer, safer, fresher, and contrast to the 2-3% for the traditional food industry 8, 9, more ‘close to nature’ foods. And along with 27, 28, 35, 36, 41. fortified and functional foods, they’ll represent one of the strongest and most sustainable Although the European food habits implicated on our health-driven markets worldwide for decades traditional food and farming systems seriously, to come. traditional food plants are now important due to several reasons namely, food security, nutritional aspects, IK for sustainable agriculture and Intellectual Property Rights and future of agriculture 26, 28, 43, 45.
2. Methodololgy:
In order to compile the contents in this paper, the following methodology was adopted. a) Collection and documentation of literature, write up materials on IK, b) Exploration of information for identification of IK uses, technologies and practices under different agricultural sectors, c) Identification of best practices of IK technologies and practices where scientific evidences or proofs and/or validation could be quoted as case studies and d) Screening effective means of exploitation of best practices of IK methods suitable for today’s development in Sri Lanka.
Therefore, the paper reflects a compilation of collected information, evidences and literature on best practices of IK systems and practices that have been proved to contribute to the survival and sustainability of the agriculture sector in Sri Lanka.
3. Case studies on current use and best practices of IK in agriculture in Sri Lanka
3.1 Historical background and use of IK in Sri Lankan agriculture Despite Sri Lanka’s small size (6.56 million hectares), the country has a rich biodiversity of living organisms, genetic, species and ecosystems distributed in a varied climate, topography and soil.
The recorded history of Sri Lanka since 534 BC runs through influences by Indo-Aryans, Portuguese, Dutch, British dominants and indigenous civilizations to date 30. The self-oriented development and sustainability in the country existed for many years have been attributed to the practice of accumulated knowledge especially in hydrology, agriculture, engineering and culture. However, there has been a significant change in social and cultural capacity of the rural population (approximately 80% of the country’s population) since 1833 with the intervention of the Colbrook Commission during British period. This in turn affected the rural community participation and in the long run, collapsed the traditional rural agricultural sector 79.
Information available on IK reveals in general, that all traditional methods are aimed at conservative nature farming principles, community development and sustainable use of biodiversity in the farming system 16, 17. However, variations in the degree of indigenousness and the success of the different
64 methods have been noted among the custodians of the methods (farmers), locality (agro-ecological region), crop situation, season and the systematic practice and rules pertaining to the method 16, 17.
A rich genetic biodiversity in Sri Lanka was reflected having records of over 500 traditional crop varieties (Annex 1) belonging to different categories namely paddy (135), grains (31), pulses (73), vegetables (89), leafy vegetables (37), banana and plantains (54), fruits (62), yams (73) and spices (22). Around 400 medicinal plants used for Ayurvedic and indigenous medicinal treatments and practices have also been noted (Table 1). Information on over 100 systems of Kem and rituals practiced in the traditional agriculture in various parts of the country (Annex 1) are recorded in an outcome of a survey conducted among traditional farmers in 21 districts across the country, which is one of the systematic and informative studies conducted.
The study restricted exploration of the North and the East of Sri Lanka and does not reflect the correct picture on IK usage in the country; the majority represented elderly people of males, Sinhalese and Buddhists.
According to the farmers, the quality and the taste of the produce from high IK systems tended to be better with increasing level of indigenousness. Also, a striking difference in hardiness of crops grown under high IK as compared to modern agriculture was noted. The yield has been always greater in modern agricultural section resulting high monetary incomes but did not result in higher profits due to high cost of external inputs.
The records reveals that some of the labor-intensive agricultural activities such as land preparation, planting, weeding, and harvesting of paddy, hill-slope agriculture etc. have been performed even in the absence of machinery through practice of informal mutual help group systems (Aththam) etc. prominent in the rural areas of Sri Lanka. Absence of mutual help in the communities today, has reflected in labor scarcity, which is a menace in the whole agricultural sector with an exception in the plantation sector. Yet the sociologists are studying possibilities in employing mutual help group systems in the plantation sector.
It is evident that the Sri Lankan civilization has sustained for many generations over many millennia. The people’s judicious indigenous practices and effective natural resource management have been attributed to the success of food security in the country in particular, which lead to recognize then ‘Ceylon’ famously as the ‘Peradiga Dhanyagaraya’. Also, it is recorded that rice has been exported from Sri Lanka during King Parakramabahu’s era (12 AC). The high productivity of agriculture and lands in the country has been documented in 17AC 30.
65 Table 1 Present evidence of indigenous knowledge practices in agriculture in Sri Lanka. Component Description of IK Uses Reference Paddy a, b, c 16, 17 Vegetables a, b, c 16, 17 Fruits c 16, 17 Tea Local gods, a 77 Coffee a 31, 32 Rubber Local gods Personnel comm. Coconut a, b Personnel comm. Spices c 17 Floriculture None Mushrooms a, c 25 Kitul b 87 Landscaping None Home Gardening a, b, c 17 Bee keeping b 85 Agro Forestry a 17, 88 Medicinal Plants c 4, 17 Dairy a, b, c 4 Poultry a, b, c 4 Fisheries a 29, 34 Teak a 12 Fodder and pasture management a 17 Moisture conservation a, c 15 Nutrient management a, c 17 Farm machinery a 17, 80 Post harvest care b 17, 92 Diagnosis and control of pest and b 17 diseases Weather forecasting b 1,2 Waste management and pollution a, b 16, 17 control a: Traditional farming systems and practices b: Kem and rituals c: Traditional seeds
The eventual cessation of the use of IK in the country could be attributed to the following. They are a) alternate job opportunities available under the developed and westernized culture, b) out migration of rural communities for education, employment and business etc., c) free education and development of open economy system and d) advertisements in the media.
This has lead to create a backward movement in the production of traditional food materials 91.
3.2 Institutions working on IK in agriculture in Sri Lanka The study identified a reasonable number of governmental and non-governmental institutions working on documentation, research and extension activities on IK in agriculture towards sustainable development in rural communities. Annex 2 shows the geographic distribution of such institutions in Sri Lanka.
66 3.3 Lessons on IK uses in agriculture in Sri Lanka It is a known fact that the impact of IK systems on potential development in a geographic area could be gauged by a few examples of what IK has already contributed. In this context, a few lessons are presented on the basis of scientific validation as best practices of IK those were evident in paddy, home gardens and the plantation sector.
3.3.1 Paddy: 1. Profound benefits in cost effectiveness, weed management, improvement of soil biomass with comparable yields in the paddy fields have been experienced where ‘Nava Kekulama’ a refined ecological farming system with technological developments is practiced (personnel communication, Prof. J. M. R. S. Bandara of University of Peradeniya). This could be considered as a successful attempt where improvements have been made to an existing IK practice in paddy cultivation 64. 2. PARABOWA (Paramparika Bhoga Waga Karuwange Sangamaya) dispatched two shipments of ‘ecological rice’ grown as per organic agricultural standards in Lunuwila area. Rice was exported to the Europe and gained foreign exchange, which has been mutually shared by the farmer group (personnel communication, Dr. Sarath Ranaweera of Kandy). 3. Kem methods in pest control consist of all three phenomena in pest control strategies modern agriculture viz. biological, chemical and mechanical methods. The Kem methods cause either no or less environmental pollution due the fact that these methods are not based on utilization of non-renewable energy sources 67. 4. Kem methods for weed control in paddy are not evident. It was attributed to the height of traditional paddy varieties, which competed with weeds in turn the weed has not being a problem 67. 5. Effects of a local plant material, ‘Kalawel’ (Diospyros affinin) on nematode management in paddy fields have been recorded which was proved under laboratory conditions by the author. Fish anesthetic properties of the same plant materials have been experimented too 29. 6. A locally improved, traditional rice variety, ‘Lanka Samurdhi’ as a quality equivalent to Imported ‘Bhasmathi’ has been evolved by the Rice Research and Development Institute 90. This shows the potentials in comparable yield levels and market potentials for the benefit of the farmers. This is one example where utilization of best practices among the IK uses under local conditions. 7. Rural traditional agriculture in Sri Lanka in par with other countries in the region could be fortified with mechanization for better utilization of natural resources including the limited cultivable lands 80. 8. Incorporation of various methods including novel materials to traditional methods in storage and preservation of grains and pulses has been experimented 92.
3.3.2 Plantation sector: 1. Haldummulla Organic Tea Project, which was commenced in 1987, is being functioning as per IFOAM as well as Bio dynamic standards and being certified by IFOAM accredited inspection agencies. The project fetches premium prices for organically grown and biodynamic tea in the international markets. More over, fair trade labeling of the produce reserves a considerable amount of money for welfare facilities of the workers group. In addition, the rural villagers in Dambadeniya area are benefited through supply of natural packing materials made out of ‘Ola leaf’ for the Haldummulla Organic Tea (personnel communication, Mr. Zaki Alif of Stassens Natural Foods in Colombo). 2. Although, significant yield responses in tea due to practice of biodynamic agriculture have not been evident in the estate (Figure 1), in closely monitored experimental plots, a yield increase
67 of 15-20% has been noted (personnel communication, Dr. A. Anandacoomaraswamy of The Tea Research Institute).
600 5000 )
-1 4500 500 4000
400 3500 3000 Yield 300 2500 Rainfall 2000 200 1500
100 1000 (mm) rainfall Total 500 Yield made (kg tea year 0 0 2 6 89 93 97 00 994 998 1988 19 1990 1991 199 19 1 1995 199 19 1 1999 20 Organic Agriculture Bio dynamic Agriculture
Figure 1. Recorded yields and rainfall pattern of Haldummulla organic tea project (by courtesy of Stassens Natural Foods).
3. Slant planting of young tea in fields (at a degree of 50-55% from surface) is being adopted by a Buddhist priest in Kithulgala area. This method has been identified as oppose to the conventional method of training young tea plants recommended by TRI and having comparative benefits in terms of minimal damages to the plant, improved vigor, better coverage leading to control of soil erosion and weed and greater productivity etc.77. 4. Dipping tea cuttings in a Sugar solution as alternatives to rooting hormone has been found effective in initiation of callus formation by the author. The IK method was evident among some tea small holders in Kotmale area. Upon further testing, this could probably be employed as a non-chemical and cost effective method in the tea industry. 5. In order to break the seed coat, soaking tea seeds for two days and allow to be split under morning sun has been practiced. Author’s experience is that this method is superior since there is no mechanical damage to the embryo and has greater germination percentage. 6. Crop-livestock farming system in coconut lands with a pair of buffalo advocated for many years has shown a fertilizer supplementation to the crop and the Coconut Research Institute has made it an official recommendation.
3.3.3 Home gardens: The benefits of traditional homestead gardens probably Kandyan Forest Gardens (KFGs) in the mid and up country areas in terms of soil erosion aspects have been studied 88. KFGs have been shown promise towards food security of the rural 17.
In view of conservation of IK in relation to Kitul industry, promotion of exports of various Kitul produce and dissemination of knowledge among the youths for initiation of self-employment opportunities have been recommended 87. Personnel observations reveal that many farmer groups in the central province gain economic benefits through exports of Kitul produce to the Europe. This exhibits exploitation of natural resources and IK for betterment of the rural.
68 3.4 Milestones of IK development processes in Sri Lanka: . 1994: First National Workshop on IK and Sustainable Development was organized by SLARCIK (Sri Lanka Resource Center for Indigenous Knowledge) where 23 presentations were made quoting 121 agriculture related references under the sessions farming systems, health and IK, natural resource management and indigenous technologies 42. . 1997: Network on ecological and sustainable farming systems initiated by helvetas Sri Lanka with mere intention of conserving plant genetic resources in Sri Lanka 17. . 1998: A collection of traditional knowledge uses having historical values is being exhibited in the agricultural museum inaugurated (in commemoration of the 50th independence celebrations) at HORDI, Gannoruwa for passing the local know how to the younger generations 81. . 1998: Series of six publications on IK in Sri Lanka were released by HARTI. Mr. Pandula Endagam’s attempts in compiling the publications on (a) ‘Bibliography on traditional agriculture of Sri Lanka’ comprising of 782 IK related references and (b) ‘Traditional agriculture of Sri Lanka’ a collection of important 12 articles on IK received much attention 81. . 1999: Compas network was set up comprising of four non-governmental organizations to learn experience and train field staff for disseminating and promoting IK systems among organic farmers and to test IK and understand endogenous development in Sri Lanka 16. . 2001: Development of a data base on IK and organic farming in Sri Lanka at CARP (Council for Agricultural Research Policy) in collaboration with the Tea Research Institute . 2001: Launching of the book “Gemi Govi Divi Siri” written by two practical farmers who have been using IK farming methods and practices in the Kandy district. ‘Organic farming in principle respects IK practices in view of achieving a sustainable farming system’, which has been mentioned by Mr. Ranjith de Silva, the team leader of the publishers (Gemi Seva Sevana Ltd., Galaha) 63. . 2001: Launching of the book “Sustainable farming systems through traditional plant genetic resources and indigenous knowledge based practices’ as an out come of a survey conducted in 21 districts in Sri Lanka with contact details of IK users and quoting 14 references by helvetas Sri Lanka 17. . 2001: Nature Farming Research and Demonstration Area at the Tea Research Institute, Talawakele for demonstration, bio prospecting and scientific validation of IK systems and uses in agriculture. . 2001: Workshop on ‘formulating national policies on usage, sharing and conservation of IK systems in Sri Lanka’ organized by SLARCIK with 8 presentations 69. . 2002: Exports of ecological Rice by PARABOWA. . 2002: The 15th year world celebrations on organic tea production were organized by the pioneering organic tea producer in the world (Haldummulla Organic Tea Project). . 1986: In service training course of veterinary surgeons in traditional (indigenous) veterinary medicine organized at the Veterinary Research Institute, Peradeniya leading to a compilation of locally available veterinary drugs 4.
69 4. Conclusion In order to help integrate IK into the development process, steps could be taken to further assist local communities and institutions as well as activate the international IK network of persons and institutions (Indigenous Knowledge Resource Centres). In this respect, co-operation with astrologists, shamans, religious leaders and scientists in the process of testing, evaluating and improving ‘best practices’ of IK would shed more light on the possibilities on measuring the effectiveness of the indigenous practices in agriculture. In achieving the targets, the field staff should receive training on collecting accurate qualitative data in view of validating results scientifically and statistically. Facilitation and strengthening of IK Programs in Sri Lanka could be achieved through approaches like community-to-community exchanges (C2C).
Acknowledgements The author is indebted to CARP for providing necessary facilities to develop the data-base on IK use in Sri Lanka. In the preparation of this manuscript, the assistance given by M/s. Chandra Padmini, Deepthi Molligoda, Avanthi Abeykoon, Kumari Kiribathgoda and Mr. Priyantha is acknowledged. Information provided by farmers and personnel of various institutions are also thanked. Mr. Jayadeva of Sena Studio, Ragama who took the photograph during author’s childhood (year 1977) is gratefully mentioned.
70 5. Bibliography 1. Abhayasinghe Bandara, K. R. (1999). Ancient Knowledge in Meteorology. Vidurava, 19 (1), 25-29. 2. Alles W.S. and Ratnasili Ratnayake (1973). Raining on Poya Days. Proc. Annual Session of SLAAS, Part 1, Vol.29, 61. 3. Altieri, M. A. (1993). Ethnoscience and biodiversity: key elements in the design of sustainable pest management systems for small farmers in developing countries, Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 46: 257-272. 4. Anjaria, J. V. (1986). Recent trends in the use of traditional (indigenous) veterinary drugs in animal health and production, Papers presented at inservice training course of veterinary surgeons in traditional (indigenous) veterinary medicine, October 1986 at Veterinary Research Institute, Gannoruwa, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. 5. Anon. (). Indigenous Knowledge and biodiversity, Harvesting Nature’s Biodiversity, 4-6. 6. Anon. (2000). Sustainable use. Report of the South and Southern Asian Regional Session of the Global Biodiversity Forum held in Colombo, Sri Lanka in 1999, 23-30. 7. Anon. (2002a). Funding gives green light: new home for Rural History Centre, Reading: reading, Spring 2002, Issue 32, 18-21. 8. Anon. (2002b). Proceedings of the Asia-Pacific workshop cum field training on green food and sustainable agriculture, 25-29 June 2002, Xi’an, China, 231pp. 9. Anon. (2002c). Quick scan on environmental, social and health issues: Selected food products, including food ingredients, A trade-related orientation relevant to exporters to the European Union, Centre for the Promotion of Imports from developing countries, The Netherlands, 54pp. 10. Bentiles, R. (1999). Indigenous knowledge, Proceedings of the Fourth IFOAM asia 99 Scientific Conference and General Assembly, Tagaytay, Philippines, 18-21 November, 1999, 124-127. 11. Bunders, J., Haverkort, B. and Hiemstra, W. (1996). BIOTECHNOLOGY, Building on farmers knowledge, Macmillan Education Ltd, London, 240pp. 12. Connelly, S. and Wilson, N. J. (1992). Farmers experiments in teak germination in Sri Lanka. Report of the second PTD workshop, Kandy, Sri Lanka by Veldhuizen and Zeeuw Vol. 4.2:28-29. 13. Endagama, P. (1998). Traditional agriculture of Sri Lanka, The Hector Kobbakaduwa Agrarian Research and Training Institute publication, 105pp. 14. Ghimire, M. (1999). Indigenous knowledge and Agriculture experiences From the Nepalese perspective, Proceedings of the Fourth IFOAM asia 99 Scientific Conference and General Assembly, Tagaytay, Philippines, 18-21 November, 1999, 119-123. 15. Goonasekere, K. and Gamage, H. (1999). Some indigenous technology knowledge and practices for watershed management in Sri Lanka, PWMTA Field Document No. 18, 63pp. 16. Handawela, J. (2001). Towards a methodology to test indigenous knowledge, COMPAS Magazine, No. 4, March 2001, 44-46. 17. helvetas Sri Lanka (2001). Sustainable farming systems through traditional plant genetic resources and indigenous knowledge based practices, 127pp. 18. Herath, H. M. D. R. (1996). Traditional Rituals and Resource Management Practices in the North Central Province of Sri Lanka: Sociological Aspects of “Muthumangallaya”. Proceedings of the First National Symposium n Indigenous Knowledge and Sustainable Development, Colombo, March 1994,73-78. 19. http://www.nuffic.nl/ik-pages 20. http://www.panasia.org.sg/iirr/ikmanual/ik.htm 21. http://www.unesco.org/most/bpikreg.htm
71 22. Hui-lian Xu (2001). Scientific Proofs of Nature Farming Philosophy, Proceedings of the 5th IFOAM-asia Scientific Conference, Hangzhou, China, 31 October– 4 November, 2001, 138-141. 23. Jayakody, A. N. (2001). Organic Farming in Sri Lanka: Past, Present and Future, Proceedings of the 5th IFOAM-asia Scientific Conference, Hangzhou, China, 31 October– 4 November, 2001, 6-13. 24. Jayatileke, T. N. (1996). Indigenous Animal Health Practices in Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the First National Symposium on Indigenous Knowledge and Sustainable Development, Colombo, March 1994, 59-65. 25. Manjula Priyantha, H. U. K. (2001). ‘JUNCAO’ technology as an alternative to traditional method of oyster mushroom cultivation in Sri Lanka. Final year thesis, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ruhuna, Matara, Sri Lanka, pp. 26. Mohotti, K. M. (2001). Bio Prospecting of Organic Farmlands – Evidence from Sri Lankan Organic Tea Soils. Proceedings of the 5th IFOAM-asia Scientific Conference, Hangzhou, China, 31 October– 4 November, 2001, 163-167. 27. Mohotti, K. M. and Mohotti, A. J. (2002). The feasibility of organic tea production: A preliminary examination. Proceedings of the 204th Experiments & Extension Forum, Tea Research Institute of Sri Lanka, February, 2002, 23-29. 28. Nicolas Gorjestani (2000). Indigenous Knowledge for Development: Opportunities and Challenges, Paper presented at the UNCTAD Conference on Traditional Knowledge in Geneva, November 1, 2000. 29. Ramanayaka, J. C. (2001). Fish anaesthetic properties of some local plant materials. Final year thesis, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ruhuna, Matara, Sri Lanka, pp. 30. Robert Knox (1681). A Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon, in the East Indies. Richard Chifwell Printers, London. 31. Seneviratne, M. A. P. K. (1999). Factors affecting sustainability of Coffee in the small holdings of Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the symposium on Agricultural extension services in the 21st century: Needs and Challenges, 15-18 May 1999, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh. 32. Seneviratne, M. A. P. K. and Shephard, D. D. (1998). Adoption of agronomic practices in Coffee: An evaluation of farmers perspectives, Tropical Agricultural Research, 10: 143- 156. 33. Singhania, P. K. (2001). Experiments & Experience in Biodynamic Agriculture Science 1982, Proceedings of the 5th IFOAM-asia Scientific Conference, Hangzhou, China, 31 October– 4 November, 2001, 205-210. 34. Siriweera, W. I. (1996). The Socio-Cultural Antecedents of Inland Fisheries in Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the First Symposium on Indigenous Knowledge and Sustainable Develpoment,. Colombo, 1994, 113-120. 35. Sloan, A. E. (2002). The natural and organic foods marketplace. Food Technology, 56 (1), 27-37. 36. Smith, R. T. (2002). Organic farming and marketing: An economic and environmental gain for Sri Lanka, Daily News, April 16, 2002, 17. 37. Smith, R. T. (2002). Organic farming: Sustainable earth and people, 2002 edition by R. T. Smith, 119pp. 38. Sumarjit Singh, M. (2001). Traditional Knowledge System for Management of Broad Bean in Manipur, Proceedings of the 5th IFOAM-asia Scientific Conference, Hangzhou, China, 31 October– 4 November, 2001, 190-193. 39. Thrupp, L. A. (1998). Cultivating Diversity, Agrobiodiversity and food security, world Resources Institute, Washington DC, 80pp.
72 40. Thun, M. (1990). WORK on the LAND and the CONSTELLATIONS, The Lanthorn Press, England, pp. 72. 41. Trewavas, A. (2001). Urban myths of organic farming, Nature, 410: 409-410. 42. Ulluwishewa, R. and Ranasinghe, H. (1996). Indigenous knowledge and sustainable development, Proceedings of the First National Symposium on Indigenous knowledge and sustainable development, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 19-20 March, 1996,120pp. 43. Vandana Shiva (1993). Biodiversity, A third world perspective, Third World Network, Malaysia, 29pp. 44. Vandana Shiva (1993). Monocultures of the mind, Perspectives on biodiversity and biotechnology, Third World Network, Malaysia, 184pp. 45. Vandana Shiva and Radha Holla-Bhar (1993). Intellectual Piracy and the Neem Patents, The Neem Campaign Publication, 102pp. 46. Vandana Shiva, Anderson, P., Schucking, H., Gray, A., Lohmann, L. and Cooper, D. (1995). Biodiversity, Social and ecological perspectives,World Rainforest Movement, Malaysia, 123pp. 47. Zoysa, M, D. (1997). Farmer instigated agricultural research in Sri Lanka (A study of four selected cases in Matara District, Sri Lanka), M Sc. Thesis, Wageningen Agricultural University, pp. .
73 DEVELOPMENT OF A NATIONAL STRATEGY FOR INCORPORATING TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
INTO DEVELOPMENT PRACTICES
Indigenous Knowledge Systems Used in Traditional Medicine Related to Health Care Dr Danister L Perera Medicinal Plants Project No. 4, Woodlands Avenue Kohuwala, Nugegoda SRI LANKA
What do we mean by Indigenous knowledge (IK)?
The term indigenous knowledge refers to practical common sense based on technologies and experiences passed on from generation to generation. This knowledge is more or less verbally and empirically transcended. Very few documented sources are available and these manuscripts are primitive, rudimentary and symbolic literatures. It involves knowing the country - it covers knowledge of the environment and relationship between things. It is holistic – it cannot be compartmentalized and cannot be separated from the people who hold it. It is rooted in the spiritual health, culture and language of the people. This knowledge is entirely bound to the culture, territory and the natural resources. It is a way of life.
It is an authority system. It sets out the rules of governing the use of resources. This knowledge accepts, recognizes, believes, and respects nature and its powers. It has an obligation to share. It is dynamic, cumulative and stable. It is the truth, which is secret, subjective, sacred and secular as well as spiritual. It can be called a system of knowledge. It is a type of wisdom, which is integrated with all other sources of knowledge related to any life event. It is a way of life – wisdom of using knowledge in good ways. It is using the heart and the head together. It comes from the spirit in order to survive. It gives credibility to people. This knowledge is collective. Various researchers all over the world who are interested in IK have not given an etymological explanation for this word.
Indigenous Knowledge refers to the unique, traditional, local knowledge existing within and developed around the specific conditions of women and men indigenous to a particular geographic area.1
It is also referred to as ‘traditional’ or ‘local’ knowledge that is embedded in the community and is unique to a given culture, location or society. It is used to describe people, practices and knowledge, and these terms are often used interchangeably or even all together in the same sentence. ‘Indigenous’ which means having originated in a particular region or environment, usually refers to people (and their cultural practices and knowledge) who are original inhabitants of a place. The term is particularly common in Latin America, where many indigenous people have been living in the same general area for thousands of years. Many colleagues, particularly those who work in Africa and Asia, point out that ‘indigenous’ is often misapplied to groups which, even if they have distinct languages, dress and customs, are relatively recent colonizers of the lands where they currently live. ‘Traditional’ referrers to lifestyles and beliefs (and the people who maintain them) that are an original part of a culture, as opposed to modern elements that have been introduced. The problem with ‘traditional’ is that it is often equated with being old-fashioned and out-of-date, standing in contrast to the attractiveness of what is modern and up-to-date. ‘Traditional’ is correctly applied to established social and cultural mechanisms that guide innovation in decision making. Traditions are always in a process
1 Grenier, Louise, Working with Indigenous Knowledge: A guide for Researchers, IDRC, Ottawa, Canada, 1998. 74 of change, and some practices, which at first appear ancient, have actually been borrowed into a culture recently. ‘Local’, preferred by many colleagues, simply implies that the people, practices and knowledge are found in a specific part of the world. It is commonly used to refer to people who are making a living from the land and its resources (such as agriculturists or gatherers of forest products), including those who are long-term residents of a place as well as those who have arrived in recent years. All three terms have a more precise meaning when they are used in reference to a specific area than when used in a generic abstract sense.2
Nevertheless, many indigenous knowledge systems are prevailing in Third World or countries in the South. Most of the Western countries had their own folk traditions or grandmother’s remedies before industrial revolution, but the scenario became more sophisticated with fast growing social expectations which aimed to exploit natural resources in an unsustainable manner and to control over the environment.
The contemporary Western outlook in reality can be loosely characterized as rationalist, secular, scientist, and quantitative - what some writers have called "the Enlightenment model." These characteristics have their strengths: they have been instrumental in bringing most of the West to levels of economic, social, technological, and physical well-being that were unimaginable a few generations ago. Unchecked, however, they have also bred frightening levels of individualism, materialism, conspicuous consumption, and social alienation. This same outlook has led mainstream development discourse to focus on the economic, social, and political conditions that need to be changed, and to try to ascribe quantifiable indicators for the changes. The institutions that define "development" are for the most part large donor agencies that, in the final analysis, deal in money and the economically quantifiable inputs and activities it buys: things that cannot be quantified do not get money, and therefore they are not considered to be "development." This has led most of the conventional Western discourse to ignore or dismiss the cultural, moral, and spiritual dimensions of human well-being as either irrelevant to development or so intractably subjective as to be unamenable to a "practical paradigm." Yet, and it is a big yet, beyond a basic level of survival and security, for most people in most parts of the world, innermost attitudes and behaviour toward change -- individual or societal -- are not motivated by economic or political interests. Many people in most cultures start at the other end of Maslow's scale: at the most personal level, they are moved by deep underlying moral and spiritual assumptions that reflect and explain reality and support the values that guide their decisions about whether to change or not to change. For the most part, these assumptions and values are not expressed in conventional rational paradigms or in quantifiable terms, but in myth, ritual, and religion. These "ontological needs" or priorities include such things as love of others, one's commitment and responsibility to family, clan, and community; self-worth; one's sense of dignity, honour, and respect; sexuality and gender, roles and relationships, both individual and social; work both as a means of sustenance and as a creative act; beauty and joy as expressed in dance, music, art, poetry, and play; a sense of the sacred and the transcendental, spirituality and formal religion; loyalty to the tribe, nation, or other ethnic identity; love of place, a sense of belonging here and not there; reverence for life, matter and spirit in nature, the origin of nature, and its relation to self; the unseen; ancestors; and life and death.3
2 People and Plants Online – Handbook 2; IDRC, Source website: http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/peopleplants/handbook2 3 William F. Ryan, S.J., Culture, Spirituality, and Economic Development; Opening a Dialogue, IDRC; 1999 Source website: http://www.idrc.ca/books/focus/782/782fore.html 75 What is Traditional Medicine?
A medical system is a pattern of social intuitions and cultural traditions that evolves from deliberate behavior to enhance health.4 In the context of modern medicine, traditional medicine is most of the time termed as ancestral medicine or primitive medicine, which belongs to medical-anthropology. It is called Ethnomedicine that refers to those beliefs and practices relating to disease which are the products of indigenous cultural development and are not explicitly derived from the conceptual framework of modern medicine. 5
In that sense the medicine man that played a major role in the primeval society in health care, was the origin of all aspects of health. The medicine man of the primitive society could not be regarded as the ancestor of the modern physician. He held a more important position than the physician of the modern society. He was the priest, sorcerer, physician, judge, policeman, soldier, more often the chief of the tribe and bard of the group since he knew stories about the tribe, songs, incarnations, etc. thus he was the ancestor of most of our professions.6
This medicine man or the healer of primitive societies held the wisdom of nature. It is a time tested and traditionally trusted knowledge. A traditional healer is a person who is recognized by the community in which he lives as competent to provide health care by using vegetable, animal and mineral substances and certain other methods based on the social, cultural and religious background as well as on the knowledge, attitude and belief that are prevalent in the community regarding physical, mental and social wellbeing and the causation of disease and disability.7
Over the centuries, the countries of the South have developed their own ways of treating illness. These systems are known to international agencies as “traditional medicine.” In the past, these methods were often denigrated or ignored by the medical profession in the North. Too often they were not considered worthy of notice because they were not based on the same scientific concepts as “modern medicine”. Sometimes their practitioners were referred to slightingly as “witch doctors” .
About 20 years ago, attitudes in the North began to change. During the 1970s, the WHO, for example set up a Working Group on Traditional Medicine. Writing in a special 1977 issue of the WHO magazine, World Health, the Director General, Dr Halfdan Mahler, said: For far too long, traditional systems of medicine and “modern” medicine have gone their separate ways in mutual antipathy. Yet are their goals not identical – to improve the health of mankind and thereby the quality of life? Only the blinkered mind would claim that each has nothing to learn from the other. WHO recognized traditional medicine because most of the world depends on it for primary health care, and its practitioners constitute a potentiality important resource for health-care delivery. In addition, medicinal plants used in traditional systems are very important to human health.8
In the era of medical miracles such as antibiotics, telemedicine, genetic engineering, xenograft etc. we have returned about to roots again. The Twenty-ninth World Health Assembly recommended action to encourage the development of health teams trained to meet the health needs of the population, including health workers for primary health care, taking into account where appropriate the man power reserve constituted by those practicing traditional medicine.(WHA29.72)9
4 Dunn, F.I. Traditional Asian medicine and cosmopolitan medicine as adaptive systems. In: Leslie, C., ed. Asian medical systems. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1976, p.135. 5 Hughes, C.C. Ethnomedicine, In: International encyclopedia of the social sciences, New York, Free Pres/ Macmillan, 1968, vol. 10. p.69 6 Jayawardane, K.W.A., A SHORT HISTORY OF MEDICINE; SLMA, 1999, p. 6 7 African traditional medicine: report of an expert group, Brazzawille, WHO Regional Office for Africa, 1976 (AFRO Technical Report Series, No.1), p.4 8 Spurgeon, David, Southern Lights; Celebrating the scientific achievements of the developing world, IDRC, 1995, 2.9 9 Traditional Medicine and Health Care Coverage: WHO, Geneva,1983, p. 325 76 In 1991, WHO defined traditional medicine “as comprising therapeutic practices that have been in existence, often for hundreds of years, before the development and spread of modern scientific medicine, and are still in use today. These practices vary widely, in keeping with social and cultural heritage of different countries.10” For the new millennium that definition became broader and more comprehensive. It says, “the sum total of the knowledge, skills and practices based on the theories, beliefs and experiences indigenous to different cultures, whether explicable or not, used in the maintenance of health as well as in the prevention, diagnosis, improvement or treatment of physical and mental illness.11”
Traditional medicine may be codified, regulated, taught openly and practised widely and systematically, and benefit from thousands of years of experience. Conversely, it may be highly secretive, mystical and extremely localized, with knowledge of its practices passed on orally. It may be based on salient physical symptoms or perceived supernatural forces. Clearly, at global level, traditional medicine eludes precise definition or description, containing as it does diverse and sometimes conflicting characteristics and viewpoints. But a working definition is nevertheless useful, For the WHO such a definition must of necessity be comprehensive and inclusive.
The WHO therefore defines traditional medicine as including diverse health practices, approaches, knowledge and beliefs incorporating plant, animal, and/or mineral-based medicines, spiritual therapies, manual techniques and exercises applied singly or in combination to maintain well-being, to treat, diagnose or prevent illness.12
An eminent anthropologist, who conducted research on health care system in Sri Lanka, commented on the traditional system of medicine. Traditional healers in Sri Lanka – parampara vedamahattayo – preserve a medical knowledge, which is passed on from a teacher and is based on tradition of palm leaf manuscripts. But the relationships between the traditional healers and their patients and the medicine prescribed, not only preserve a medical knowledge, but preserve a knowledge and wisdom which are of a cosmological order.13 The Sri Lankan system of traditional medicine has been influenced and reinforced specially by the North Indian system of Ayurveda from ancient times as are most of our socio-cultural heritages. But the history and the tradition have explicitly revealed existence of our own system of knowledge developed by the people who originated in this territory. At present it is difficult to differentiate the genuine IK from traditional Ayuvedic knowledge. The legal definition of the term “Ayurveda” in the Ayurveda Act No. 31 of 1961 includes indigenous system of medicine ( Desiya Chikitsa).14
This knowledge is considered to be the wisdom of a tradition which is sometimes claimed to have a supra-mundane and para-human origin. It is common to any oriental tradition to entertain celestial sources of their own sciences, arts, literature, religion etc. This creates the sacredness which ensures acceptability and respectability through authenticity, validity, authority, and legitimacy of the derivation. The erudite sagacious intellectuals called Rishi who secularize this divine discourse, were the linkage between extraterrestrial authors and earthly acquirers. All the holders of this kind of knowledge are treated as greater persons or leaders of the community as they are perceived to be useful and powerful. Also they traditionally live in morally good conducts reputed by the society. Therefore the learner or the student is expected to have moral qualities accepted by the teacher or
10 Mahler, H., Traditional medicine and modern health care, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. Progress Report, March 1991 11 General guidelines for methodologies on research and evaluation of traditional medicine; WHO/EDM/TRM/2000.1, WHO Geneva, 2000 12 WHO Traditional Medicine Stratergy 2002 – 2003; World Health Organization, Geneva, p. 7 13 Anderson, Jorgen Ostergard, Health Seeking in Pluralistic Health Care Systems, In STUDIES IN ALTERNATIVE THERAPY I , INRAT, Odense University Press, Denmark, 1993. p.115 14 Section 89 of Ayurveda Act No. 31 0f 1961 77 the holder of wisdom. In the process of acquisition of knowledge, this learner becomes an acolyte while the teacher holds his guardianship.
Traditional Sources of Transcending Wisdom: Written - Palm-leaf manuscripts / teacher’s handbooks Verbal - Teacher’s preaching / instructions Practice - Teacher’s way of doing things / demonstrations / know-how
Phases of Traditional Learning; Gaining knowledge through rote learning or some times by reading manuscripts Observation / assisting/ familiarizing / exercise / adherence Trial out / Testing / Practical Experiencing Experimenting/ Skill/ competence /conversance /Innovations
History of Traditional Medicine in Sri Lanka
Historical sources are in Legends (Mythology / Tradition) Archeological (Ruins/ Inscriptions) Chronicles (Mahavamsa /Chulavamsa etc.) Literature (Medical Texts / Literary works / Travelers’ records etc.)
Legendary sources
Ravana who is considered to be an emperor with superhuman powers, can be nominated as the most scholarly person in primordial Sinhalese medicine. Dr C.G.Uragoda quotes a synopsis of this story in his book: “It is rationally believed that Ravana, the Prehistoric king of Lanka of Ramayana fame was well versed in medical lore. It is mentioned that he represented Sri Lanka at a medical conference held in India during his time. It was while returning from this conference that he met Seetha, and committed an act which was not professional and which led to the first Indo-Ceylon conflict. Ravana is believed to have been the author of medical books, Arakaprakasa, Kumaratantra, Nadivignanya, Uddistantra. Dolukanda / Rumassala from which drug plants are often collected, is thought to be a fragment of the Himalayas that was carried over to Ceylon by the mythical monkey-king Hanuman, to provide drugs for the wounded in the Rama-Ravana battle."15
Archeological sources
Excavations have revealed quite an amount of evidences to illustrate primeval socio-cultural heritage in terms of archeology. Among these ruins and inscriptions are unequivocal physical facts available in archeological sites of ancient kingdoms which testify to the history. Hospitals with regulations to maintain the quality of curative services and proper administration had been established in Mihinthale 16, Medirigiriya 17, and Polonnaruwa 18 in ancient Sri Lanka. Certain lands were set apart for the benefit of a hospital by Kasyapa V 19 and Medical halls were built in Anuradhapura by the same
15 Uragoda, C.G., A HISTORY OF MEDICINE IN SRI LANKA; Sri Lanka Medical Association; Colombo, Middleway Limited, 1987, p.1 16 Ibid. pp. 28 - 29 17 Ibid. pp. 29 - 31 18 Ibid. pp. 32 -34 19 C.E. Godakumbura, EZ, 1963, 5, 290. 78 king.20 To enhance the health friendly environment certain privileges and immunities were bestowed on a dispensary by Kasyapa IV (896 -913 AD)21 To treat sick people medical halls were established by Mahinda IV 22 Grinding stones were discovered near Tissawewa in Tissamaharama dating back to between 200 BC – 40 AD23 which shows that the Southern part of the country also had this health care service.
Royal guardianship of the health care system was thus well-established from ancient times and public health measures employed in ancient Anuradhapura were of a high order.24 The concept of hospitals was evolved in this country in the fourth century BC and a convalescent home was built by Pandukabhaya (394-307 BC) 25 A hospital for the laity was built by the son of Mahinda IV (956 – 972 AD) in Anuradhapura 26 It is recorded that the hospital in Mihintale on the Chetiya Mountain as built by Sena II (851-885 AD)27 A large hall for the sick was built by Udaya I (792-797 AD)28 in Polonnaruwa.
There is no evidence that hospitals existed in Assyria, Babylon and early Egypt though their medical systems were older than Ayurveda. Neither did the Chinese have hospitals. Dr C.G.Uragoda quotes George Parker from the British Journal of Surgery, 1928, 16, 39. The idea of creating hospitals ‘had grown up gradually and spread over many distant countries, from Burma, Siam and Ceylon to Syria, Persia and Egypt and the whole of western Europe, excepting perhaps Russia……..In Ceylon and Burma they (hospitals) seem to have been ubiquitous.29
King Budddhadasa(362- 409 AD) can be correctly epitomized as the “royal physician cum surgeon” who had performed dexterous surgeries including a Cephalotomy to remove a cerebral alveolar cyst. There has been a well-resourced public sector curative service all over the country. He has provided special-care institutes for cripples and hospital for the blind. To maintain the quality of the service delivered through the health care system, he gave physicians the produce of ten fields as livelihood. 30 It is also interesting to know that Budddhadasa dedicated himself to the health of his soldiers.31 Talking of military medical services, during the period of Dutugemunu in the battle with Elara wounded royal elephants were cured by physicians.32 The military medical services were also used by Maha Parakramabahu.33
In the history of Sri Lanka most of the kings had been committed to take care of disable patients. Hospitals for the blind were built by Datusena (460- 478 AD)34 Upatissa II (522 -524 AD)35 Udaya I (792-797 AD)36. Probably the first maternity home was built by Upatissa II (522 -524 AD)37 Isolation as a preventive measure in public health to control the spreading of contagious diseases, has been practised in the past. The most reliable evidence is the building of a separate hospital for epidemic
20 D.M.de Z. Wickramasinghe, EZ, 1904, 1, 51. 21 Ibid., EZ, 1909, 1, 153-161. 22 Ibid., EZ, 1912, 1, 228. 23 Uragoda, C.G., A HISTORY OF MEDICINE IN SRI LANKA; Sri Lanka Medical Association; Colombo, Middleway Limited, 1987, p.40 24 Mahavamsa, 10, 88 - 91 25 Mahavamsa, 10,102. 26 Chulavamsa, 54, 53. 27 Chulavamsa, 51, 73. 28 Chulavamsa, 49, 19. 29 Uragoda, C.G., A HISTORY OF MEDICINE IN SRI LANKA; Sri Lanka Medical Association; Colombo, Middleway Limited, 1987, p.23 30 Mahavamsa, 37, 147 - 148. 31 Chulavamsa, 37, 147. 32 Mahavamsa, 25, 31. 33 Chulavamsa, 76, 49. 34 Mahavamsa, 38, 42. 35 Mahavamsa, 37, 182. 36 Chulavamsa, 49, 19. 37 Mahavamsa, 37, 182. 79 cases by Kassapa IV (896-913 AD)38 . Dispensaries or Pharmacies were also built by him. The first recorded medicinal plant survey was done by Aggabohi VII (766-772 AD)39 Discerning and skillful physicians were remunerated by Parakramabahu 40 Lands together with certain immunities were granted to a chief physician by the name of Punalna during the period of Dappula IV (923 – 934 AD)41 There is a dedication in two caves to a person named Gobuthi who was both physician and teacher to being Devanampiyatissa.42 Precious ambrosial herbs including Aralu (Terminalia chebula) and Nelli (Emblica officinalis) were among the gifts sent by Emperor Asoka of India to Devanampiyatissa. 43
The mother of Dutugemunu, Viharamadevi gifted medicines among other things to the Buddhist brotherhood in order that she may conceive.44 Dutugemunu on his death-bed listened to a recital of meritorious deeds he had performed during his lifetime: “constantly in eighteen places have I bestowed on the sick the foods and remedies as ordered by the physician”. Dutugemunu bestowed monks with ghee, juggery candy, a handful of liquorice and four inch long sugar candy. 45
Moggalana II ( 537 – 556 AD) by gifts of medicines, among other things, won the community of monks.46 Mahinda IV (956 -972 AD) distributed medicines and beds in all the hospitals47 and gave over earnings from the betel pavilion to monks for the purchase of medicines.48 Epidemics in army camps were recorded during Moggalana III (611 – 617 AD)49 and the outbreak was controlled. Mental health was appreciated by Kirttsrirajasinghe (1747 -1782 AD)50 as a compulsory fulfillment of a healthy life.
Literacy sources
There are documented records which indicate that’s health care system existed in the past. Dr C.G. Uragoda elaborates in his book, “A HISTORY OF MEDICINE IN SRI LANKA” some of those instances. Health practices in daily routine for monks in katikavata were recommended by Parakrama Bahu. Pre-recruitment medical tests for monks and preventing them engaging in bali sacrifices and bali ceremonies on account of illness in Dambadeni katikavata were promulgated by Parakrama Bahu II (1236 -1270 AD) There are records that reveal accessories used in medical practice such as elaborately carved ivory pill boxes for storing medicine, and sandalwood cups for the administration of medicine. Medical apprenticeship was not unlike that which prevailed in mediaeval Europe and the pupil not only learnt medicine but other skills too, such as astrology. Lenses and spectacles were made during the reign of Bhuwenakabhahu (1344 – 1353 AD ) 51 Kelisannaya was a dietary guide to monks who were engaged in hermitage life and Kandawuru Siritha was a instructive module on the routine of an encampment lifestyle for a royal warrior.52
38 Chulavamsa, 52, 55. 39 Chulavamsa, 48, 72. 40 Chulavamsa, 73, 38. 41 C.E. Godakumbura, EZ, 1963, 5, 288. 42 S. Paranawithana, Inscriptions of Ceylon, vol. 1, Early Brahmi inscriptions, p. xcvi 43 Mahavamsa, 11, 32. 44 Mahavamsa, 22, 37. 45 Macadamia, 32, 38 - 47 46 Chulavamsa, 41, 57. 47 Chulavamsa, 54, 31. 48 Chulavamsa, 54, 46. 49 Chulavamsa, 44, 58. 50 Chulavamsa, 99, 173. 51 Uragoda, C.G., A HISTORY OF MEDICINE IN SRI LANKA; Sri Lanka Medical Association; Colombo, Middleway Limited, 1987. 52 Sannasgala, Punchibandara, Sinhala Sahitya Vansaya: Lake House Printers, 1961 80 It is also reliable to refer to records generated by some renounced travelers like Fa-Hien53 and J.Ribeiro 54 F.D.Queyroz55 Robert Knox56 and professionals like Jhon Davy57 and Wilhelm Geiger 58 to gain more illustrative information on health care utilized by the community of ancient Sri Lanka. Ananda Coomaraswamy59 has gathered valuable literary evidence to demonstrate descriptive idea on appropriate technologies innovated by Sri Lankans to sustain life.
The Health Care System of Traditional Medicine
Traditional medicine has its own system of Epistemology and Ontology on nature and the universe. It is called the theory of Macrocosm and Microcosm in which the universe represents the human and the human represents the universe. It expands into a hypothetical correlation between cosmological form of human biology and anthropomorphism of nature. The traditional system of Indigenous medicine is neither merely a system of medicine nor health care. It covers a broader area of life. Therefore it can be called a system of living or a way of life. It is not confined only to diseases, ailments, illnesses, maladies, impairments, disorders, dysfunctions of the body or mind. It deals with, amongst others religion, culture, rituals, environment, culinary, agriculture, customs, norms, values, ethics and morals. This ranges from the inner seed of soul to the outer boundary of universe.
System of Medicine
System of Health Care
System of Living
53 James Legge; A history of Buddhistic kingdoms (1886), reprint, Paragon Book Reprint Corp. and Dover Publications Inc., New York, 1965. 54 Riberio, Joao, The historic tragedy of Ceilao, tr. By P.E.Pieris, 3rd ed. The Colombo Apothecaries Co. Ltd., Colombo, 1925. 55 Queyroz, Fernao de, The temporal and spiritual conquest of Ceylon,tr. By S.G.Perera, 3 vols. Acting Government Printer, Colombo, 1930. 56 Knox, Robert, An historical relation of Ceylon (1681), reprint, Saman Press, Maharagama, 1958. 57 Davy, John, An account of the interior of Ceylon (1821), reprint, Thisara Prakasakayo, Dehiwala, 1969 58 Geiger, Wilhelm, Culture of Ceylon in mediaeval times, ed. By Heinz Bechert , Otto Harrassowitz, Weisbaden,1960. 59 Coomaraswamy, Annanda K., Mediaeval Sinhalese art, 2nd ed., Pantheon Books, New York, 1956 81 The Etymology of Health
The WHO Definition of Health says, Health is a complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease of infirmity.60
The English word health literally means “wholeness,” and to heal means to make whole. (Both words go back to the Old English hal and the Old German heil, as does the English word “whole.”) To be whole is to be healthy, and to be healthy is to be whole. Ancient Greek has two etymologically distinct words translatable as “health,” hygeia and euexia. Hygeia, the source of our word “hygiene,” apparently stands for the Indo-European sugwiges, which means “living well,” or more precisely, a “well way of living.” Euexia means, literally, “well-habitness,” and in this context, “good habit of body.” 61 The most appropriate term for the concept of a healthy organism is homeostasis. It is explained as the constant conditions which are maintained in the body and might be termed equilibria. That word, however, has come to have fairly exact meaning as applied to relatively simple physio-chemical states in the organism. These are so complex and so peculiar to living beings – involving, as they may the brain and nerves, the heart, lungs, kidneys and spleen, all working cooperatively – that I have suggested a special designation for these states, homeostasis.62
In Traditional Medicine Health has five aspects; Physical Mental Spiritual Cultural Cosmic
Aspect Medium Profession Source Output Interaction Physical Therapy Physician Medicinal Cure Endo-personal veda mahattaya Mental Rituals Exorcist Psychological Harmony Interpersonal kattadi mahattaya Spiritual Religion Monk Moral Tranquility Interpersonal hamuduruwo Cultural Ceremonies Prayer Social Blessings Impersonal kapu mahattaya Exo-personal Cosmic Horoscope Astrologer Celestial Predictions Supra-personal penakaraya
60 Preamble of the Constitution of the World Health Organization; 1946 61 Kass, Leon, R. Regarding the End of Medicine and the Pursuit of Health; In, Contemporary issues in BIOETHICS; Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc. California,1978, p. 106 62 Canon, W.B., The Wisdom of the Body, New York; Norton, 1939 82 SOU
MIN BOD
WORL UNIVE
Holistic Approach of Indigenous Health Care System
PHYSIQUE
PSYCHE COSMOS
HEALTH
SOCIETY SPIRIT
Correlation of Health and its Segments
83 SPIRITUAL
MENTAL
PHYSICAL
COSMIC
CUTURAL
Hierarchy of Indigenous Knowledge on Health
Pluralistic and multidisciplinary Approaches of Indigenous Health Care System
Naturalistic approach – nature Personalistic approach – spirit Rationalistic approach or Systemic approach – elements / humor Pre-deterministic – destiny Holistic approach – whole
Terminology or vernacular identity (tool of communication)
A Sinhala proverb says, Asakkuvata mateyapputh vedaralalu (Even the normal village layman called Matteyappu also can be a physician in an emergency). It shows the way normal people cope with problems through positive thinking. The Sinhalese community is very optimistic and their folklore is enriched with many epics, anecdotes, fables, legends, tales, episodes, narratives, parables, apologies and allegories that can be entertaining in a constructive manner. The simple lifestyles as well as altruistic social relationships were the foundation of quixotic peaceful states described by some medieval writers. The Sinhalese language and colloquial usages have been reinforced by this cultural heritage, and this figurative linguistic identity is absorbed by the traditional medical terminology as well.
Therefore, physician and patient communicate through a comprehensive mode which enhances rapport and empathy. This is the first impression of efficacy that is nurtured by compassion, sympathy, clemency, mercy, kindness, benevolence, bounteousness, generosity etc. and which leads to the final 84 effect called Athgunaya (excellent quality of hands that heal). Our society believes that a competent physician is full of all the excellent qualities that empower the healing process and medicinal value of drugs. When people consult a physician, a bundle of betel leaves is offered and the fee is kept in it. The fee is called Panduru which has a meaning of sacred gift that can be accepted by a noble person such as a god, a king, a physician, or a teacher. It is the way of paying respect and expressing gratitude to the physician who plays a conscientious role in health promotion. Vedakama Nettam Rajakama is a famous proverb to describe the dignity of the profession as being only lesser than royalty or kingship. The house of a physician is called Veda Gedara which gives an idea of shelter for sick people who are seeking relief. The ancient Veda Gedara was a home for patients who get basic facilities during their stay.
The Sinhalese community use a wonderful word for greeting or saying Hello! to their visitors or companions; Ayubovan! which absolutely means “be long lived!” wishing them a long life. That may be the oldest humanitarian greeting concerned to longevity and health in the world. Normally, villagers are saluting each other by saying; Kohomada Ayubovan? which can not be articulated in English with similar meaning. Then they ask Kohomada Vase Dese Sepa Saneepa? which inquires about one’s livelihood, habitat or environment, pleasure or happiness and health. Opposite state to Sepa Saneepa is Leda Duk, which means diseases and sorrow or suffering. Most of the time people wish to live without Leda Duk which is their foremost ambition or desired state of well-being. When older people are sick they call themselves as Leda Duka, the person who is sick and suffering. Also they use various terms to describe their complaint as they perceive, and several words are used specially to explain pain such as; Emma, Evililla, Kekkuma, Rudava, Kaduththuva, which express different sensations of pain.
The Indigenous system of medicine is sometimes called Goda Vedakama to describe medical practices not considered as professional. The literally meaning is Terrestrial Remedy. Home remedies are called Ath Beth which means the medicines in hand or medicines that can be prepared easily without any professional prescription. There are very simple monoherbal recipes for certain ailments which are well known to every housewife. That is why Robert Knox proclaimed that every Sinhalese mother is a physician, and can be explained in terms of primary health care.
In our usage we have Beth Heth, which refers to the medicines and commitment that is needed to achieve a healthy state. Vedakama and Hedakama are words having a similar meaning of therapeutic measures and nursing procedures. When this caring process is applied to a patient suffering from a chronic condition, it is called Epa Upasthana Kireema which means “nursing with an accountable commitment.” In a diseased condition the routine to be followed by the patient is called Pattiyam Rakeema, which means “restricted lifestyle in wholesome conducts leading to a healthy state.” In that period the patient is fed only Leda Kema, which clearly indicates the “food and dietary habits instructed as therapeutic nutrition.”
Even equipment used in preparing medicines are honored in their names. i.e; Beth Gala - grinding stone, Beth Vangediya - wooden mortar, Beth Heppuwa - casket used for keeping medicines, Beth Ge - where medicines are manufactured, Beth Muttiya - earthen pot used for boiling decoctions, Beth Handa – the spoon used for giving medicinal liquids, Beth Peha – the device used for compressing medicinal oils, Beth Vattiya - the basket used for drying medicinal substances, Beth Taradiya – a domestic scale for weighing raw materials, Beth madatiya – seed which is used as a unit for weighing, and so on. Every word starts with the adjective Beth which means officinal or medicinal to differentiate that specific instrumental purpose from others. Also there are some herbs that are believed to be medicinally valuable, bearing this adjective Beth, i.e.; Beth Gotukola (Centella aciatica), Beth Sarana (Bohhaevia diffusa), Beth Suduloonu( Allium sativum), Beth Babila ( Sida
85 cordifolia), Beth Kohila ( ), Beth Nelli ( Emblica officinalis), Beth Endaru ( Recinus communis), Beth Anoda (Abutilion indicum ), Beth Puwak ( Areca catechu).
There is a proverb saying; Payabarvayata pitikara Beth Bandeema That literally means that applying medicines to the back of the neck for treating filarial edema of the leg which gives the idea of doing things without proper coordination. But it is interesting to note that therapeutic burning of a point on the back of the neck with medicinal herbs is an effective treatment for the same condition and it was widely practiced by local physicians specialized in therapeutic burning. Traditional physicians use their ring finger which is called Veda Angilla or Finger of Physician, to apply or mix medicine because it is believed to be connected with the heart and healing powers. Padama is a famous term used to describe the standard quality of a product at domestic level. It clearly manifests the ultimate result of good manufacturing practices which are highly appreciated in modern pharmaceutical industry. The concept of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) in the system of indigenous medicine is deliberately authorized in a customized manner in the name of Guru Mushti which means that in the fist of the teacher or the custodianship of tradition. Every recipe is endorsed by Attdutuvai Sattai to declare its efficacy and safety in practically tested and empirically trusted version.
To describe the diseased states or maladies, Sinhalese people use very specific words, which have epistemological meanings. Therefore, indigenous nosological terms are adsorbed by the vernacular usage and vocally adjusted to their day to day language. Physical causes are called Thun Dos Kipeema or aggravation of natural humours, and the conditions are classified into Ata Anoovak Roga (Ninety Eight illnesses), and Nava Anoovak Vyadhi (Ninety Nine Diseases). Emergencies and disastrous situations are called Athuru Anthara. In traditional nosology these are accepted to be Haradahas Hara Seeyak Leda or four thousand four hundred diseases which can be malicious to human beings. All the evil inhumane forces which cause diseases described in demonology are called Butha Dosa, Yaksha Dosa, Ammanussa Dosa and so on. There are some genogenic malevolencies like Es-vaha (evil eye), Kata-vaha (evil tongue), Ho-vaha (evil mind) or Anavina Kodivina (charms dispelled for disaster), and Hadi Hooniyan (black magic), which are believed to cause serious maladies. All the conditions resulting from cosmogenic negative forces or bad celestial influences are called Apala (fruitless events) and Upadrava (repercussions). Incurable or untreatable conditions are considered to be caused by Karume or results of sinful actions of previous births and the condition is accepted as a mandatory. Vaduru Vasangatha is a term used for describing epidemics or pandemics which are seriously hazardous. Ammavarunge Leda or Deyyanne Leda is applied for highly contagious viral infections such as measles, small pox, and isolation procedures as well as restrictive measures are widely practiced in such cases.
Kema is a remedial practice which is known to layman as an occult therapy in a kind of ritualistic way to treat special ailments. This can be considered as the dematerialization of therapy where the drugs are not physically used or applied. There is a famous proverb saying Leda Malath Bada Suddai which means that even if the patient died the bowels were purified. It was the general perception of health that enhances credibility of treatment and the patient is free from his disease by the time of death.
System of medicine – Curative measures
Healing Vs Curing The traditional system of medicine prefer to use the term healing because it makes sense in terms of the philosophical framework of indigenous knowledge. Some researchers view this in terms of biomedical model of modern medicine which is operated within the boundaries of materialistic reductionism. “Despite all efforts by governments and individual modern health workers, it is correct to state that modern medicine in developing countries is still predominantly occupied with curing, i.e., 86 attempts to provide effective treatment for physical disease. But, physical disease in the majority of cases is only part of what the patient perceives as his health problem. Traditional medicine, on the other hand, deals with healing, in terms of attempts to cover those psychological, social, and cultural dimensions of illness, to which modern medicine generally pays little attention, and of which it has little or no understanding.”63
To cure, you need medicines and devices with multifaceted assistance. But in healing it expects the healer to be skilled and equipped with simple remedies. “The verb, to heal, actually means to make whole. To be whole, or to be of sound health, is more than the mere absence of pain, illness and symptoms. Health is a physical, mental and spiritual state of well-being. The well in wellness or well- being is related to will, i.e. “according to desire”. This is a state in which the mind, body and spirit are in harmony with each other and the outside world. In this state, our organic, mental, and spiritual capacities are greatly enhanced, and thus we are most resilient in the face of potential threats such as disease or infection, and we are better able to recover from injury. Being free of physical ailments is a condition most often found in vigorous young adults, but the kind of wholeness or wellness described above is a much rarer condition which involves wellness of mind, body and spirit. While health is certainly a desired state, we also need to be realistic and recognize that perpetual wellness in an unrealistic expectation. The most we can do is to provide an optimal environment to nurture the mind, body and soul.”64
Therapeutic process The knowledge of therapeutic measures is well indicated by enhanced skills in nomenclature, identification, cultivation, collection, harvesting, processing, preparing, manufacturing, storing, and use of medicinal substances. For medicinal use raw materials are acquired from natural sources like plants, minerals and animals. Every phase of the therapeutic process is strengthened by a ritual or sorcery or occult practice, and is personally monitored or handled by the physician. Then and there he ensures the efficacy and safety of the medicine. Most of the treatments are customized and individualized in accordance with the patient’s humoral uniqueness. Traditional physicians use minimum medicines to get maximum relief. He has various medicines for the same ailment and same medicine for various ailments to be used in different forms and vehicles. He always administers the medicine in the safest and most effective route.
The role of the local physician is more or less similar to the family physician who knows the patient as well as his family background, livelihood, habitat and history of previous diseases. The patient is not considered as a “case.” He is recognized as a living organism or a person. The physician starts with his second, third and fourth fingers of the right hand to feel the pulse of the patient. The social distance or professional gap is inactivated by touching or holding the hand and create trustworthiness and rapport.
The physician – patient relationship in traditional medicine can be explained in three models. These three models are described in modern medical sociology.
1. Priestly model: The main ethical principle which summarizes that priestly tradition of “benefit and do no harm to patient.” Now attacking the principle of doing no harm to the patient is a bit like attacking fatherhood. (Motherhood has not dominated the profession in the Western tradition.) But fatherhood has long been an alternative symbol for the priestly model; “father” has traditionally been a personalistic metaphor for God and for the priest. Likewise, the classical medical sociology literature (the same literature using the religious
63 Staugard, Frants, The Role of Traditional and Complementary Therapy in Primary Health Care In STUDIES IN ALTERNATIVE THERAPY I , INRAT, Odense University Press, Denmark, 1993. p.90 64Bryson, Alan, HEALING; Mind Body & Soul, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, 1999, p. 47 87 images) always uses the parent-child image is an analogy for the physician-patient relationship. It is this paternalism in the realm of values which is represented in the moral slogan “benefits and do no harm to the patient.” 2. Collegial model: In the effort to develop a more proper balance which would permit the other fundamental values and obligations to be preserved, some have suggested that the physician and the patient should see themselves as colleagues pursuing the common goal of eliminating the illness and reserving the health of the patient. The physician is the patient’s “pal.” It is in the collegial model that the themes of trust and confidence play the most crucial role. When two individuals or groups are truly committed to common goals, then trust and confidence are justified and the collegial model is appropriate. It is a very pleasant harmonious way to interact with one’s fellow human beings.
3. Contractual model: With the contractual model there is a sharing in which the patient has legitimate grounds for trusting that, once the basic value framework for medical decision- making is established on the basis of the patient’s own values, the myriad of minute medical decisions which must be made daily in the care of the patient will be made by the physician within the frame of reference. In the contractual model then, there is a real sharing of decision-making in a way that there is a realistic assurance that both patient and physician will retain there moral integrity. In this contractual context, patient control of decision-making at the individual level is assured without the necessity of insisting that the patient participate in every trivial decision. On the social level, community control of health care is made possible in the same way. The lay community is given and should be given the status of contractor.65
These three models are respectively operated within the framework of guardianship, friendship, and stewardship which consecutively take place in the process of treatment procedure.
Diagnosis The most apparent technique used to diagnose is pulse reading by which expert physician can describe all the symptoms without any inquiry. In some cases, like snake bites the diagnostic tool is the messenger’s verbal behavior or body language, and the same person who brought the message is slapped as a preliminary therapeutic measure. Sometimes the physicians use special techniques to verify the disease by using threads, dreams, oil lamp flame, omens, vital points, drugs which are unique to the indigenous system of medicine. Especially the Horoscope is used significantly as a reliable diagnostic contrivances to reveal the para-clinical side of the disease. Then the physician is able to prescribe some remedial measures in terms of medical astrology to repel any supra-terrestrial resistant which can diminish the efficacy of medicines. In chronic cases or obstinate conditions, the physician provides astrological counseling and guidance to reinforce the therapy through ritualistic practices with the support of an exorcist. That is the multidisciplinary approach of therapeutic process conducted in the traditional system of medicine. Sometimes the physician, astrologer, priest, exorcist altogether play responsible and conscientious roles in the same therapeutic process as a joint venture which aims to expel the unhealthy condition. Also, it is important to mention that multifactorial etiology of diseases leads to this team work.
In this process the sick person is also very important because he has a major role to play in the context of self-responsibility and accountability for regaining the healthy condition. Therefore reliance on therapeutic procedure in a confident manner is essential. There is a very restricted routine to be followed by a sick person in accordance with the traditional system. Especially dietetics and behavior are prescribed and regularized according to the medical advice. A therapeutic diet and lifestyle are
65 Veatch, Robert, M., Models for Ethical Medicine in a Revolutionary Age: In Ethical Issues in Modern Medicine ed. John Arras, Robert Hunt: Mayfield Publishing Company, 1983 pp.47 -49. 88 recommended and closely monitored by the physician. In the long term management of chronic cases, in-home care is highly accepted and effective. An ancient society was an oasis for the well- being of sick persons in terms of social relationships to enhance a healthy atmosphere in convalescence.
Medicine is the uppermost substance in the therapeutic process which is considered to have the heavenly powers, in traditional medicine. All medicinal substances are honored as vital parts of the environment with the blessings of nature, and extraction is performed as a holy practice. Every time the physician’s effort is to utilize genuine medicine to cure the patient without any side effect or adverse reaction, or after complication. Medicine enhances the natural immunity by reprogramming and synchronizing the organism through regulating the bio-activity and bio-availability of the system. It preserves the normal flow and restores the somato-neuro-psycho-immunological process. Maintaining the micro-environment of normal flow living in the body plays a major role in preserving the equilibrium state of health in traditional medicine. Since most of the fomulalea are polyherbal, toxicity or adverse reactions or unwanted effects are naturally counteracted through the synergetic action.
As the medicines are prepared by knowledgeable persons under the supervision of the physician, authenticity is ensured and it leads to rapid efficacious results. The technology is environmental friendly and economically sound. It is appropriate technology invented through indigenous knowledge. All the material facilities needed i.e.; equipment, vessels, utensils, accessories, instruments, apparatus, tools, devices etc. are designed to give maximum efficacy. Quality control is maintained from the beginning through good manufacturing practices (GMP) which ensure the standard finish product. It is developed and implemented through skill-based technical know-how which utilizes natural resources in a sustainable manner. For the sake of adsorbing the healing force prevailing in nature, the range of medicinal raw material (herbal- mineral – animal) varies from quantum to solar system, i.e.; solar & lunar energy, cosmic influence, heat, air, water, soil, biogenic vital force, mutagenic morphological differentiations of species, supernatural forces (sorcery – occult practices – exorcism) etc. the ancient drug manufacturing process was operated in small scale, and the domestic level process was not industrialized and commercialized in terms of monetary values. Since the traditional knowledge is localized generic recipes are not available and products are customized according to the personal requirements. Therefore, the large scale multiple use of limited resources for top ranked formulae is avoided.
The medicines are used in four ways.
Mode of Use Rate of Frequency of Conservation Efficacy Occurring effect Single remedy for single malady low rare low Single remedy for multiple maladies low occasional low Multiple remedies for single malady high common high Multiple remedies for multiple maladies high very common high
System of Health Care – Preventive measures From the past, the community was intensively enthusiastic about their personal hygiene and aware of basic principles of health. They had learnt to prevent disease by avoiding unwholesome causes which cause illnesses. Because most of them were knowledgeable on their own biophysical constitution, they were able to take care of personal health through a customized routine. Family health was a collective effort to maintain the optimum level of a healthy life style in every aspect. In each phase of life such as infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, senility, etc. as well as special occasions such as in puberty, pregnancy, postpartum period, contagious diseases, death etc, they used to practice preventive measures to minimize susceptibility. All health-oriented performances were 89 tailored to avoid microscopic and macroscopic threats which can alter the equilibrium of somatopsychic states. In simple conditions they were capable of using home remedies to control the situation or to get rid of it. But surveillance is not neglected and if any seriousness occurs medical advice is obtained. They were well aware of the contiguousness of infectious diseases and in such cases the home of the sick one is declared as a forbidden area by the owner, displaying a taboo signal to refrain any visitor from entering the home. It is in their stewardship of public health and sometimes in epidemics that there are ceremonial holy rituals performed with the contribution and participation of the relevant community to get the blessings of celestial beings to restore the salubrious state. There are several regular ritualistic practices performed personally as well as collectively for expelling bad causes and gaining blessings to maintain health.
System of Living –Protective measures
The Sri Lankan lifestyle is fabricated by culture, heritage and tradition which include plenty of habits, beliefs, practices, customs, norms, values, rituals and conventions. This versatile and multifaceted way of living was inherently the royal path to a healthy life. From womb to tomb, even beyond that, health is considered to be the most beneficial gain among all. Every life event is installed with rational and logical configurations which boost one’s immune system by regularizing consumptive behavior. Dietetics is well designed in every aspect of nutrition and health. Basic needs are fulfilled with the minimum consumption of resources which does not lead to any issue of over-exploitation. Social relationships are well nurtured by religio-cultural values and conflict management is very simple and easy.
Positive Characteristics of the Survival of Traditional Medicine
Availability – it is a reputed feature of their knowledge system and it appears within the community. Modern Western system of medicine will never be equitably dispersed in the country, specially in rural areas. But traditional system of medicine had been catering to the rural communities without any discrimination. Acceptability – it is well recognized and honoured as well as traditionally trusted because it has a concrete background which is fabricated by sociocultural heritage. Also, it is compatible with all the values, norms, beliefs, costumes and practices, and occupies the outcomes of the traditional lifestyle within the framework of indigenous knowledge. Accessibility – mainly the human resources involved in traditional medicine are traditionally resident within the community. Accountability – the relationship between client and professional is humanistic and mutual subscription is entertained Affordability – naturally available resources used and economically sound Applicability – any person can get help for any condition as there is no discrimination Adaptability – it is compatible with any kind of naturalized knowledge system
Intellectual Property Rights for Knowledge Related to Traditional Medicine
Another major challenge concerns intellectual property and patent rights. The economic benefits that can accrue from the large-scale application of TM knowledge can be substantial. However, questions about how best these benefits can be shared between innovators and the holders of knowledge have not yet been resolved.66
66 WHO Traditional Medicine Stratergy 2002 – 2003; World Health Organization, Geneva, p. 4 90 The need to protect traditional medicinal knowledge and to secure fair and equitable sharing of benefits derived from the use of biodiversity and associated traditional medicinal knowledge has been fully recognized. At present, existing conventional patent law protection requirements are not applicable to traditional knowledge. There is no agreement as to how and what would be the most appropriate and effective way to achieve the protection of traditional medicinal knowledge in developing countries.67
The most controversial issue related to IPR in the last decade was biopiracy or the stealing of TK in terms of benefit sharing and bioprospecting. In the context of Globalization the knowledge has become the power of world politics that governs scientific technology within the Western regime. UNESCO comments on the world’s contribution to scientific research and development as follows. “It is apparent that the common view of the South as a scientific and technological backwater is an over- simplification. There is no doubt that, in terms of quantity, the South lags far behind the North. More than 80% of the global scientific research and technological development effort is made by the developed countries of the West and Japan – broadly speaking, the countries of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), according to UNESCO. And in 1990, there were 3600 scientists and engineers for every million people in the North, but only 200 for every million in the South. Yet the picture varies enormously between different regions and countries of the South. The share of world research and development expenditure by African countries was a mere 0.2% in 1990, while collectively, Latin America and the Caribbean’s share was 0.6% and Arab states’ 0.7%, compared to Asia’s 19.6% (The values for Africa and Asia exclude the Arab states in those areas.) Seven developed countries (France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Japan the former Soviet Union, and the Unite States) produce 75% of the total world scientific literature.68
But considering natural resources or biodiversity of the world, the South is richer in environmental assets. 16 out of 25 biodiversity hotspots are in tropical countries which belong to the third world. Therefore the industrialized world is more eager on indigenous knowledge available in developing countries. The third world is suspicious and alarmed by international trade agreements such as GATT, TRIPs ratified in relation to their traditional resources. Avenues are opening to explore the unknown treasure trove of traditional knowledge by means of monetary benefits that drain the traditional resources in a respectable way. “As we have seen, much Western science and technology emanates from indigenous European folk knowledge, but from the earliest times ideas and practices were flowing into Europe from other parts of the world, and vice versa. By the later Middle Ages, however, and the beginnings of modern European global expansion, there emerged a self consciousness about the desirability of obtaining new knowledge. We can see this process at work by examining some recent scholarship relating to European scientific interest in India and Indonesia.”69 They are living examples to show how this kind of misconduct is executed through modifications.
The search for cheaper alternatives in the South has sometimes benefited the North, as shown by the treatment of tuberculosis. In the 1960s, countries such as Canada controlled the disease by admitting patients to large sanatoriums for long stays. This treatment was expensive, in terms of both patient cost and lost productivity. India could not afford similar treatment, so tuberculosis patients were usually treated at home. Research by WHO in India showed that well-supervised drug treatment at home, without bed rest and special diet considered necessary in Canada and United States, was just as effective as hospitalization. Nor did it expose family members to any special risk, as feared. Today in the North, old sanatoriums are closed or used for other purposes, and in both the North and South
67 Report of the Inter-Regional Workshop on Intellectual Property Rights in the Context of Traditional Medicine (Bangkok, Thailand, 6-8 December 2000); WHO/EDM/TRM/2001.1, WHO Geneva,2001., p. 37 68 UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) Nine giants --- one goal. Unesco, Paris, France. Unesco Sources, 53 (January) 1993 69 Ellen, Roy, & Harris, Holly, Concepts of indigenous environmental knowledge in scientific and development studies literature: A critical assessment, East-west Environmental Linkages Workshop 3, Canterbury 8-10 May 1996, Draft Paper. 91 treatment of tuberculosis is more effective. And it is the North that has benefited most from the massive savings the research in India proved possible with home care70 Professor Manley E. West, a Jamaican pharmacologist, with the aid of Dr Albert Lockhart, an ophthalmologist, developed a treatment for glaucoma using plant (Cannabis sativa). Glaucoma causes impaired vision or blindness through increased pressure within the eye. Having learned that Jamaican fishermen claimed a concoction of plant stem and leaves and rum improved their night vision, West and Lockhart prepared a substance called Canasol. It not only treats glaucoma by relieving the pressure, but seems lower among the Rastafarians, a Jamaican religious group that uses cannabis in many of its rituals.71
Oral Rehydration Therapy (ORT) makes use of a special mixture of water, sugar and salt to replace body fluids lost – often to the point of life-threatening dehydration – in diarrhea. In the Third World, more than one-third of deaths in children under 5 years old are associated with diarrhea. Diarrheal diseases account for about 30% of hospital admissions in many developing countries, where treatment involves expensive intravenous administration of fluids. Even a third world treatment for diarrhea is now being promoted for use in developed countries. Ironically, it was too primitive for modern societies. ORT was first used for centuries in the Third World as a folk remedy for diarrhea but was established on a scientific basis only on 1968, through what is now known as the International Center for Diarrheal Research in Bangladesh. Used with dramatic success by a young Indian doctor, Dilip Mahalanabis, when cholera broke out in refugee camps during the Bangladesh war of independence in 1971, ORT finally achieved worldwide credibility. The British medical journal The Lancet referred to it as “potentially the most important medical advance this century”72
Traditional resources are not only biological properties belonging to a country or a community or a nation. It includes knowledge systems and wisdom behind macroscopic and microscopic entities associated with tradition and heritage. Rights of passage and various taboos are a feature of most societies, providing a means of upholding cultural systems through particular values and codes of behavior. This applies particularly strongly amongst traditional healers due to their important social, religious and healing roles. Consequently, these taboos often also apply to the plants, animals, or ritual objects that provide potent medicines or religious symbols within societies. Taboos on the use or misuse of these items are recognized in customary law.73
Alternative IPR Mechanisms
Alternative IPR mechanisms ought to be identified and entertained within the current regime in order to protect the sovereignty of nations. All published or documented literatures can be considered as public domain in terms of currently endorsed legitimate Prior Art, which is to be redefined. Defensive Publications are some of the alternative IPR mechanisms recommended by interest groups in the subject. An inventor may publish a thorough description dealing with how to practice the invention; after the date of publication, any patent claim for the same invention will be invalid.74 The same procedure can be applied for indigenous knowledge in the context of IPR, by recognizing authentic publications as defensive publication. This will allow communities, which hold unrecorded IK to be coded and brought out. A Crucible Group working on IK has expressed their view regarding defensive publications; despite this range of views, several members of Crucible Group expressed interest in a US alternative known as Statutory Invention Registration or a more formal form of defensive publication. This appears to be a “nonpatent patent” that may meet the needs of some international genebanks. The possibility of such an option was identified by Tim Roberts, a patent expert with
70 Four decades of achievement: highlights of the work of WHO. WHO Geneva, Switzerland. 1988. 71 West, M.E., Cannabis and night vision, In Nature, 351 (6329), 703704, 1991 72 Spurgeon, David, Southern Lights; Celebrating the scientific achievements of the developing world, IDRC, 1995, 2.9 73 New Natural Products Development; People and Plants online; IDRC; Source website; http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/peopleplants/dp/dp2/issues.htm 74 Grenier, Louise, Working with Indigenous Knowledge: A guide for Researchers, IDRC, Ottawa, Canada, 1998 92 extensive commercial experience.75 There is a remarkable awareness built with regard to unrecorded knowledge in indigenous communities inherited through traditions. It is important that a distinction be made between the ethics associated with indigenous knowledge that is already published and in the public domain, and the ethics involved in soliciting and recording previously unrecorded knowledge.76 The ethical issue is raised by conservationists, that exposing through documentation of IK, will open an avenue to exploitation in terms of prospecting.
But it is a lucid phenomenon that oral tradition is being deteriorated and degraded through cultural erosion, which is mandatory in globalization process. In that context, we face the dilemma of Globalization Vs Localization or Scientizition Vs Traditionalization. Unfortunately, nationally accredited research and developmental tools are accomplished within the Western disciplined scientific stream which will not advocate or accommodate traditional knowledge systems.
The interdisciplinary literature on the investigation and documentation of indigenous knowledge is growing steadily. As regards form, content, language, site and a host of other factors, the bulk of it is inaccessible to the local communities themselves.77 The almost total absence of literature on indigenous knowledge intended for local communities, compounded by the limited access to those publications, which do exist, means that efforts in this direction fall far short of local empowerment objectives78 and points to the danger of creating 'scientized packages' of indigenous knowledge. This argues for approaches designed to promote the empowerment of marginalized people. Centres for indigenous knowledge should not become knowledge banks.79 Rather, they should develop and promote 'methods to increase local people's awareness of the wealth they possess and to help them enrich it further.' It is difficult to imagine how these goals in indigenous knowledge research can be achieved without the direct participation of local communities. Nevertheless, there have been only sporadic attempts to involve the local people in documenting their own knowledge.
After centuries of transmitting traditional ecological knowledge orally, why is there a sudden urgency to write it down? The trend towards documentation is partly a reaction to the rapid decline in the diverse languages, environments and cultures that have contributed to building the rich empirical knowledge of nature we find around the world. In a working conference on endangered languages, knowledge and environments, held at the University of California, Berkeley in October 1996, participants called attention to the overlap between cultural, linguistic and biological diversity – where we find one, we tend to find the others. Although opinions vary on what are the causes of this correlation, close collaboration between local people and researchers could play a part in ensuring continued diversity in the future.80 This statement calls attention to the existence of ‘... patterns of cultural and linguistic resistance and knowledge persistence, as well as efforts to revitalize languages and cultures that had gone extinct, with a special focus on maintaining, recovering and applying knowledge about traditional resource management practices’.
75 People, Plants and Patents; The Impact of Intellectual Property on Trade, Plant, Biodiversity and Rural Society: IDRC, Crucible Group, 1994. 76 77 Sutton, D.E. 'Is anybody out there?: Anthropology and the question of audience', Critique of Anthropology 11(1): (1991), 91- 104 78Thrupp, L.N. 'Legitimizing local knowledge: "Scientized packages" or empowerment for third world people', (1989),pp. 138- 153 in D.M. Warren, L.J. Slikkerveer and S.O. Titilola (eds) Indigenous knowledge systems: Implications for agriculture and international development. Ames: Studies in Technology and Social Change Program No. 11. 79 Waters-Bayer, A. 'Studying pastoral women's knowledge in milk processing and marketing--For whose empowerment?', Agriculture and Human Values 11(2&3): (1994) 85-95. 80 People and Plants Online – Editorial; Handbook 3; IDRC, Source website: http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/peopleplants/handbook3 93
African Experience A register of worldwide best practices of indigenous knowledge is prepared by the CIRAN / MOST Database and the following are identified as characteristics of best practice.81
i.) Innovative ii.) Make a difference iii.) Has a sustainable effect iv.) Has the potential for replication
14 out of 27 best practices registered are recorded from the African region, and the code BP.01 is given for the only health related best practice documented from Africa. It is a participatory process in strengthening local communities in utilizing medicinal plants for their health needs, which is considered to be successful.
“The goal of the Medicinal Plants and Local communities (MPLC) project is to promote the conservation of biodiversity by helping local communities to make the best possible use of their own knowledge of plants. The project fosters the are protection, cultivation and sustainable use of medicinal plants by encouraging communities to act on the basis of their own knowledge and for their own benefit. The project seeks, over the long term, to help the local communities appreciate the need for using biological resources in a sustainable way, to reinforce indigenous know-how, and to develop tools and methodologies which enable them to benefit from their own knowledge and practice. Through a combination of participatory research and development action involving local communities, project workers first learn about the local communities’ own solutions for conserving medicinal plants and for putting them to safe and effective use for traditional health care. Appropriate incentives then provide further encouragement for community efforts to safeguard biodiversity at the village level. Economic incentives include seed funds, the promotion of income generating activities and help with marketing. Social incentives include technical assistance and training, information and consciousness-raising related to conservation, the provision of equipment, and technical and scientific advice and assistance. Institutional incentives include guarantees of full property rights and establishment of local committees and associations for purposes of monitoring and planning.”82
Indigenous medicine has for centuries been the mainstay of the health care system in non-Western communities, and its continued utilization must be taken seriously. One area in which indigenous medicine has not developed in the same way as Western medicine is in the construction of precision methodologies for testing its effectiveness. Often those trained in Western medicine have taken this to mean that indigenous medicine is not effective. But the apparent absence of Western-type methods for testing the efficacy of indigenous medicine should not be seen as evidence of its ineffectiveness. Moreover, African societies have a system for measuring the efficacy of their medicine within a social context. At one level, it is not so much the effectiveness of the remedies which counts, as the community's acceptance of the practitioner. This is reflected in the fact that the community refers patients with particular ailments to a specific practitioner. Such collective behaviour is indicative of the community's recognition of the effectiveness of that practitioner's medicine. Another social dimension used to determine the efficacy of indigenous medicine is the manner in which the individual became a practitioner. Some come from a long line of practitioners, whereby indigenous knowledge has been handed down from father to son or mother to daughter. Others were trained by a highly recognized practitioner. The physical and mystical environment within which medicine is practiced is another
81 Best Practices on Indigenous Knowledge: Joint Publication of the Management of Social transformation Programme (MOST) & the Center for International Research and Advisory Networks (CIRAN), 2000. 82 Best Practices on Indigenous Knowledge: AFRICA BP. 01, MOST/CIRAN; Source website: http://www.unesco.org/most/bpikl/.htm 94 important factor in determining a practitioner's expertise and the efficacy of his remedies. It is for this reason that in African medical practice, rituals, incantations, charms, symbols and beliefs play such an important role. In short, it is the community which in the end defines the efficacy of indigenous medicine, on the basis of the practitioner’s record, i.e., concrete cases of patients who have been healed. While some healing aspects of indigenous medicine are not yet fully understood, the Tugen, like other African communities, have faith in the efficacy of their medicine, because it is attuned to their culture and their beliefs.83 |
83 Munguti, Kaendi, Indigenous knowledge in the management of malaria and visceral leishmaniasis among the Tugen of Kenya In, Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor 4 (2), 1996
95 DEVELOPMENT OF A NATIONAL STRATEGY FOR INCORPORATING TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
INTO DEVELOPMENT PRACTICES
Sri Lanka’s Water Heritage D L O Mendis 16, Amerasekera Mawatha, Apt. 2/0 Colombo 5
The great savant R L Brohier's lifetime's work is virtually summarised in his epic 3 volume Ancient Irrigation Works in Ceylon, republished in a single volume by the Mahaweli Authority some years ago. The recent release of the Sinhala translation of the first two volumes of this book by the Ministry of Irrigation and Water Management was another important landmark, and its on-going serialization in the daily press is a matter for satisfaction and appreciation.
Brohier had reproduced in the first volume of his great work, an 1855 report by three surveyors, Adams, Churchill and Bailey, describing their findings of the ancient Elahera - Minneriya canal system, which had interested the then Governor Sir Henry Ward who had personally inspected the area in 1857. The surveyors' report was incorporated in the Governor's inspection minutes, later published in the Ceylon Almanac in 1873, and republished by Brohier in 1934.
What had prompted the surveyors to investigate the area was a map prepared by a General Fraser of the Royal Engineers some years earlier, which described the north-central region of the island as "unknown mountainous area". The area was certainly unknown to the British, but the incorrect assumption that it was "mountainous" was no doubt due to the numerous waterways emerging from it, some of them natural, while others were later found to be human-made, like the Elahera canal.
Physical features of the whole island, including this previously unknown region, were mapped in great detail by land surveyors in the Surveyor-General's department, in British colonial times, and published in one mile to an inch topographical survey maps, called 'topo sheets'. These topo sheets, showing ancient irrigation works, were used by Brohier to great effect in the preparation of his numerous publications. In the Irrigation department the topo sheets were used to prepare a map called the Water Resources Development Plan, 1959, showing a number of proposed new large reservoirs like Uda Walawe, Lunuganvehera and Moragahakande. The first two of these have been built without considering alternative locations, and the third, Moragahakande, has been subjected to very costly Feasibility studies with a view to construction, again without considering alternatives.
Reasoned criticism of the Moragahakande reservoir and NCP canal proposal down the years has remained unanswered, while problems created by the incorrect location of the already constructed two large reservoirs selected from the Water Resources Development map, Uda Walawe and Lunuganvehera, keep increasing. The lessons of these costly experiences continue to be ignored.
Discovery of the identity and location of Parakrama Sagara, now exposes the absurdity of the Moragahakande and NCP canal proposal. Parakrama Sagara, referred to in the Culavamsa as Koththabadhdhanijjara, translated by Geiger as the 'reservoir whose flood escape was walled up' and as the 'weir furnished with a reservoir', was formed when the Elahera anicut built by Vasabha (65-109) was raised by Parakrama Bahu (1153-1186) (Fig. 1). A recent attempt to disguise the NCP (north central province) canal by renaming it Upper Elahera canal adds a certain grim hilarity to the tragic
96 situation. For, the first 24 miles of this canal is traced through the bed of the ancient Parakrama Sagara, and further down, along the central dividing ridge of the country. Imagine for example a new highway project in Egypt that is traced (via a tunnel) through the great pyramid at Giza!
A recent proposal to set up a Water Museum at Minneriya has been incorporated in a larger concept for a Sri Lanka National Water Heritage, similar to the well-known English Heritage. In this connection, museums and science centers in Canada and USA were visited recently, including the National Museum of Science and Technology in Ottawa, the Smithsonia in Washington DC, the Explorotarium in San Francisco and the Tech Museum of Innovation in Silicon Valley, San Jose. The intention was to give publicity to Sri Lanka's National Water Heritage by linking its web site with the web sites of these established institutions.
Meanwhile, the recent collapse of a number of multinational corporations was of interest in Sri Lanka as in other parts of the world. An article in the journal Business Week repeated in various forms in many journals, titled Waving Goodbye to the Invisible Hand, subtitled, What Enron teaches us about economic system design, stated :
It is intriguing that the movie "A Beautiful Mind" won an Academy Award during the Enron scandal - because its protagonist John Nash won a Nobel prize for proving Adam Smith's theory was incomplete. Self-interest alone can lead to disaster for all, Nash demonstrated. Self interest coupled with concern for the good of the group is most likely to lead to the benefit of all.[Emphasis added].
Some years earlier, Kristen Renwick Monroe in her book The Heart of Altruism - Perceptions of a Common Humanity had described altruism as an alternative to self interest, and suggested that a new approach to the study of subjects like economics, evolution biology, and psychology, could result from this perception. The sub-title of her book Perceptions of a Common Humanity is relevant to Sri Lanka's National Water Heritage. For, it has been stressed in publications both in Sri Lanka and abroad, that the ancient water and soil conservation ecosystems of Sri Lanka, misleadingly described as ancient irrigation systems, are part of a common heritage of all humankind.
Moreover, the micro level system of irrigation and distribution of water in community based ancient water and soil conservation ecosystems, as documented by Brohier (Fig. 2) illustrates group interest as against self-interest. On the other hand the modern system of irrigation and distribution of water is based entirely on self-interest and not on group interest. (Fig. 3). Thus it may be said that contrasting perspectives of group interest (akin to altruism) and self-interest, underly ancient and modern design layouts of these systems. Under the former system, following perceptions of a common humanity, the community is held together, naturally, for water management and other agricultural functions and activities, while in the latter system based on self-interest alone, the community is necessarily divided one against the other, and may eventually become fragmented. Problems on modern irrigation projects may be looked at afresh, with this awareness.
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100 DEVELOPMENT OF A NATIONAL STRATEGY FOR INCORPORATING TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
INTO DEVELOPMENT PRACTICES
Legal, Policy and Strategy Considerations Anandalal Nanayakkara 18/10, First Lane Allen Avenue, Dehiwala SRI LANKA
INTRODUCTION
Man is a creature of invention. In fact man’s very survival has been dependant on his ability to invent and to innovate – use his intellect to modify his surroundings for survival. Hence innovation as a concept is closely tied to human progress. It is this power of innovation together with the ability to observe, comprehend and experiment that has led to the development of knowledge in man in a variety of disciplines. These are the same faculties that have led to the rise of the vast body of knowledge that exists with traditional and indigenous communities and individuals today in the areas of science and elsewhere. Although the word science today has come to signify “western science”, Dharmasiri (1997) points out that there are as many sciences as there are cultures.
In Sri Lanka recorded history found in slab inscriptions, ola leaf manuscripts, oral traditions etc., record an immense body of Traditional Knowledge (TK). Some of the most important areas of this TK contain ancient rules and regimes that enabled man’s harmonious existence with the environment and sought to provide an equitable existence for the people. For example ancient rock inscriptions contain evidence of rules and regulations that applied to the management of the water resource. One of the well known inscriptions in this regard, the Kodavattavan inscription containing script of the 10th century described the elaborate rules and system of fines for violation of irrigation-related practices that existed. While the revenue farmers collected the fines, this inscription indicates that where the fine was disputed the affected villagers themselves would by consensus decide an alternate fine. Thus the villagers are safeguarded by the rules themselves against exploitation from the revenue farmers.
Similarly citing examples from the water heritage of Sri Lanka, Justice C G Weeramantry of the International Court of Justice, in determining the Hungary v Slovakia – the Danube case refers to balancing the needs of the present generation with those of posterity.
That these principles are not to be relegated to things of the past but could be adapted to bring vitality to today’s legal systems was demonstrated amply in the case of Bulankulama and six others v. Secretary, Ministry of Industrial Development and seven others1 - the Eppawela Phosphate Deposit Case. Here the Supreme Court citing Mahavamsa principles recognized a unique guardianship principle in relation to the resources of the people. This decision which established a milestone in the law in modern times relating to resource utilization and preservation states that “[t]he organs of State are guardians to whom the people have committed the care and preservation of the resources of the people. The preservation and efficient management of these resources is a shared responsibility.2” This then is a clear adoption of ancient TK principles to modern day requirements.
The very concept of “incorporating traditional knowledge into development” hinges on the fact:
1 Decided by the Supreme Court in June 2000. 2 Dr. A R B Amarasinghe – Justice of the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka.
101 that traditional knowledge is not a part of development at present, and that therefore the present development paradigm is based on a different set of knowledge systems i.e. non-traditional knowledge.
Hence in order to understand this concept better it becomes important to describe at least in broad terms the characteristics of TK
Defining TK
At present no single clear definition is available for TK. In the absence of a commonly accepted definition for TK the existing descriptions reflect the specializations of the authors and the objective they seek to achieve. For example, those seeking to protect TK would focus on the characteristics relevant to qualify TK for protection while an indigenous people focus would define TK as the knowledge base of such people.
The following are some of the descriptions that are being used in relation to TK: The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) currently uses the term "traditional knowledge" to refer to tradition-based literary, artistic or scientific works; performances; inventions; scientific discoveries; designs; marks, names and symbols; undisclosed information; and all other tradition-based innovations and creations resulting from intellectual activity in the industrial, scientific, literary or artistic fields. "Tradition-based" refers to knowledge systems, creations, innovations and cultural expressions which have generally been transmitted from generation to generation; are generally regarded as pertaining to a particular people or its territory; and are constantly evolving in response to a changing environment.3 For the purpose of Article 8j of the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Secretariat describes TK as the knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities around the world and that traditional knowledge is mainly of a practical nature, particularly in such fields as agriculture, fisheries, health, horticulture, and forestry.4 The draft LEGAL FRAMEWORK ON ACCESS TO TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE RELATING TO THE USE OF MEDICINAL PLANTS defines TK as including that body of knowledge, information and values that have evolved and been transmitted from generation to generation within and among individuals and communities in response to meeting their needs.
However, the WIPO paper cited above makes it clear that “a precise definition of traditional knowledge is not a crucial requisite for establishing a system for its protection”. Approaching TK from protection regime point of view WIPO states that it may be more important to identify some characteristics that TK must meet as a condition for its protection. This would be true for incorporating TK into development too. At this stage a precise definition is less important that identifying the characteristics of TK. CHARACTERISTICS OF TK
3 WIPO international forum on "Intellectual property and traditional knowledge: our identity, our future" organized by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) in cooperation with the government of the sultanate of Oman Muscat, January 21 and 22, 2002 information note on traditional knowledge repared by the international bureau of WIPO.
4 Web site on the Convention on Biological Diversity. Article 8(j): Traditional Knowledge, Innovations and practices. http://www.biodiv.org/programmes/socio-eco/traditional/default.asp.
102 Almost all writings on TK seek to identify it by its characters or by identifying the holders of TK. The following are some of the important characteristics that could describe TK. However it is important to stress that these are stated in general terms and that subject specific variations could occur.
Traditional Knowledge is the result of man’s interaction with the environment. This may be the temporal or the spiritual environment, the social, ecological, physical environments that surround man. It is an attempt at meeting basic human needs, which are perhaps the same in nature as they were thousands of years ago. Speaking of biotechnology, for example, Avramovic (1996) states that the “first generation or phase of biotechnology, based on empirical practice with minimum scientific or technological inputs, dates back to the Stone Age and uses biological organisms such as bacteria, yeasts, enzymes and traditional methods of fermentation to produce food and drink (such as bread and wine).” However, the activities or the labor that gave rise to the TK in a traditional society were not merely limited to fulfilling basic human needs. They were infact addressing broader issues upon which the very fabric of traditional society was based. Schumacher (1973) refers to the concept of “Right Livelihood” of the Buddha and arrives at what he calls Buddhist Economics. He states that from this point of view the function of work is at least threefold: to give a man a chance to utilize and develop his faculties, to enable him to overcome his egocentredness by joining with other people in a common task, to bring forth the goods and services needed for a becoming existence. Hence it follows that a strategy to mainstream TK should take into account the above and incorporate it, such a manner that the incorporation does not destroy the very conditions that led to the emergence of TK. This could very well happen if an attempt is made at converting to private goods that which is presently common as has been seen over and over in Sri Lanka and the region in relation to common property vs. private property.
The scope of TK is extremely varied and touches every area of human existence. It is a result of experience over centuries of existence yet applied to the immediate environment and includes practices, traditions, beliefs and learning. However, the use of TK in the present context should not necessarily be limited to TK associated with tangibles. On the conceptual and intangible plane too TK can provide us with important concepts, outlooks etc., that have immense utility value in the present context as indicated by the legal principles cited in the introduction to this paper.
TK is not considered an individual’s private property. The proprietary rights over TK are vested with a larger group that spreads beyond the present individual who holds the knowledge at present. This group may be a community as a whole or a group of persons with specialized skill. In some instances the obligations linked to TK may include a long line of departed teachers or past knowledge holders. There is an acknowledgement of the role of these predecessors in assimilating, improving upon and in transmitting the TK to the present holders. To complicate matters further, this group may not be easily identifiable individually or definable collectively.
TK is generally not documented in the manner of modern scientific writing. It is mostly unwritten or is written in cryptic form that requires a specialized set of skills to decipher. For example, in traditional medicine the slokas that contain formulas etc., refer to plants by their characteristics, their general location etc., which is intelligible only to another trained in the tradition. In some instances actual mathematical codes have also been utilized in documenting these knowledge systems. This therefore brings up the interesting observation that in fact this information may not
103 be in the public domain since even though documented in actual written form; a clear attempt has been made to preserve the secrets of their trade.
The transmission of traditional knowledge may or may not follow a proper structured academic course of instruction. Particularly in pursuits such as agriculture or fishing, for example, the transmission of TK would involve actual apprenticeship with an experienced practitioner. Thus the learning experience is one that involves a multiplicity of media including hearing, seeing, doing, repetition etc. Hence in most instances the student lives an entire tradition and not merely some components thereof. Inherent in this tradition is the right of the teacher to select the student to whom the most secret/sacred of the knowledge would be imparted. Indeed there are instances where traditional practitioners do not want to enter a formalized system due to the very fact that they would be denied this privilege of selecting whom to impart the knowledge to.
Generally in TK the holders of knowledge are also practitioners. In very limited areas of TK are there designated teachers (academics). Thus the practitioner is himself constantly testing his knowledge base with continuous changes being made to apply to changing circumstances. This also means however that it is not entirely a thing of the past but is an ongoing continuous process that is constantly evolving. Therefore TK should not be seen as a knowledge system that is at its peak and thus incapable of further evolution.
TK is as stated above a tradition. In most instances the knowledge base is so well integrated with the community and all the other practices, beliefs experiences of the community in that they all form one holistic paradigm. A pure division as to irrigation based TK, indigenous medicine based TK etc., may prove to be extremely artificial in nature and may result in knowledge without the tradition. The use of such knowledge also carries with it the moral/ethical obligation to be true to the teacher and the teaching.
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS AND TK IN SRI LANKA
Round about the medieval times in Europe, commerce came to be centralized and controlled by groups (guilds) who had cornered the market. In time however this right to control the market became a royal privilege, granted as patent monopolies. These were the forerunners of the present patent system. The present IPR system is based on the argument that innovation needs incentives, which are provided by the IPR system, in that the innovation may be commercialized as an exclusive right. However this clashes with free competition which eventually is to the consumers benefit. 5 Nevertheless, whatever the merits and demerits of the system, we see in the present context the knowledge systems that fall within the boundaries of the IPR system and those that do not.
Traditional Knowledge (TK) has largely functioned outside this IPR regime. In many instances TK has failed to meet the test of innovation and novelty required for IPR protection while in some instances it has not been put to the test.
The law relating to intellectual property in Sri Lanka is found in the Code of Intellectual Property Act No. 52 of 1979. The Code recognizes the following intellectual property rights; Patents, Copyright, Marks & trade names, Industrial designs and
5 Intellectual Property Patents, Trademarks and Copyright
104 Unfair competition.
Of the above, patents and copyright are the most significant in relation to TK.
Patents
A patent grants protection to an invention that is new, that involves an inventive step and is industrially applicable. Anything disclosed to the public, anywhere in the world, by written publication or disclosed in Sri Lanka by oral disclosure, by use or in any other way is considered prior art, which cannot be patented. 6 The contents of a domestic patent application with an earlier filing date or a priority date is also prior art. Novelty is that which is not anticipated by the prior art is considered new for the purpose of patenting while invention is that which, having regard to the prior art, contains an inventive step that would not have been obvious to a person having ordinary skill in the art.
In many instances TK which has been in existence for a long time and has been disclosed to the public already fails to meet the test required for patent protection. However, a new invention based on such prior art may be protected under patents where the new invention, which is the subject of the patent application, is not anticipated by the prior art or is not obvious to a person having ordinary skill in the art. Therefore IPR regimes clash with TK in that while it is considered prior art any novel, innovative step based on the TK could be patented. The ownership of a patent is in the inventor or joint inventors.
An application for the grant of a patent should disclose the invention in a manner sufficiently clear and complete for the invention to be evaluated and to be carried out by a person having ordinary skill in the art and should indicate the best mode known to the applicant for carrying out the invention. This then serves to reveal the invention.
The scope and extent of the protection granted by the patent is determined in terms of the claim/s included in the application. Every applicant should undergo an international type search. A patent may be denied or a granted patent invalidated on the grounds of public order. The patent protection for an invention is valid for 15 years from the date of the granting of the patent.
The owner of the patent may exploit the invention, assign or transmit the patent or conclude license contracts. Exploitation of a patent means: in a product patent - making, importing, offering for sale, selling and using the product and stocking the product for the purpose of offering for sale, selling or using; in a process patent - using the process or doing any of the acts referred to above in the case of a product patent, in respect of a product obtained directly by working the process.
Prior use however is also recognized in the patent process in that where at the date of the filing of a patent application a person was in good faith in Sri Lanka either using or had made serious preparation toward using the invention such person has the right to exploit the patented invention despite the granting of the patent. However such use is limited to Sri Lanka.
However the actual scope of these provisions in Sri Lankan law have not been adequately tested through litigation and hence no body of law on the subject is available.
6 Prior art is not defined in the same way globally. While Sri Lanka for example recognizes disclosure anywhere in the world as consisting of prior art some jurisdictions do not recognize disclosure beyond their borders as consisting of prior art. Hence TK in Sri Lanka may be patentable in such jurisdictions.
105
Copyright
Copyright grants protection to authors of original literary, artistic and scientific works. The rights granted by the statute are economic rights and moral rights.
Economic rights – These grant the author of a protected work the exclusive right to do or to authorise any other person to do the following: reproduce the work, make a translation, adaptation, arrangement or other transformation of the work, communicate the work to the public. These rights are protected during the life of the author and for fifty years after the author’s death.
Moral rights – These permit the author of a protected work to claim authorship of the work. The author may object to and seek relief in connection with any distortion, mutilation or other modification of or any other derogatory action in relation to the work where such action is or would be prejudicial to the author’s honour or reputation.
Derivative works are protected as would be in the case of original works. Infringement of these rights can be prohibited by injunction and damages too are available in this instance.
Folklore: Folklore is a special area of copyright limited to all literary and artistic works created in Sri Lanka by various communities, passed on from generation to generation and constituting one of the basic elements of the traditional cultural heritage. Folklore is protected without limitation in time. The Minister in charge of the subject of Culture exercises economic and moral rights in respect of these works.
STRATEGIES TO INCORPORATE TK INTO DEVELOPMENT
Strategies for the incorporation of TK into development would necessitate action at different levels – national, provincial and local. It would also lead to the development of cross-sectoral tools such as access to information policies etc., and awareness at all levels of development.
As pointed out above TK, which is at its present level as a result of generations of interactions with man’s environment presents us with an alternate approach to present day development. Schumacher points out that the problem of production is far from solved and that present development is rapidly using up a certain irreplaceable asset, namely the tolerance margins provided by nature. TK with its generations of harmonious interaction with nature could give some clues as to how development could proceed in a manner that these tolerance margins are not breached. In any event TK has an importance all of its own and requires to be preserved for future generations too.
However, any strategies to incorporate TK into development needs to initially recognize the developmental paradigm into which TK is to be incorporated. As explained above, the development paradigm today is largely based on non-traditional knowledge systems; hence the need for integration. Thus TK could be either central or peripheral to the development process into which it is to be integrated. For example, the development of an Ayurvedic village with traditional practitioners and medicinal plant gardens, traditional coaching and mentoring institutions could be one where TK is central to the development while the solution to a particular problem that has emerged within a larger development framework, such as the use of a certain traditional pesticide to a particular pest problem
106 within a larger cultivation program based on non-traditional knowledge systems would mean that the TK remains peripheral to the process. This determination could be an important one in designing such development activities and in addressing issues relating to compensation etc. In the former, the development process itself may suffice as compensation for the utilization of the knowledge, whereas in the latter where no direct benefits accrue to the knowledge holder/s, compensation may become a separate exercise.
The following are some possible strategies to incorporate TK into development.
Policy contains the general principles by which a government is guided in its management of public affairs, or the legislature in its measures.7 In relation to TK, policy may be laid down in a single policy document or be integrated into other relevant policies or both these measures may be adopted. Policy in effect would facilitate administrative, fiscal measures and the making of law. Incorporation of policy however could also be achieved by introducing enabling concepts such as access to information policy etc., which could facilitate participation.
Establish procedural guidelines for incorporation of TK into development. This could be developed by studying project and program life cycles and identifying possible intervention points for holders of TK and establishing guidelines on facilitating such intervention. Broader guidelines could also be established for decision-makers and project and program implementers in relation to the incorporation of TK. Linked to the establishment of guidelines is the need for training on this aspect. Some areas could be identified in which such pilot activities could be carried out.
Participation of the holders of TK in development activities that affect them or are based on TK is an important aspect in this exercise. This is also an issue that may have broader implications than TK and may go to the root of principles of good governance. This matter has received much attention in SL as stakeholder participation and consultation in decision making. In Sri Lanka the public participation guidelines on EIA for example lay out a comprehensive process for stakeholder participation. Based on such experience it is possible to establish rules for participation in decision making. The level of participation and the process are matters that require further development. Particularly where the TK is the enter for the development process such participation and consultation would have to happen at the design stage of development activities and continue throughout the implementation and any post implementation steps of a development activity. Here the participation would need to be full and comprehensive. Participation is also linked to other needs such as “access to information”, “access to justice” etc. Prior informed consent is a tool utilized in the Convention on Biological Diversity as a precursor to access. The draft LEGAL FRAMEWORK ON ACCESS TO TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE RELATING TO THE USE OF MEDICINAL PLANTS defines prior informed consent as “the consent given for access to traditional knowledge relating to the use of medicinal plants after having received full disclosure of the reasons for such access including the eventual use of such traditional knowledge, the specific steps such access would entail, the risks involved and any implications of such access as may be reasonable foreseen”.
The basis on which TK is to be incorporated into development has to be on a foundation of recognition and respect for TK. Recognition of TK may also require examination of and remedying existing conflicts in law and policy relating to TK. Such conflicts could exist in many areas of the law including IPR as demonstrated under the section on IPR and TK in Sri Lanka.
7 Black’s Law Dictionary. (1983) Abridged fifth edition. West Publishing Co., St. Paul, Minn.
107 Recognize and respect the associated rights such as access to resources etc., which are required for the working of TK. For example the traditional snake bite physician today runs the risk of being prosecuted under the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance for possessing protected species of snakes. Access to plant species found within protected areas that are required for traditional medicine is another example.
Recognize the very environmental factors that led to the emergence of TK and that led to the fostering of these practices and address developmental objectives on these lines. Ananda K Coomaraswamy (1907/1908) refers to the interdependence of all persons in traditional society, the self contained village structure in Sri Lanka that led to the emergence of TK as well as the state patronage which fostered it and laments the impact on these arts subsequent to the destruction of the State patronage of crafts which followed upon the British occupation. Hence any attempt at incorporating TK should be based upon a proper recognition of TK and a restoration of the “State patronage” adapted to the present context. If not this decade may see some of the most important areas of TK in Sri Lanka disappear permanently. Therefore appropriate financial mechanisms need to be established and institutions to foster TK should be established.
Related to institutions to foster TK is the need for TK dissemination centers. These could be actual institutions or other forms of media that enable holders and practitioners of TK to meet and exchange ideas and this contribute to the evolution of TK.
Empower TK holders. Recognize the formal and informal institutions that exist today that foster the preservation and growth of TK. Where appropriate examine the laws relating to societies, co- operatives etc., to enable such institutions to be established and operated in the traditional manner and with greater ease.
SOME RELEVANT LOCAL INSTRUMENTS
There are several instruments in Sri Lanka that could be important in devising this strategy. Some of these are:
The paper on Access to Information containing a draft law on access to information prepared by the Law Commission of Sri Lanka.
The Fair Administrative Guidelines prepared by the Law Commission of Sri Lanka.
The National Involuntary Resettlement Policy of Sri Lanka approved by the Cabinet on ….
The public participation provisions relating to EIA in the National Environmental Act and the Coast Conservation Act.
The Ayurveda Act
The Draft law on access to genetic resources of the Ministry of Environment.
The Draft LEGAL FRAMEWORK ON ACCESS TO TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE RELATING TO THE USE OF MEDICINAL PLANTS of the Ministry of Indigenous Medicine.
108 The Code of Intellectual Property Law
SOME RELEVANT INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS
There are several important international instruments that relate to the subject of TK. Article 8j of the Convention on Biological Diversity for example states that: "Each contracting Party shall, as far as possible and as appropriate: Subject to national legislation, respect, preserve and maintain knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyles relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity and promote their wider application with the approval and involvement of the holders of such knowledge, innovations and practices and encourage the equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of such knowledge innovations and practices"
Some of the important international instruments are:8 1. The Convention on Biological Diversity 2. UN Convention to Combat Desertification in Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and Desertification, Particularly in Africa 3. UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women 4. UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination 5. UN Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime Of Genocide 6. UN Draft Declaration of Principles on Human Rights and the Environment 7. UN Draft Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People - The Commission on Human Rights of the United Nations has established an open-ended, inter-sessional working group to elaborate a draft United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. Work is in progress 8. UN Declaration on the Human Right to Development 9. Draft International Covenant on Environment and Development 10. Agenda 21 - Principle 22 of the main document of the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro recognizes that indigenous peoples have a vital role to play in environmental management and development and recognizes their TK. 11. International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources 12. Non-Legally Binding Authoritative Statement of Principles of Global Consensus on the 13. Management, Conservation and Sustainable Development of All Types of Forests 14. UN International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 15. UN International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights 16. International Labor Organization Convention 169 Concerning Indigenous and Tribal People in Independent Countries - Calls for action to protect the rights of indigenous peoples 17. Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations 18. Rio Declaration 19. Universal Declaration of Human Rights 20. Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property 21. Recommendation on the Safeguarding of Traditional Culture and Folklore
8 Source – Guidelines for Governments - Integrating Indigenous Knowledge in Project Planning and Implementation - A Joint Publication of CIDA, ILO, KIVU Nature, and the World Bank by Alan Emery. http://www.worldbank.org/afr/ik/guidelines/governmentguides.pdf and the web site on the Convention on Biological Diversity. Article 8(j): Traditional Knowledge, Innovations and Practices. http://www.biodiv.org/programmes/socio- eco/traditional/default.asp.
109 22. Declaration on the Principles of International Cultural Cooperation 23. Convention Concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage 24. Model Provisions for National Laws on Protection of Expressions of Folklore Against Illicit Exploitation and Other Prejudicial Actions 25. UN Vienna Declaration and Program of Action 26. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) 27. World Bank – Program launched to promote indigenous peoples' development and to incorporate TK in to the development process.
References
1. Avramovic, M (1996) An Affordable Development? Biotechnology, Economics and the Implications for the Third World. 2. Chisum, Donald S. and Jacobs, Michael A. (1992). Understanding Intellectual Property Law. Matthew Bender & Co. Inc. NY. 3. Coomaraswamy, Ananda K (1907/08). Mediaeval Sinhalese Art. 3rd Edition 1979. State Printing Corporation, Sri Lanka. 4. Dharmasiri, G (1997). The Nature of Medicine. Lalith Graphics, Kandy, Sri Lanka. 5. Miller, Arthur R. and Davis Michael H (1990). Intellectual Property – Patents, Trademarks and Copyright. – In a NutShell. West Publishing Co. St. Paul, MN. 6. Schumacher E F (1973). Small is beautiful – A study of economics as if people mattered. Abacus, London.
110 DEVELOPMENT OF A NATIONAL STRATEGY FOR INCORPORATING TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE INTO DEVELOPMENT PRACTICES
Traditional Knowledge Pandula Endagama 4A, 7th Lane, Pagoda Road, Nugegoda, SRI LANKA
What is it and why we should go for it
It gives me and many more like me much pleasure to see that the world is at last beginning to pay due attention to Traditional Knowledge as a subject of immense importance. This is no doubt due to the realisation of the undeniable truth that traditional knowledge can provide answers to many of the problems the mankind is faced with today. "As the awareness of the potential power of indigenous knowledge in the development cycle has increased, we now find most of the United Nations agencies reflecting this awareness. Projects undertaken by FAO, ILO, WHO, UNDP and UNESCO are now based on indigenous knowledge" (D.Michael Warren) This seminar is a clear proof of this My only hope is that this new resurgence will be genuine and will not stop halfway for reasons unknown to any. I am compelled to make this comment since I have had painful experience of being badly let down in this campaign of resurrecting our wealth of indigenous traditional knowledge that we are so proud of way back in the early 70's.
I was one among several others, like Mr. D.L.O.Mendis who is here today, who were in the forefront of the campaign for the resurrection and the exploitation of the rich and vast wealth of indigenous traditional knowledge that we firmly believed could provide solutions to many of our problems from the early 1970's specially after the "great oil crisis" the entire world was faced with then. We deliberated much, solicited to get the blessings of the technocrats, tried to draw the attention of the authorities but sadly nothing happened and not even a scant respect was paid to the idea despite undergoing all the numerous hardships emanating from the problems created by the oil crisis and the lack of funds for development. Not even the UNESCO sponsored national seminar organized by the UNESCO National Council of Sri Lanka and Dept of Ayurveda in 1983 under the title "Traditional Wisdom" could convince the authorities about the need to pay due attention to this subject area. I feel it very much because I had the fortune or the misfortune of delivering the main lecture at this seminar, proceedings of which were published at Govt expense. Heavy emphasis laid on the value of resorting to traditional knowledge and technology in the global efforts to save, protect and enhance environment too had not been able to bring desired results here in Sri Lanka for unknown and unfortunate reasons. Hence the initiative taken by the IUCN Chapter of Sri Lanka deserves unreserved commendation of all the true lovers of traditional knowledge and wisdom.
What is Traditional Knowledge? Before we embark on a definition it is worth noting that often the same thing is referred to as Indigenous Knowledge, Local Knowledge, Folk Knowledge and even Past Knowledge. Traditional Technology too has often been used as a synonym for this. All these additional terms provide us some clues in finding a proper definition to the relevant word. It is indigenous and local and hence relates to a particular locality and area. It is also folk in character since it is the knowledge of the people of a particular locality. It comes from the past and is transmitted orally from generation to generation. Hence one can quite conveniently define traditional knowledge as " the local knowledge that is unique to members of a given society or culture transmitted from the ancient past by oral tradition from generation to generation".
111 It is interesting to note that according to some " The term "traditional" also calls to mind the technological conservatism which is sometimes popularly identified with a lack of change" (Robert D & Bonnie G MacDougall- Sinhalese Domestic Life in Space and Time 1977). It is not unreasonable to argue that the apathy displayed by many towards traditional knowledge emanates from this misconception. No knowledge or skill and the technology associated with the knowledge would ever persist or perpetuate unless it answers the needs of the people who possess it. Instead they would abandon such ineffective or non-productive things and embrace new ones that would answer their needs. This has been the natural law from the dawn of civilization and hence it has to be emphasised that the traditional knowledge at no time had been conservative or shy of change. Archaeological evidences amply prove to us that over the period of time artifacts used by the successive generations have changed to embrace the innovations of different periods. This indeed is one way of dating them and also tracing the social history of different periods. Hence it can be shown that traditional knowledge had never been lagging behind, instead, it had been nourished and enhanced by succeeding generations. It has survived the test of time and turbulence simply because it has been progressive enough to fulfill the services expected of it at a given period of time by the people of a given society and culture. This certainly is the reason why such knowledge is often referred to as the appropriate knowledge or technology.
As to why such appropriate set of knowledge had not been used in development efforts in our countries no better explanations can be found than ones given by the westerners themselves. D. Michael Warren, Professor and Director, Center for Indigenous Knowledge for Agriculture and Rural Development, Iowa State University USA has to say this. "Unfortunately, this Euro-American bias has continued into post-colonial educational systems and had a negative impact on the values and attitudes of many young people who continue to regard local knowledge as inferior to that originating in the western world." (Indigenous Knowledge and Sustainable Development- University of Sri Jayawardenapura 1996).
This indeed is what the colonial masters wanted to achieve as is evident from the findings of the Colonial people themselves. George Birdwood, an eminent Englishman had said this " Our education has destroyed their love of their own literature delight in their own arts and worst of all their repose in their own homes- their parents, their sisters, their very wives. It has brought discontent into every family so far as its baneful influences have reached" Ananda Coomarasway that truly great patriot of Mother Lanka went on to assess the consequences of this pathetic situation and said that all the interest in and love for their past is lost and as a result their own history, heritage and cultural achievements have been forgotten and despised. Hence the ill-fate that our valuable wealth of indigenous knowledge had to bear with.
A very unfortunate trend was to be seen till recent times to belittle the traditional knowledge by fitting it against the so-called modern scientific knowledge which was claimed to be complete and all embracing. It implied that traditional knowledge was limited and restricted. This only reflected the ignorance of its advocates since there cannot be anything called modern as everything the modern man possesses is the mere developments of the knowledge transmitted by the forefathers. Hence it would be seen that traditional knowledge touched upon every sphere that man was skilled enough to trek on. It is the knowledge acquired by man based on experience in his struggle for survival that passed down the ages during which process it got enriched, sharpened and consolidated. Gordon Childe made it very clear when he said that "Even the simplest tool made out of a broken bough or a chipped stone is the fruit of long experience- of trials and errors, impressions noticed, remembered and compared. The skill to make it has been acquired by observation, by recollection and by experiment. It may seem an exaggeration, but it is yet true to say that any tool is an embodiment of science"(What Happened in History 1954). If so it can be argued that traditional knowledge
112 encompassed all the areas of human behaviour or all aspects of human life. To that extent it is complete and it is the precursor to the so-called modern knowledge. All we can see is that modern knowledge is more refined, sophisticated and sharpened but there is hardly anything that was not covered by the traditional knowledge.
For instance, ignorance has made some vociferous men to claim that it is the modern man who had been able to conquer the outer space. They have to be forgiven for their ignorance of the Sri Lankan (or the oriental) tradition which claimed about the Lord Buddha's visits to outer world planets and the teachings about the living being in the outer world. I do not suggest that the people in the past have been going to the outer space but emphasise the fact that they have had the knowledge about the possibility. So is the case with the discovery of the aeroplanes. Several centuries before Wright brothers were born, Sri Lankan tradition had it that King Rawana used an aerial vehicle to travel about. Tradition says that Wariyapola derived its name from being an airstrip. Lakegala and Ussangoda are two other spots identified by tradition as airstrips. Chronicles record that in the pre- christian era Sinhala Kings had been making an annual offering of bathing the Mahatupa (Ruwanweliseaya) by mechanically pumping water up to the pinnacle of the stupa. Almost all the modern scientific knowledge associated with food technology had been used (and continue to be used by the rural communities) in the island in the past as is proved by recorded documents and by the continuation of the traditions up to the present times.
Why is that traditional knowledge is not discernible? Why is it not accessible ?..There are several reasons that can be attributed. Main one is the absence of genuine urge to attempt to get at it. Colonial mentality has prevented them from seeking for it. Otherwise it is still discernible everywhere specially among the rural communities who have been ones to fondly cherish them. The very character inherent to it namely the transmission by oral tradition from generation to generation can be seen as another reason for its obscurity. In other words it was not recorded or written as it is the case with the modern knowledge. Hence one should not be blind to the possible fate it would have succumbed to in the face of the hardships encountered at the hands of the imperialists during the colonial rule. More importantly the so-called intelligensia in this country even after the political liberation in 1948 had failed to fulfill their duty by the country to resurrect these indigenous treasures buried by the colonial masters before they would decay into extinction and lost for ever.
However it must be emphasised over and over again that all these valuable knowledge is still discernible through the creative works they have helped to bring about and survive up to now. Vast irrigational projects spread all over the length and breadth of the country clearly display the traditional knowledge related to that field but the only problem is that the complexity is so great that the modern scientists find it difficult to understand and interpret it. Stupendous stupas and other buildings out of which only the foundations of some remain sufficiently tell us the depth of the knowledge possessed by the ancient people but it is more or less beyond the comprehension of the modern man. Art galleries like temples amply prove to us the nature of the body of knowledge possessed by the forefathers for manufacture of different paints and the recent archaeological findings in Anuradhapura have substantiated them beyond doubt.
All these are the products of the knowledge possessed by the people of the past. These could not have been possible without the help of some mechanism developed, which we call the technology. However we have fallen into a colonial trap where we blindly follow the western models indiscriminately and hence loose sight of our own brand of technology. Technology according to the western concept is the "Science of the Industrial Arts" (Oxford Dictionary) or "The Science of the mechanical and industrial arts as contrasted with the fine arts" (Collins English Dictionary). Indigenous knowledge has evolved its own technology that was not necessarily mechanical or physical. The
113 indigenous farmer lit lamps in the early hours of the evening at fours of the paddy field and successfully achieved the objectives, yet this technology was not mechanical though intended to achieve what any mechanical device would have achieved. This tells us much about the nature of the indigenous knowledge we are possessed with. It has evolved to suit the natural, environmental, cultural and other factors we are accustomed to and served the utilitarian purposes of its adherents smoothly and successfully with no harm to its ideals and values in society. Rather it enhanced them. Hence it is rightly referred to as the appropriate knowledge and technology and any alien system will prove to be inappropriate. This however does not imply that traditional knowledge has remained in its prestine purity without any influence from outside. Truth is far from it. Sri Lankan traditional knowledge had always benefitted from other cultures but only in so far as they did not infringe on the basic value system of the society. It is this catholicity of the forefathers that helped it to withstand all the impacts of attacks and infiltrations through the years.
Therefore I believe that none would disagree with me when I say that there is the urgent need to resurrect traditional knowledge because it is the best for us. It costs us less, suits our local conditions and it is easy to manage. It depends on local resources and knowledge and hence we require no imported expertise to operate it. It is sustainable and it helps in sustainable development process. It is our own and hence it gives us pride to be a part of our own system. All that we need is the will to go for it. It is there for us only if we desire to go for it. The question about its validity for the day is only a cowardly excuse by those who do not want to be freed from the shackles of colonialism. It is still relevant and valid for today certainly with necessary adaptations. One cannot deny that its development was retarded by the colonial powers and hence it needs some updating which can be achieved through judicious application by the relevant technocrats who would have at heart a love for their own things. Hence seminars of this nature serve two major purposes I suppose. One is to take stock of the forgotten wealth of our own knowledge and second is to identify the true lovers of this proud body of knowledge which bear our identity. I wish you all the success to achieve both these objectives simultaneously.
Thank you for the great opportunity afforded to me to pay my appreciation to the wisdom and ingenuity of our great forefathers.
114 DEVELOPMENT OF A NATIONAL STRATEGY FOR INCORPORATING TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
INTO DEVELOPMENT PRACTICES
Gender Mainstreaming: Strategy for Incorporating Traditional Knowledge into Mainstream Development Prof. Anoja Wickramasinghe Department of Geography The University of Peradeniya Peradeniya
Abstract Gender mainstreaming has been introduced since 1980s to incorporate gender concerns into the mainstream of development. Its relevance to the paradigm of development has not been properly understood due to the poor adoption of the concept and also to considering it as a strategy relating to women in development.
This paper intends to discuss the adaptability of gender mainstreaming in the process of incorporating traditional knowledge into the mainstream of development. It shows how gender, as a social reality that exists across regions and cultures, has allowed to accumulate the socially promoted and strengthened domain of knowledge through work and experience. It also argues in favour of its validity as a strategy to guarantee the partnership of men and women in development rather than using knowledge extracted through a process of research. Evidence drawn from various researches demonstrates that gender as a framework has the potentials to gather, store, analyze and present information on the traditional knowledge under two distinctive categories, namely men and women to initiate the process of planning with the carriers of knowledge.
This paper shows that in incorporating traditional knowledge to the development planning process it is more appropriate to center the planning process from and around the practitioners and carriers of traditional knowledge. The reasons are multiple. Men and women in every society are the generators, carriers and practitioners of knowledge. They have accumulated distinctive domains of knowledge. Such knowledge is associated with their roles and responsibilities over reproduction, production and society. The disaggregation of information in terms of men’s and women’s relations as has been defined by the society allows the development practitioners to formulate policies on grassroots realities, and also to address gender specific issues impeding the incorporation of traditional knowledge.
The Domains of Traditional Knowledge Traditional knowledge deals with a vast array of sectors, geographical areas, environments, resources, human culture, communities that one could think of. It is difficult to sort out what should be incorporated into mainstream development, because the wave of interests on indigenous knowledge has changed from time to time. The emphasis has been heavy on natural resource management, agriculture, climate and water, food security, technology, genetic resources and biodiversity, ecosystems, ethno-botany, ethno-forestry etc. The knowledge on all these multiple aspects is difficult to extract, because it is an integral part of the social systems, which are also rich in spiritual rituals.
The experimental and empirical knowledge has allowed people to develop and appropriate strategies to cope up with their natural environment for survival, through agriculture, healing and health care resource management, often with some specific ritual/spiritual performances. Men and women, with their special capacity have accumulated knowledge distinctive to their gender to deal with the survival.
115 Learning with people has allowed reformulating strategies to incorporate traditional knowledge as a social capital to invest in resource management.
The new area that concentrates on traditional knowledge has been able to promote new disciplines ehtno-botany, ethno-biology, ethno-science, ethno-forestry, ethno-ecology (See Minnis, (2000); Poffenberger, (1998); Zerner, (2000); Ramakrishnan et. al., 2002). The study of various disciplines of a particular ethnic group or community has allowed to bring in broad social and ecological contexts together. The individual disciplines that are geared towards tapping traditional knowledge as the basis for investigation are numerous. It has allowed to mobilize local capital on academic research in the areas of biodiversity conservation, mapping of landscapes and biodiversity, and also in botanical and environmental research. In the Andean region Zimmerer (1991) has used folk taxonomies to describe potatoes. Ecology, use, phenotype and the degree of polytype used in such classifications have been incorporated to build up cultural ecology. The Andean farmers, keep thousands of potato varieties, adapted to a wide range of edaphic, topographic, climatic and elevation conditions (Brush et. al., 1981). The striking feature reported by Brush (2000) is related to gender specific knowledge on potato varieties. Accordingly, ‘women are involved in every stage of potato production: seed selection, production, harvest, storage, processing, and cooking. Men acknowledge women’s superiority in plant knowledge and defer to them when questions arise about potato identification’. Examples of this nature prevail across regions (See Shiva, 1991) on various production systems. Therefore the whole array of knowledge marked with distinctive features need to be sought out in relation to gender.
The arguments in favour of traditional knowledge have strengthened the policy concerns over the people’s partnership in resource management. A whole domain of empirical knowledge has been accumulated by the people on the basis of their experience while dealing with their environments and resources. The body of knowledge centred around the economic value of plants and animal species is vast (See Berlin, 1992). This has allowed to contextualize the ethnocentricism related to nature and natural resources, where ‘ethno’ refers to the perceptions or views of indigenous groups that are taken into consideration. The traditional communities in forest fringes have specialized in the collection, processing, and utilizing the food and medicines based entirely on forest vegetation. The tribals of India use nearly 8000 wild pants for medicinal purposes and 3500 for food (Ramakirishnan et al., 2002). Over 200 species of herbs, shrubs, and trees are used by traditional medical practitioners in Dzao community in Vietnam (Sowerwine et. al., 1998). The traditional healers in the Waleboda use more than 640 wild plants located in the Southern fringe of the Adam’s Peak. Medicinal preparations are used for preventive and curative purposes. They know the special preparations or diets consisting of nutritious and health enhancing varieties through their own experience. The medicines used to treat rheumatism, infection, snakebite, disease etc. have been developed through their experiments and experience.
The Relevance of the Concept of Gender Gender is a feature found in every culture and society across geographical regions. The issues related to its content have led to serious discussions throughout since the 1980s in every possible area pertaining to development. Many definitions have been introduced by academicians and development practitioners with the interest of promoting awareness and also to introduce wider perspectives of society, culture, production, reproduction as well as the environment. According to Østergaard (1992), “the concept of gender makes it possible to distinguish the biologically founded, sexual differences between women and men from the culturally determined differences between the roles given to or undertaken by women and men respectively in a given society”.
From the perspectives of traditional knowledge it is clear that the concept of gender allows us to deal with the whole domain in relation to the provisions made by society for men and women to generate
116 knowledge and continue. Therefore, the first common principle emerging here is that both gender roles and traditional knowledge are socially constructed. Their differences are shaped by ideological, historical, religious, ethnic, economic and cultural determinants (Whitehead, 1979), and all these aspects have featured the distinctive systems of traditional knowledge. Traditional knowledge has been taken into consideration in many areas pertaining to forestry, agriculture, biodiversity, resource use and management etc. All these areas are placed in the domain of production, and under the authority of owners. As a result less opportunities have been opened up for women to contribute to them due to the conventional ideology that women’s engagement is confined to welfare related areas such as the provision of health care, nutrition, drinking water, sanitation etc.
A number of repercussions have emerged: 1. The central role played by women in procuring and producing materials of practical gender needs, primarily for subsistence, and their contacts with the natural environments, has been less recognized; 2. Traditional knowledge and practices accumulated over generations have been left unrecognized; 3. The potentials for incorporating traditional knowledge and practices into the day to day life has been reduced (separation of biodiversity from food security is one example);
4. The strength of the traditional knowledge has been weakened due to the exclusion of gender specific knowledge and also to the fast integration of new technologies focused on mass production; 5. Traditional knowledge and practices have been separated from the mainstream of development, and it is placed in a newly formed compartment under the label of ‘Traditional Knowledge’.
This implies that the incorporation of traditional knowledge to mainstream development practices, in a sustainable manner, would be possible only through a process of recognition, restoration, and stimulation. Such process will allow incorporating the variation and the variability of traditional knowledge, and the differences that exit across cultures and ecological systems or zones.
The second principle is that mode of production and lifestyle is fundamental to gender divisions of work and traditional knowledge. Both the concept of gender, and traditional knowledge deal with cultural aspects of a given society, including livelihood and lifestyle, and the mode of production. The knowledge that one could gain depends upon what a person does, and continues to do as a producer of goods or services. The production and social activity through which traditional knowledge has been gained has been organized in relation to gender. The third principle is that both gender and traditional knowledge have evolved in relation to local conditions including culture and the sources of livelihood (foraging, pastoralism, agriculture) as such there is strong ground for adopting gender mainstreaming to incorporate traditional knowledge.
The examples provided by Bonvillian (1995) referring to various systems of production, and also in Sri Lanka relating to biodiversity and food security (Wickramasinghe, 2002) could be taken to demonstrate the need for a strategy to incorporate the distinctive domains of knowledge. According to Bonvillian (1995), ……
“Economies among foragers are based on division of labor by gender. As a general pattern, women are responsible for gathering wild vegetation, and frequently participate in hunting small animals and birds. Men provide their families with animal meat and fish. Complementarity of subsistence pursuits allocated by gender is rational given women’s reproductive roles”.
117 Similarly Lee (1982) has shown that resources obtained by men in hunting and gathering amount to about 44%, compared to the women’s contribution of 56%, obtained from gathering. In Sri Lanka nearly 58-72% of the forest products of food and medicinal qualities are gathered by women. Mostly women using their traditional knowledge and experience manage the refugiums of plants with food and medicinal products. Their knowledge is widely used to maintain Community-based Gene-Banks in India. The gender roles in all approaches to genetic resources conservation, sustainable use, and equitable sharing of benefits need attention (Swaminathan, 1999).
The examples available in literature in favour of using ‘gender mainstreaming’ as a strategy to incorporate traditional knowledge are vast. This strategy will avoid the problems that could potentially arise by incorporating the extracts of traditional knowledge.
Gender Mainstreaming The academic discourse on development, development planning, Gender and Development (GAD) and Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) have introduced phenomenal changes to the process of development. The crucial issue faced by many development practitioners is how to incorporate the wide range of variables such as gender, traditional knowledge, culture, technology etc, into the development process in a holistic manner. One inherent problem is that the traditional knowledge governance systems are complex. It involves culture, tradition, spiritual rituals, history, religion, and also the resource use and conservation strategies on lands that people occupy. Therefore, as the U.S. National Research Council (1992) highlighted, there is no single traditional knowledge system that can be used to preserve biological diversity in all areas. The other problem is that the reasons for promoting, protecting, incorporating and conserving the traditional knowledge vary. The reason for incorporating traditional knowledge relating to biological resources is that it is important for the promotion of environmental and food security. In regard to forest management the traditional knowledge has been recognized as the means to endorse and strengthen the interface between people and forest management (Saigal, et. al., 1999; Fisher, 2000). These circumstances point out that the cultural context is a prerequisite for the incorporation of local knowledge in the process of mainstreaming. The most important strategy that national governments could adopt to incorporate traditional knowledge would be to connect carriers of knowledge with policy formulation.
The difficulty in creating new institutional mechanisms, structures and a revolutionary process, under many circumstances has often been realized. A procedure of grafting them onto the existing systems has been followed. For instance, attempts have been made since 1980s to incorporate ‘gender’ and ‘traditional knowledge’ in attachments. Both of them dominate the social system which has “Mainstreaming” in the whole arena of development marked with an apparent epistemological shift from ‘integrating’ to ‘mainstreaming’. In fact mainstreaming directly solves the problems associated with the integration of various aspects in compartments.
Mainstreaming, in its real terms, recognizes the importance of under-utilized resource/resources like traditional knowledge that development must incorporate for more effective and efficient development. The same has been put forward with regard to ‘gender’ (See Moser, 1993). Various agencies such as like USAID, SIDA, CIDA, NORAD, FAO, RWEDP, IFAD, Wolrd Band etc. have concentrated on gender mainstreaming in most of their support programmes.
The policy objectives to incorporate traditional knowledge into the mainstream development planning process provide a range of options, but may lead to conflicts of objectives between the different sectors and stakeholders. The first question raised here is ‘whose traditional knowledge’ could be incorporated? Traditional knowledge includes a vast array of areas, and therefore as a follow-up to the first question ‘what areas of knowledge’ need incorporation comes in. The most crucial to the
118 paradigm of development is whether the development practitioners intend to incorporate the knowledge extracted from the knowers or wouldn’t it be better to integrate carriers of knowledge to ensure that they become direct partners of the development process and then what should be the process to be followed in incorporating the whole array of traditional knowledge.
There are a number of principles of policy implications related to mainstreaming which are of particular interest in considering gender mainstreaming as a strategy for incorporating traditional knowledge. The first is that it allows to bring carriers of knowledge, with their distinctive domains, to a threshold level from which they can enter the mainline policy formulation, implementation and the monitoring process as equal partners. The second principle is that by doing so the development process gets geared towards the needs of the people, men and women. The third is that it helps avoid the issues related to leaving gender and traditional knowledge towards the edge of development and possibly help to address the weaknesses that many countries have experienced with ‘integrating’ in attachments. This urges us to examine various processes of mainstreaming through which indigenous knowledge could be incorporated.
Gendered Nature of Traditional Knowledge Traditional knowledge, being a property of a social system, has been generated, accumulated, transferred and put into practice by the people. The features of this paradigm of knowledge are determined on three crucial factors. The first is who does what; the second is what is the local context within which the individuals perform to fulfill their roles and responsibilities; and the third is what is the governance influencing their conduct, pattern of engagement and behaviour. Men and women generate their knowledge through experience. Self-learning, observation, social interactions, and their own experiments are the primary sources and therefore traditional knowledge has a strong contextuality (See Table 1). Although there exists a common agreement on traditional knowledge as an integral part of society/community, the debate on the distinctiveness of men’s and women’s knowledge continues. The knowledge accumulated by women by following others from childhood and also by engaging in village-based activities is broader.
The basic argument in favour of gender mainstreaming in incorporating traditional knowledge and practices into the development process is guided by two conditions found across societies.
These are: 1) gender relations; 2) division of labour.
Gender relations deal with the relative position of men and women in the division of responsibilities, resources, sharing of benefits, decision-making or power etc. The second refers to the division or the allocation of men’s and women’s labour on various activities. The social expectations placed on them or the conventional ideology influences the ways in which their labour is divided, and the pattern of their engagement. The emerging principle is that the roles played and responsibilities borne by men and women differ in most cases and complimentary in some cases. Therefore their gender relations fathom the knowledge that men and women have accumulated.
119 Table 1. Sources of knowledge on the function and uses of the forest
Feature Source Total 1 2 3 4 5 6 Ecosystem variation * * * * -- -- 4 Species * * * * -- -- 4 Specific niches -- * * * -- -- 3 Pockets for specific products -- * * * -- -- 3 Phenological cycle of species -- * * ------2 Forest products * * * * -- -- 4 Service functions of the forest * * * ------3 Uses * * * * -- -- 4 Harvesting period -- * * * -- -- 3 Harvesting methods -- * * * -- -- 3 Forest regeneration -- * * * -- -- 3 Seasonal variations -- * * * -- -- 3 Processing forest products -- * * * -- -- 3 Wildlife -- * * * -- -- 3 Wildlife movement -- * * * -- -- 3 Hunting * * * ------3 Wildlife breeding periods -- * * ------2 Risk areas/period -- * * ------2 Wildlife risks * -- * ------2 Spirits -- -- * * -- -- 2 Rituals -- -- * * -- -- 2 Customs -- -- * * -- -- 2 Social -- -- * * -- -- 2 obligations/commitments source: Wickramasinghe, Anoja. (`1997) 1 = own experience; 2 = observations; 3 = parents and community; 4 = following others from childhood; 5 = outsiders; 6 = formal channels and mass media
What is done by men and women in a village habitat, or a production systems, society and in a location, is not uniform. It is influenced by the relative position of men and women and the tasks that they conventionally attend to and the responsibilities undertaken as members of families, communities and various habitats. Women being responsible mainly for the well being directly deal with the work, space and resources essential for the reproduction domain. Men being responsible for supporting respective families through generated income and materials dominate the production sphere. Although there is no hard and fast rule regarding the boundary between these two spheres and the division of responsibilities, it is the conventional ideology that has inculcated the two spheres dominated by the two genders. This conventional division to which men and women are attached has been allowed to generate, accumulate, enrich and transfer the knowledge specific to various geographical areas.
For example, plants used for generation by the people have been derived from the forests without formal instructions. The traditional knowledge on their phenological cycle, uses and processing requirements has been gained while attending to their gender specific tasks as gatherers and users. The gender specific information gathered in Waleboda referring to widely used 10 species of food values, 20 species of medicinal uses and 5 species of other uses shows that women’s traditional
120 knowledge on Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFP) of subsistence values are stronger than that of men. Information given in Table 2, reveals that the whole domain of knowledge on number of species of practical uses, their distribution, abundance, uses and processing requirements are gender specific.
Table 2. Gender specific nature of the traditional knowledge
Area of knowledge Food Medicinal Other (pandanas, reeds, rattan,fibre,resin) Men Wome Men Wome Men Women n n Distribution/location 48 100 62 95 68 70 Areas of abundance 42 80 66 90 42 85 Seasonality 62 98 72 81 63 100 Uses 08 100 60 88 86 100 Processing technology 06 100 62 94 66 100 Number of species regularly 08 21 18 32 11 14 collected Source: Wickramasinghe, Anoja. (2002), Unpublished Research Report.
Traditional knowledge being accumulated internally is governed by the local context. It includes gender, local biophysical context, culture and livelihood. Therefore it is right to say that the domain knowledge carried in every society has distinctive associations with men’s and women’s responsibilities. Moreover, there is enough evidence to show that the knowledge relating to various areas in the village habitats, forests, water bodies, fields etc. depend upon the nature of human contacts, time that people spend in each area, intensity of contacts, and their linkages. For instance, previous research has revealed that women’s traditional knowledge over the phenological cycle of the forests has been influenced by the social domain; their needs. Women’s engagement in collecting non timber forest products (NTFP) for subsistence has inculcated their gender specific connection. In line with this women dominate the knowledge on processing and traditional technology. Similarly it has been found that the mixed gardens with multiple output with materials of subsistence uses are promoted using women’s knowledge. Their occupation in such areas is several times greater than of men. As a result systems symbolically represent the gender specific knowledge, and the key point emerging here is that, the traditional knowledge maintained in a given system (homegarden, forest, farm field) is marked with gender specific facis. Features of such facies are influenced by the needs that men and women satisfy as their social obligations, provisions made by the local context, culture and the local environment in particular, and also the lifestyle and livelihood. This implies that the traditional knowledge has its roots deeply penetrated in the local context of a habitat. The extraction of such knowledge is dangerous and leads to the weakening of the whole domain. The process for the incorporation of such knowledge should begin with carriers of knowledge recognizing that the domain of knowledge is distinctive to gender roles and responsibilities.
These whole domains of traditional knowledge with regard to medicinal uses of wild plants are specific to eco-zones or ecosystems and those who continue such practices. The system is featured by gender specific engagement from the stage of collection to the stage of utilization. Sowerwine and others (1998) explain that;
121 ”Women collect medicinals grown in the garden and those that can be collected in day trips to the forest. Men are primarily involved in more extensive trips of greater distance where collection may last for several days….”
“Women are largely responsible for processing herbs, preparing prescriptions and travelling to treat clients……” “Older women pass this knowledge on to younger women family members ….”
Studies conducted in Sri Lanka (Wickramasinghe, 1995; 1997a; 1997b) show that women have a domineering knowledge related to food and medicinal plants of regular use. Their knowledge on the niches of specific communities and therefore the ecosystem diversity is more prominent. Plants of food and medicinal uses, their processing for consumption and preparation procedures are known to women due to women’s heavy concentration over such areas.
The gender mainstreaming under these circumstances is a way to incorporate the traditional knowledge pertaining to multiple disciplines. Each area of our concern, be it forestry; agriculture, or ecosystems; be it natural forests or homegardens; be it biodiversity or water, they are marked with a series of human connections instrumented by social ideology. Therefore the pattern of men’s and women’s concentration or intensity of contacts is specific to their gender, and governed by the nature of work involved. The knowledge attained through work, accumulated through experience and learned from the elderly is not free from gender. Incorporation of traditional knowledge by alienating this social context is impossible. The way out for this is to initiate the process through gender mainstreaming following gender planning principles and procedures.
CONCLUSION
This presentation has identified an important shift from the incorporation of traditional knowledge to mainstreaming gender more specifically men and women as the generators, carriers, transferors, and nurtures of knowledge. This points to the changes from ‘targeting’, ‘focusing’, and ‘integration’ to ‘mainstreaming’. The mainstreaming of traditional knowledge needs to be targeted through policy formulation process, from the levels of diagnosis of the status and issues to implementation. Therefore this requires favourable planning procedures and methods, which allows the recognizing of the traditional knowledge distinctive to men and women in a given context and providing equal opportunities.
Advantages of adapting gender mainstreaming are multiple: It allows spatially diverse, community specific scenarios to remain strong without diluting the context and thereby to form locally acceptable development policies; Its analytical framework that advocates ‘social relations analysis’, which emphasizes upon the need oriented process will stimulate the incorporation of distinct domains of knowledge into the mainstream from the grassroots; It allows to highlight current status, particularly the issues and impediments to traditional systems; Its allows to recognize and begin the mainstreaming process from the carriers of knowledge, rather than integrating knowledge extracted detaching the roots and the contexts; It stimulates the carriers of knowledge into the mainstream development, particularly to involve in policy formulation; Carriers of knowledge become the owners rather than passive contributors. Gender analysis itself allows the deconstruction of knowledge, which in turn endorses the rights of the carriers of traditional knowledge;
122 It encourages those who are equipped with traditional knowledge to sustain it within the social system as an integral part of society.
Incorporation of traditional knowledge into the mainstream development should not only concerned with the incorporation of the extracted knowledge, but with the extent to which development directions and activities reflect men’s and women’s concerns and their distinctive domains of traditional knowledge. Therefore, this requires a more solid social orientation for which gender mainstreaming offers a realistic framework for diagnosis, decision-making, planning and implementation.
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123 Wickramasinghe, Anoja (1997a) Anthropogenics related to forest management in Sri Lanka, Applied Geography, Vol. 17, No. 2, pp. 87-110 Wickramasinghe, Anoja (1997b) Women harmonizing ecosystems for integrity and local sustainability in Sri Lanka (Chapter 4), in Wickramasinghe, Anoja. (ed.), Land and forestry: Women’s local resource-based occupations for sustainable survival in South Asia, pp. 89- 141, CORRENSA, Kandy, Sri Lanka, Wickramasinghe, Anoja. (2002) Biodiversity Conservation from the Perspectives of Gender and Food Security, Unpublished Research Report submitted to the National Science Foundation (NSF), Colombo, Sri Lanka. Zerner, C. (ed.) (2000) People, Plants, and Justice: The Politics of Nature Conservation, Columbia University Press: New York. Zimmerer, K. (1991) Managing diversity in potato and maize fields of the Peruvian Andes, Journal of Ethnobiology, Vol. 11, pp. 23-49.
124 DEVELOPMENT OF A NATIONAL STRATEGY FOR INCORPORATING TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
INTO DEVELOPMENT PRACTICES
Some Sri Lankan Traditions on Health and Disease Discovered as Scientifically Valid1 Dr C.G. Uragoda Chest Physician 78/5, Old Road Nawala, Rajagiriya, SRI LANKA
Traditions are opinions, beliefs and customs, which are handed down from generation to generation. They cover numerous subjects and topics, and their numbers are legion. It would be an ambitious project to consider all the traditions in a country.
Traditions relating to health and disease in Sri Lanka cover a considerable proportion of all the traditions in the country. One reason for their predominance is the presence of desiya chilitsa and ayurveda in Sri Lanka.
Desiya chikitsa or Sinhala vedakama is the earliest system of medicine that existed in the country before the advent of ayurveda. It was handed down from generation to generation, as much as traditions were. Treatment predominantly based on herbs was handed down from father to son, and in the process if the recepient of the formula suddenly died, the prescription too disappeared forever. Since the treatment was exclusively in a family, this was the main reason for the disappearance of desiya chikitsa. A large number of ola manuscripts exist whenever this knowledge has been recorded. In fact their number is only second to that on Buddhism.
In desiya chikitsa, each physician may have his own distinctive recipe for the treatment of a particular illness. In this way, two prescriptions are seldom similar. Even if the same plant is used, some will depend on leaves, while others may use flowers, fruits or roots Even if the leaf of the same plant is used by two different physicians, one may boil the leaves and the other may crush them into a paste.
Desiya chikitsa, which evolved locally in Sri Lanka, has been greatly replaced by ayurveda, which came from North India, probably about the same time that Buddhism was introduced. The earliest books on ayurveda were written mostly in Sanskrit, which was a language that originated in India.
Desiya chikitsa and ayurveda used a large number of local plants, probably over 600, as being of medicinal value. It may be imagined how many traditions were born in this way. Some of these prescriptions no doubt were highly effective in practice, but in most cases their scientific validity is not known. If these practices are to be developed into a national strategy, then a scientific basis has to be found for each of them. This would be a difficult and time-consuming task, which is all the more difficult in a country where laboratory equipment and chemicals for such a massive project are lacking or in short supply.
Traditions incorporate the knowledge of earlier generations without the aid of scientific knowledge, but in some cases modern science has vindicated these traditions. People who may have scoffed at these traditions, which they labeled as of no value, may now be convinced of the validity of some of them.
1 This paper was not presented but was circulated amongst participants. 125 The majority of traditions of medicinal value are peculiar to Sri Lanka, but some such as the concept of heaty and cooling foods may be common to many countries. Some of the traditions which are peculiar to Sri Lanka are universally present in the country, but the distribution of others are based on ethnic, religious and geographic lines. Tamil speaking people from the Northern and Eastern Provinces may have their own traditions. Some are localised to a region and are hardly known outside it.
As mentioned earlier, traditions which deserve to be incorporated into a national strategy have to be backed by a scientific basis. Such traditions relating to medicine are not many at present, and examples of these are given below (Uragoda, 2000).
Transmission of malaria
In 1884, Sir Patrick Manson advanced the theory that malaria was transmitted by mosquito, while in 1898 Sir Ronald Ross proved this theory and thereby won the Nobel Prize. However, there is evidence that Sri Lankans were aware of this transmission well before 1884. The then Governor of Ceylon, Sir Henry Blake in a lecture said that in ola books that “mosquitoes were mentioned as one of the means of propagating malarial fever” (Blake, 1905). Blake (1905), when referring to the discoveries of Manson and Ross asked the question “Are we not merely recovering the crumbs of knowledge that fell from the table of the long-buried East? Recent discoveries are only re- discoveries”. Stephenson (1972) wrote that in ancient Indian books of the 5th century AD “malaria is described and attributed to mosquitoes”.
Tennent (1860) mentioned that sleeping under mosquito nets prevented malaria. It is important to note that this was written before 1884 when Manson advanced his theory. Here Tennent was probably repeating a tradition present at that time in Sri Lanka.
Balaya and histamine
Histamine is a chemical poison that occurs in certain foods. Normally when such food is ingested, histamine is inactivated in the tissues, but poisoning could occur if the food contains an excess of histamine. Symptoms include redness in the upper part of the body, itching of the eyes, urticaria, diarrhoea and wheeze.
Balaya (skipjack) contains the highest amount of histamine recorded for any food in the world (Uragoda and Kottegoda, 1977). Balaya is traditionally recognized as a very heaty fish. The concept of heatiness of food is not confined to Sri Lanka, but is found in other countries and continents as well, such as Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and Latin America.
One of the traditional delicacies of the culinary art in the south is the preparation of ambul thiyal, where balaya or kelawalla (tuna) is cooked with large quantities of goraka. It has been scientifically proved recently that goraka inactivates histamine in the fish. Incidentally, histamine is not destroyed by ordinary heat.
Crabs and prawns too contain considerable amounts of histamine. In the traditional cooking of these, murunga or katuru-murunga leaves are added. It has recently been proved that this addition helps to destroy 50% of the histamine.
126 Plantain trees for air purification
Plantain trees are placed in their entirety at Hindu wedding houses in order to welcome guests who are expected in large numbers. The same practice takes place at Hindu temples during festivals. This is considered a tradition of welcome. However, there is a meaning behind this practice. When a large number odf people gather in a confined space, their breathing produces carbon dioxide, which is released into the atmosphere, while oxygen from the air is absorbed. The opposite takes place from leaves. Carbon dioxide is absorbed and oxygen released. In this way the air in a cofined place is purified by plantains leaves, which has a large surface to carry on this function. Further, since the entire tree is placed inside the house or temple, the leaves are kept alive for a few days, and therefore are able to do this work till the function is over.
Snake-bite and drooping eyelids
In Jaffna, when a snake bite specialist is consulted, he asks the patient to look at the noon day sun which is vertically above. If he fails to raise the eye and see the sun, the specialist pronounces a poor prognosis. There is a truth in this pronouncement, for only the bites of Russel’s viper, cobra and krait can cause paralysis of the upper eyelid muscles, thus bringing about inability to look up. The bites of these types of snake can have fatal results. Paralysis of the upper eyelids suggests a bite by one of these snakes, and hence the prognosis cane be poor.
Tetanus and weniwel
If a person suffers injury, which is likely to cause tetanus, then the traditional method of preventing this is by giving a drink made from weniwel, which is for sale at every fair in the country.
It has been scientifically shown a few years ago that weniwel prevents the growth of tetanus bacillus, but it fails to inactivate their toxin. This shows that the tradition prevents tetanus, but does not cure it.
Medicine trough
An ancient form of treatment for certain diseases is by immersing the patient in a bath of medicinal fluid, which may be milk, oil, vinegar, water etc. Immersion was done in a beheth oruwa. Six of those made from stone have so far been discovered in the country. These have been found usually in sites where ancient hospitals existed. In making these, the artisan has excavated a block of stone to the shape of a human being. The purpose of spending so much time and effort is to keep the amount of immersion fluid to a minimum. This fluid could be costly and this shape reduces the cost of treatment.
Kumbuk ash for pregnancy
Some decades ago, the ash of the bark of the kumbuk tree was administered to pregnant women. This ash was later found to contain almost 100% of calcium. Giving this ash to pregnant women amounted to giving them calcium, a practice that was at one time adopted in western medicine.
A decoction of the bark of this tree was administered by ayurvedic physicians to patients with fractures in the hope of hastening the union of the two ends of bone which normally unite by deposition of calcium.
127 Rupaha marble
Rupaha marble occurs in a stream that flows through the village of Rupah near Walepne in Nuwara Eliya district. Villagers of Rupaha attach medicinal properties to this mineral. Its main use has been for stomach disorders. In case of stomach pain or flatulence, villagers administer to the patient a paste made by rubbing a piece of marble on a moistened stone. Further, local artisans fashion out cups and saucers, as well as small mortars and pestles from this mineral, so that drinking fluids or food material pounded would acquire the property of preventing stomach disorders. This marble is greenish in colour and occurs mostly at Rupaha, and hence the name. It is said to be one of the most beautiful minerals in the country. A few years ago it was analysed and was found to contain a ferromagnesium silicate.
Antacids are used in western medicine for stomach pains. These are alkalis which neutralize acids in the stomach which cause the pain. One of the antacids commonly used is magnesium trisilicate. Rupaha marble probably contains this antacid and therefore the paste of this substance when given with water to a patient acts on his stomach pain.
Kohomba in chicken pox
Kohomba has been widely used in traditional medicine for various diseases, one of which is chicken pox. Patients with chicken pox are made to lie on a cushion of leaves. The effectiveness of this method could be explained by recent research, which has shown the presence of a potent insecticide and insect repellant in the plant. The leaves, due to the presence of this insect repellant, prevents flies and other insects being attracted to the patient, Apart from these insects being a nuisance, flies may infect the vesicles in the patient’s skin, thereby inducing complications.
Beetles and disease
In some villages, a person waking up in the morning may occasionally notice a few painful blisters on a localised area of the skin. These appear with dramatic suddenness in a person who was normal when he went to sleep. Village elders explain this phenomenon by saying that a cockroach has urinated at night.
Recently some nurses at a hospital near Colombo, while on night duty, suddenly developed patches of vesicles on the exposed parts of the skin. These took a few days to heal and left a permanent scar. Research has shown that at night, a small beetrle which is found in the paddy field nearby, was attracted by the light in the hospital ward. Nurses who sit under the lights get these insects on to the exposed parts of the body, and in order to remove them, they involuntarily wipe them off. In the process, these insects are crushed and their juice smears the body. This causes vesiculation of patches of the exposed parts.
It has been found that this family of beetles contains an irritant, which probably makes them unattractive to its predators. It is this irritant which produces the skin eruptions.
The origin of the tradition may have been some past observation that a cockroach-like insect was responsible for the lesions. The moisture on the surface of the skin caused by the crushing of the insect may have been misinterpreted as being due to the urine of the insect. In retrospect, past observers have come with a near answer to the mystery of the overnight appearance of blisters.
128 Women in labour
Old walauwas or homes of chieftains have a room set apart as a labour room. In this room, two ropes hang from the roof and these dangle near the head of the patient who lies in the bed. The purpose of these ropes was for the patient to hold them firmly and strain at labour. This process facilitates childbirth.
This method of treatment was scientifically correct, as shown by the western practice which was prevalent 5o years ago. In government hospitals about this time, labour rooms were provided with beds fitted with two vertical iron rods on either side. These were meant to be pulled with force by the patient, so that the muscular effort at straining was made easier.
Heat treatment
In western medicine, localized heat is applied to areas to relieve pain. This is done with hot-water bottles or electrical equipment. In the traditional treatment of pain too is applied, but with a different method.
The husk of a coconut is heated, and the smooth outer surface is applied on the skin. The husk keeps the heat for a long time, as its fibres are inter-connected with cork-like coir dust. The latter tends to keep the heat within for a considerable time.
Air purification with fire
In places of religious worship, specially Hindu temples, numerous naked flames are a common sight. These heat the air, which tends to rise upwards, and is replaced by fresh air, which tends to come from outside, thus maintaining clean air within all the time.
A similar process occurs at funeral houses where lighting of oil lamps is a traditional practice.
“Inhalers” for asthma
The juice from the leaves of adatoda plants has been prescribed in ayurveda for lung disorders. Recently these leaves have been found to contain a chemically active ingredient, which has now been synthesized. It is known as bromhexine and is being widely prescribed in western medicine for the liquifaction of phlegm. When phlegm is tenacious, the patient is forced into prolonged ineffective coughing in a vain attempt to dislodge it. Cough is much reduced if phlegm could be liquefied so that it is brought up without much effort. Chemicals that liquefy phlegm are known as expectorants, and true expectorants are two in number. These are bromhexine and steam inhalation.
Steam inhalation is a traditional form of treatment adopted by any household for the treatment of troublesome cough. Steam is often spiced with leaves, such as those from the lime plant, which is added to the boiling water. Both ayurveda and western medicine are agreed on the efficacy of steam inhalation.
Bromhexine, which is similar to the chemicals in adatpda leaves, is now being widely used in cough syrups of western medicine. There is another method of administering adatoda, and this is by smoking the dried leaves, which are rolled and smoked like a cigar.
Smoking as a method of administering a drug has not been used in western medicine. It was only a couple of decades ago that western medicine introduced a device by which a medicinal smoke was 129 administered to a patient. This device, known as an inhaler, is capable of delivering direct to the lung a spray of finely nebulised droplets of medicine from a pressurized vial. One advantage of this method is that the effect is immediate.
When adatoda leaves are smoked, medicinal particles are delivered direct to the lung, as in the case of inhalers. This direct administration to lungs has obviously antedated inhalers, which are of recent origin.
Another ayurvedic drug that is delivered direct to the lung by smoking is attana leaf. It contains the chemical atropine, which is a poison in large doses. One of the features of asthma is the temporary narrowing of bronchial airways, and what atropine does is to dilate these. Synthetic analogues of atropine are now being used in inhalers, as much as leaves were smoked in the past. Smoking of adatoda and attana leaves is indeed a novel method of administering a medicine. In fact, inhalers of western medicine follow the same basic principle but by a sophisticated means. Modern treatment suggests that the traditional use of these leaves in the treatment of cough and asthma is based on sound pharmacological principles.
Inhalation therapy was used in veterinary medicine as well. Medicinal fumes were generated by sprinkling dried medicinal powder in red-hot embers in a clay pot kept near the animal, and it was obliged to inhale these fumes. Considering the difficulty of administering medicine to animals, this method seems to be a rational one.
Traditional toothbrush
It is still current practice for some people, including monks in remote temples, to use a traditional toothbrush, known as dahatu, which is a toothbrush improvised from the fresh twig of certain species of trees. The commonest type used is bombu, while others include kohomba, palu, bo and magul karanda. The twig is about six inches long and has the thickness of a pencil. One end is chewed to form a brush, and when this is used as a toothbrush, bristles break off, When this happens, the same end is chewed afresh, so that a toothbrush could be used for a couple of weeks.
One of the required attributes of a toothbrush is its antiseptic property, which is imparted by kohomba. Toothpaste provides this property to the conventional toothbrush.
Sandal treatment for dog bite
In Jaffna, one method of treating a dog bite is to immediately chastise the bitten area vigorously with a sandal. The effect of such rough treatment is to induce free bleeding from the wound so that removal of infection is ensured. Sandal was used as it was the most handy implement for the immediate treatment.
Baby smiles and mother loses hair
There is a Sinhalese belief that when a baby begins to smile for the first time, the mother loses her hair. This statement has now been proved correct. A person may shed normal hair in response to various types of stresses, which include prolonged and difficult labour. The hair usually starts falling after a lapse of about three months from the stressful event. A baby usually smiles when it is three months old and this occurrence coincides with the fall of mother’s hair
130 Curd
Milk is a good medium for bacterial growth. This specially true of warm climates when a small dose of infecting bacteria would rapidly multiply. These organisms would include bacteria that would produce diseases such as typhoid and dysentery. Refrigeration, which would prolong the safety of milk, was not widespread those days. The usual method then available for prolonging the life of mil was by conversion to curd, which is coagulated milk.
Milk is boiled and allowed to cool, but while still warm a little curd from a previous preparation is added. This addition would contain acid-forming organisms, which would multiply in warm milk. This conversion to curd opened an avenue for people to prolong the life of milk, while at the same time maintaining its safety.
Boiling of milk
An age-old tradition among Sri Lankans has been the boiling of milk before consumption. This practice has been relaxed of late in urban areas where pasteurized milk is available. Boiling would kill most of the germs present. When the milk is spoilt, boiling would cause curdling, and when this happens it is an indication that the milk should be discarded.
Boiling milk also kills bovine tuberculosis bacilli, which used to infect a large number of Europeans over fifty years ago. Bovine tuberculosis affects cattle, and is transmitted to man through infected milk.
Turmeric
Turmeric is the dried tuber of the plant, kaha. Research has demonstrated the presence of an antiseptic in turmeric, which is active against many types of bacteria, including the well-known Staphylococcus. It has many uses, one of which is at childbirth.
In remote parts of the country, traditional midwives still officiate at home deliveries. One area where this practice has survived to the present day is the plantation sector with Tamil labour. At the time of labour she sweeps the floor of the room in which labour is to take place. She then sprinkles turmeric water on the floor or she may in the alternative use a preparation of kohomba. With the present knowledge that both these have antiseptic properties, appropriateness of this traditional method becomes apparent. Further, kohomba would repel flies and other insects, which would be a nuisance, as well as a transmitter of infection.
Another interesting practice adopted by these Tamil midwives in the plantation sector is the application of snuff to the patient in order to provoke sneezing. Sneezing would induce contraction of the abdominal muscles, and this helps the patient to push out the baby.
Conclusion
The above examples a just a selection of traditions relating to medicine where research has demonstrated their scientific validity. Much of this research is of recent origin. It does not mean that all traditions are scientifically correct, but as time elapses, further research will show the correctness of a few others, which some people now think are figments of imagination.
131 References Blake, Henry A (1905) Patron’s address, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Ceylon Branch, 18, 260-276. Stephenson, W (1972) The sociological development of man, Angus and Robertson, Sydney. Tennent, Sir J Emerson (1860) Ceylon, 2 vol, 5th ed, Longman, Green, Longman and Roberts, London. Uragoda, CG (2000) Traditions of Sri Lanka, Vishva Lekha, Ratmalana. Uragoda, CG and Kottegoda, SR (1977) Adverse reactions to isoniazid on ingestion of fish with a high histamine content.
132 DEVELOPMENT OF A NATIONAL STRATEGY FOR INCORPORATING TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
INTO DEVELOPMENT PRACTICES
Traditional Knowledge in Natural Resources Management in Sri Lanka1 Prof. Hemanthi Ranasinghe Head/Department of Forestry & Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura Director. Sri Lanka Resource Centre for Indigenous Knowledge
Introduction:
Sri Lanka has been endowed with ample natural resources to enrich and sustain lives of its people. The resources favored the agricultural existence to which the early settlers were accustomed. Prudent forms of resource utilization were developed and handed down from one generation to another until they became a natural way of life. These practices ensured sufficient production to meet the needs of each generation whilst preserving the resources for the future generations.
Despite the modernization stemming from industrialization, globalization and technological innovations, a good part of its people still directly depend on a productive natural resource base for their livelihoods. In addition to this, the products and services rendered by natural resources help to ensure long term sustainability in all modernization efforts and the well being of the people in general. It is unfortunate to note that the growing needs of country’s rising population are often being met by exploiting the country’s natural resources ie. land, forest, water etc. with increasing severity, an approach which needs proper attention and correction. As the ability of these ecosystems to recover diminishes, so do the employment and lifestyle options of its people.
Historical evidence proves that traditional people have utilized natural resources over centuries without impairing their capability to support them and their successive generations. Among many examples, the early hydraulic civilization, home gardening especially in the central region, pattern of resource utilization by Vedda Community etc. can be highlighted. Therefore, it is clear that the traditional knowledge has the potential to provide valuable information base for natural resource management in the present day too. It can ensure beneficiary participation in development efforts by involving the communities in all aspects of development ie., designing, planning, implementation and evaluation, provide a better understanding of how people perceive their environment and develop their perceptions. By providing diversity in food and other income avenues and ensuring stable productivity maximizing gains from low cost technologies, by having interdependency and cost effectiveness in components of systems indigenous/traditional knowledge can provide greater sustainability in all development initiatives. This knowledge can be integrated with the modern scientific knowledge in order to create appropriate technologies leading to more sustainable resource utilization.
Hydraulic Civilization
The early hydraulic civilization thrived on small irrigation systems with unique assemblages of land uses and agricultural attributes. Possibly these systems evolved from early rain-fed shifting agriculture into small scale irrigation that in turn led to major systems. The sedentary way of life facilitated by this hydraulic base led to land tenure, property inheritance and social organizations that persisted for many centuries. Community leadership patterns were strong and effective with increasing size and
1 This paper was not presented but was circulated amongst participants. 133 complexity of irrigation systems. Conveyance of irrigation water over long distances needed efficient control over distribution and allocation between the top and tail ends of the system. Smooth functioning of the hydraulic structures required efficient maintenance. Irrigation depending on micro- catchments required careful watershed management to reduce siltation and ensure catchment water yields. The land and water use system that developed over centuries to satisfy these requirements has been described as a cascading system.
Organization of small tanks into a cascading sequence within micro-catchments allowed greater efficiencies in water use. Draining from the paddy fields in the upper part of the cascade flowed into a downstream tank for re-use in the paddy fields below. The system fully expressed the well known dictum by the King Parakramabahu (AD 1153) that ‘not a single drop of water received from rain should be allowed to escape into the sea without being utilized for human life’. The system management required community effort and co-ordination. A breach in the upper-most tank bund through neglect or excess water would threaten the collapse of the entire sequence of tanks below. Similarly, if the capacity of a tank was increased arbitrarily by one village raising bund or the spillway, it could inundate the lowermost paddy fields in an upstream village. Interdependency between villages in a cascade required well-co-ordinated management of land and water resources.
The land use associated with tank cascades demonstrated a profound knowledge of resource management in a challenging environment essentially transformed from natural ecosystem into agro ecosystem. Integrated land and water resource management in ancient times is reflected in the zonation of land use within the micro catchments. The tanks and paddy fields occupied the valleys where Low-Humic Gley soils with poor drainage had limited use other than for bunded paddy cultivation. Ridge summits, often strewn with rock outcrops, were converted into works of art and places of worship and spiritual retreat. The influence of Buddhism led to the establishment of sanctuaries early in history and the enduring protection of wildlife unusual in many parts of the world.
The middle part of the catena between the ridge tops and valley bottom was used for rain fed chena farming where Reddish Brown Earths proved ideal for many subsidiary seasonal food crops. Although in the modern context, chena wastes resources, in Sri Lankans history long fallow periods allowed vegetative regeneration and use was sufficiently infrequent to avoid serious soil erosion and environmental damage. Moreover, village farmer spared large trees to provide shade and places for watch-huts. Small trees were lopped at breast height to enable them to sprout again at the end of the rainy season.
The ancient village with its typical threefold land use system – paddy field, home garden and chena was self sufficient and provided a stable base for long term use. Each agricultural settlement had a tank and paddy field below it. Certain forms of traditional land tenure and land use within the purana village setting appear to have become somewhat anachronistic. The fragmentation and dispersal of paddy lots over the entire yaya as a precaution against various risks such as droughts and damage by wild animals and cattle is considered unsuitable in the present context and attempts have been made for consolidation into larger individual holdings. Similarly, other arrangements such as kurulu paluwa in the paddy fields and the jala gilma in the upper tank beds and tis bambe near the gangoda had come under increasing pressure due to increasing population and demand for land. The spread of tavalu cultivation in the tank beds has gradually eliminated the gas gommana that protected the tank from excessive siltation. It appears that the time had come to preserve at least few traditional village tank systems that still retain those sustainable elements for the benefit of the posterity. .
The skills in irrigation technology possessed by the ancient people were unique for a small country like Sri Lanka. Already in the first century AC, the Sri Lankans had understood the principle of the oblique weir – the height of dam spillways were adjusted by removable pillar sluices was well 134 understood. The inside surfaces of reservoir abutments were faced with ‘ripple bands’ which acted as wave-breaking groynes – the most striking invention was the intake-towers or valve towers (bisokotuwa). They developed the knowledge to construct long canals with extremely low gradients, such as the Jaya Ganga, which carried water from Kalawewa to the city tanks of Anuradhapura along a canal 87 kilometers long. This Yoda Ela which had a gradient of less than 10 cm per kilometer within its first 27 kilometers, continued to maintain itself a s natural stream. Some of the major ancient tanks such as Yodawewa in Mannar District were constructed to feed a large number of small tanks.
The establishment of forests and construction of ponds, reservoirs and irrigation systems were considered great meritorious acts in accordance with popular Buddhism, the faith of the leaders and the large majority of the people. Sri Lanka’s history is full of achievements of kings who contributed to the development of water resources. Since the first century AD kings such as Vasabha (67-111 AD), Mahasena (276-303 AD), Dhatusena (455-473 AD), Agbo II (575-608 AD) and Parakramabahu I (1153-1186 AD) built numerous reservoirs and irrigation systems which fed vast expanses of paddy field in the Dry Zone. Construction and upkeep of these irrigation systems became massive undertakings, an indigenous expertise developed over the centuries which appears to have been called upon by other countries of South Asia.
It was only recently that the existence of village tanks in cascade sequences was recognized and some elements of this technology were adopted in the modern civil engineering practice (Madduma Bandara, 1985; Itakura & Abernathy, 1993; Shakthivadivel et al., 1996; Panabokke, 1999). This also demonstrated the fact that certain forms of traditional wisdom can profitably be adopted even in the modern context. Such interconnections are not only confined to tank cascades but are also reflected in the lateral series of tanks linked by contour channels and numerous sluiceless water retaining structures. However, these remain largely neglected in most studies.
Two other forms of indigenous water management practices and attempts that have been made to adapt them to present situations are reflected in the bethma system and the harnessing of rain water through a properly managed crop calendar in harmony with the march of the seasons, as exemplified in the case of Walagambahuwa experiment. Both these attempts proved to produce mixed results largely due to an inadequate understanding of indigenous practices or their failure to adapt to present needs and external interventions. A similar experience can also be seen in the return to tank water use for domestic use in conjunction with the use of water from wells and more recently tube wells (Madduma Bandara, unpublished).
For efficient and fair use of irrigation water under village irrigation system, a number of institutions and systems have been formed. The knowledge and traditions evolved by the peasants have been more effective in such an environment. Organization of cultivation activities and water use was done in accordance with various traditions. In taking decisions and in management, a body of customs was also observed. These water use practices included social institutions for action by the entire community and individuals of the village. The pangu system and categorization of fields and blocks under special land tenure arrangements, proportional water dividers and canal networks both in the yaya and liyadda level are important. With regard to social and cultural aspects of indigenous water management that contributed to promote community spirit and bind the society together, some ceremonies such as mutti mangalya seem to prevail in some rural areas of the Nuwara Kalawiya. However, recent attempts at reviving the Vel Vidane system or Kele Korale and the introduction of Vari Sabha Mandapa had only limited success. The crop diversification on the other hand as a means of increasing water use efficiency and productivity is demonstrating encouraging results. However, the short term rice varieties such as heta da vi that helped in tiding over water crises during the times of droughts have almost become extinct. There is also much potential to promote water sports and
135 ecotourism where feasible in and around irrigation systems both for local people as well as for selected foreign tourist groups (Madduma Bandara, unpublished).
The ancient hydraulic civilizations of the Dry Zone disappeared after the twelfth century. Climate change, malaria, depletion of soil fertility, foreign invasions and famine are some of the reasons cited.
The Kandyan Kingdom and Kandyan Homegardens
With the decline of the hydraulic civilization, Sri Lanka’s capital began to shift from the Dry to the Wet Zone and to the hill country, which eventually became the stronghold of the Sinhalese people against invading forces. Population shifts across different agro ecological zones from the Dry Zone to the Wet Zone and to the hill country required an agrarian society to adjust to new environments and try new ways of managing land and water.
In the hill country the people modified their life to the wetter and more rugged terrain. The paddy cultivation in the deniyas (valley bottoms) was irrigated during the drier periods through canals that collected water from the springs in the hill slopes. Hills performed the function of reservoirs, and the management of watersheds necessarily formed an integral component of the agricultural enterprise. Different ecological segments of the slopes were recognized, as reflected in village names such as Ovita, Ovilla and Ovilkanda according to their location. Valley bottoms around which the settlements arose were named after the valley with the suffix of deniya (eg. Gurudeniya, Peradeniya etc.). At the lower segment of the catena, forest gardens were developed in the homesteads. Farther up, chena cultivation was practiced occasionally on a largely sustainable basis. Hilltops were permanently kept under a thick forest cover, which helped control soil erosion and regulate water flow.
The Kandyan Forest Garden became a man-made forest consisting of various fruits and other economically useful tree species such as nutmeg and cloves. It essentially copied the diversity and intricate interrelationships of the natural forest. The multistoried nature of cropping managed to utilize the sunshine which falls to the garden optimally and effectively. The resource utilization, in the horizontal layers too are at the maximum in these Gardens. Kandyan Forest Gardens are located between the valley bottoms and high slopes to avoid damp conditions and benefit from a deep soil cover and seepage of moisture from the upper regions. Aerial photographs can distinguish Kandyan homesteads from natural forest by the sand-strewn compounds in front o the houses which brought much fresh air and sunshine. The micro environment of a Kandyan Homestead provided a suitable base for the continuity of human settlements in a wet montane setting.
Other Homestead Gardens
Less intensively managed homegardens are found in most other districts of Sri Lanka especially in the low country Wet Zone in the western and southern coastal belts and in the low country Dry Zone. Except for cocoa and coffee, most of the Kandyan homegarden species are grown in these less intensively. In addition, fruit bearing species like Rambuttan and Mangosteen can be found there. Homegardens usually have live fences of leguminous kind, especially Gliricidia sepium, Kapok etc. The canopy cover is not dense and ranges from 25 – 75%. Cattle, goats and poultry are reared in these systems. Legumes thus planted help to increase soil fertility and provide food and fodder. In some homesteads in the Dry Zone, planting of useful tree species is widespread. The ‘drumstick’ tree is grown in fences or hedges as its crown is very light and the pods are popular and very nutritive dish. Production starts within one year of planting and the bark of the tree is of medicinal value. In some other systems, Sesbania grandiflora is planted in the Dry and Semi-Arid Zones. Local people use the tender leaves and flowers as vegetables. Production in this case is also within one year of
136 planting. It is important producer of green manure and fodder especially in the dry season (Ranasinghe, 1991).
Medicinal trees with pasture
These are ancient systems located in the districts east of central Sri Lanka and the best examples are found near the town of Bibile. The trees are scattered in typical savannah grasslands and are said to have been planted first in the days of Sinhalese Kings; Aralu (Terminalia chebula), Bulu (T. belerica) and nelli (Phyllanthus emblica) are the principal tree species found. Cattle grazing and goat rearing are practiced on the intervening grasslands. Fire hazard is a problem in the dry months of May to August, but the trees can withstand ground fires. Wildlife move into these areas, including elephants from nearby National Parks but no damage is done to the valuable medicinal trees.
Silvo-aquaculture
This practice is restricted to the mangrove forest areas along the coast. The country has around 12,000 ha of mangrove forests which produce timber, fuelwood, bark, fish and shell-fish. Prawns are cultivated in some areas near Negombo, Colombo and Kalutara along the west coast. The mangroves provide the spawning grounds for prawns and other shell-fish and many types of fish. The mangrove forests along the north-western and eastern coasts are also familiar breeding grounds for indigenous and migratory water birds. Mangrove fuelwood is used by villagers and small industries that make bricks and tiles.
Traditional socio-cultural beliefs of harnessing the natural resources
Traditionally people in Sri Lanka lived a simple way of life in close harmony with the natural environment. The communities had a vast accumulation of traditional knowledge and experience that link humanity with its ancient origins. Much can be learned from their skills in sustainable management of complex ecological systems. They believed that man is part of the environment. The sun gave life to both humans and animals. The paddy seed, the drop of water and all other essentials in life had their origin from the sun. The moon produced the ocean tide brining a tremendous influence on man and his environment. They believed that till the sun and the moon rose in the sky, the rivers would flow wetting their land and bestowing untold benefits to them. The life pattern they thus built was considered to last while the sun and the moon lasted. They cultivated their fields, planned their food and clothes based on the belief that they are part of the larger environment. They base their calendar according to the increases and decreases in size of the moon and therefore the twelve month calendar was named Duruthu, Navam, Madin, Bak, Vesak etc. These names had a significance relevant to that period and their life pattern was linked with these divisions. For example the farming and production timings were set apart for those particular months that were environmentally most suited for such activity. This was their pattern of sustainable development.
Strategies adopted by Vedda Community in maintaining the balance of nature
The Veddas or Aborigines in Sri Lanka have a history approximately 2500 years ago. They possessed a vast amount of traditional knowledge in co-existing with their environment. This knowledge and practices had helped them to have a close association with environment while fulfilling their basic needs from the environment. Hunting, gathering of food, fuelwood, honey, use of wood for construction of huts and extraction of medicinal herbs are some examples. However, the multipurpose development projects launched after 1950 have made remarkable changes in their community. The removal of Veddhas from their traditional habitats and forced migration to new settlements have taken place with the implementation of Gal Oya development plan in 1952 and the accelerated Mahaweli 137 Development Plan. However, some of this knowledge still exists with the minority of them who had opted to stay in their original habitats, especially the elders. The younger members have been exposed to more modern forms of technology and other social and economic pressures. However, they face numerous constraints including population increase and demand for food, conflicting demand for environmental components from elders and youth, restriction imposed by the State in establishing national parks etc. It is imperative that this traditional environmental knowledge that has been practiced and proven for generations to maintain the balance of nature is preserved and used.
The present situation and the natural resource challenges faced by the country
Except for few numbers of the Veddha Community, almost all sections of the society are involved in some way with the modern mainstream economy. Yet there are still several million people dependent on natural resources for survival (> 40% of the people are engaged in activities directly dependent on environment while 25% live in urban or semi urban areas). A dominant historical feature which has current bearings is the almost total take over of lands and waterways by the colonial administration, a move that created strong alienation amongst local communities which earlier had significant traditions of sustainable management.
Due to the high population density (280 persons per sq km which is one of the highest in the world) and sustained efforts to improve the living standards through development projects etc. tremendous pressure has been exerted on the natural environment of the country. Land is the most vital and heavily threatened natural resource. Degradation of land due to soil erosion is of much concern because of its consequences on agriculture, which is a major contributor to the country’s GDP. It is estimated that about 5 –10 mm of topsoil is lost every year. In the hill country where several large rivers originate and critical watersheds are located, erosion is acute. In addition to the land degradation, deforestation and loss of biodiversity are greatly threatened primarily due to expansion of human habitats and increasing demand for land for urban, agricultural and industrial development. In addition to extraction of forest products, mining for precious stones and sand mining, removal of wild species for commercial purposes and over visitation to wildlife and nature reserves contribute to the loss of biodiversity. The coastal environment is also subjected to great pressures emanating from the concentration of population in coastal areas, tiger prawn industry which has caused great damage to mangroves, collection of non-edible aquarium species harvested for export purposes mainly from inshore coral reef areas, coral mining and dynamite blast fishing, mechanized fishing techniques, expansion of tourism, development of urban infrastructure, waste disposal to coastal ecosystems etc. Due to the reduction of flood buffering capacity of mangroves, lagoons and estuaries paddy lands had been subjected to salinisation.
As a result of the increasing use of agrochemicals and the urbanization and industrialization resulting in the release of untreated industrial effluents, dumping of domestic waste and flow of sewage into waterways, the country’s surface and ground waters are polluted. Management of solid waste and liquid waste are critical issues particularly in urban areas and around industrial sites. Although local authorities are responsible for collection and disposal of waste, inadequate resource availability has hindered their work. Due to the present method of waste disposal which is open dumping in low-lying lands numerous impacts like reduction in flood retention areas, pollution of wetland habitats, pollution of surface and ground water and creation of mal-odorous environments facilitating insect/mosquito breeding and other impacts on health occur.
Therefore, the biggest challenge facing present day Sri Lanka is to maintain the right balance between environment and development, to harmonize the development needs of the people with minimum damage to environmental resources.
138 How indigenous/traditional/local knowledge can help in restoring this lost balance
Indigenous/traditional knowledge is local knowledge that is unique to a given culture or society. It is used at the local level by communities in developing countries as the basis for decision-making pertaining to food security, human and animal health, education, natural resource management and other vital activities. Much of such knowledge is passed down from generation to generation usually by word of mouth. The development of indigenous knowledge systems covering all aspects of life, including natural environment has been a matter of survival to the people who generated this systems. Indigenous Knowledge systems are also dynamic, new knowledge is continuously added. Such systems do innovate from within and also will internalize, use and adapt to external knowledge to suit the local situation.
Indigenous knowledge is often dismissed as unsystematic and incapable of meeting the productivity needs of the modern world. As a consequence, indigenous knowledge has not been captured and stored in a systematic way with the implicit danger it may become extinct. Fortunately, the situation has changed. Since the last decade of 20th century one may witness an explosive growth in the number of publications on the relevance of indigenous knowledge in a variety of policy sectors and academic disciplines.
The interest in the contribution of indigenous knowledge to a better understanding of sustainable development has been catalyzed by UN Conference on Environment and Development in 1992. UNCED, highlighted the urgent need to develop mechanisms to protect the earth’s biological diversity. Many of the documents signed at UNCED reflect the need to conserve the knowledge of the environment that is being lost in communities. UNCED was an important incentive for the UN and other development agencies to embrace Agenda 21 as the guiding principle for sustainable development. It is therefore fortunate to observe that global science has acknowledged the relevance of indigenous knowledge as well. The World Conference on Science in Budapest in 1999 recommended that scientific and traditional knowledge should be integrated in interdisciplinary projects dealing with links between culture, environment and development in areas as the conservation of biological diversity, management of natural resources, understanding of natural hazards and mitigation of their impacts. Local communities and other relevant players should be involved in those projects. Development professionals consider indigenous knowledge as an invaluable and under-utilized reservoir which presents developing countries with a powerful asset especially due to their locally manageable, sustainable and cost-effective survival strategies.
It is increasingly realized that State cannot effectively manage natural resources without the support of local people in Sri Lanka. NGOs and donors are proving catalytic in an increasing number of initiatives, but there appear to be few recorded models of self initiated community management to build on in forest and other terrestrial ecosystems. Some recent initiatives and policy changes have propelled Sri Lanka into a fairly far-sighted course in natural resource management especially in forest and coastal management with significant community-based projects.
Case Studies of community based efforts in natural resource management in the recent times
Rekawa lagoon, Southern Province
A large (450 ha) lagoon and mangroves complex in southern Sri Lanka, has been subjected to unregulated fisheries operations, destruction of mangroves and over exploitation of coral reefs for lime kilns. A local university-backed project initiated an alternative methods of stocking the lagoon with shrimps, generating considerable economic benefits. This and another donor-backed project spread local interest in conserving other resources of the area by setting up or strengthening local village 139 institutions. Government agencies also accepted the need to revive local knowledge and practices. Villagers have now stopped 53 out of the 57 kilns and invested in other livelihood activities. A lagoon fisher folk co-operative has also been set up with strict rules about fishing, coral and mangrove use. The sustainability of the effort is still unsure, as subsequent restocking of the lagoon by villagers has not taken place, and the help of the university group has been sought again.
Kahalle Pallekelle, North Central Province
Kahalle – Pallekelle is an area with severe human-elephant conflict, partly due to loss of elephant habitats caused by development work. A donor-aided project has attempted to tackle the problem in a multi-pronged way, building water facilities for the elephants in the forest, researching the major elephant routes and suggesting that villagers avoid these, creating an elephant damage compensation fund etc. Local village institutions manage some of this, but there continue to be NGO and donor inputs. The initiatives have reportedly reduced the conflicts by reducing both the crop and other damage caused by elephants and the number of elephants killed by farmers in self-defense.
Ritigala Strict Natural Reserve
Rural populations around one of the country’s most strictly protected areas (1525 ha) have serous livelihood problem. As a result, people exploit he reserve, almost always illegally. These illegal activities have declined with the initiation of employment and livelihood opportunities as part of a donor-aided project. The nature Reserve being a major botanical store-house, medicinal plants and their processing are one of these opportunities. Interesting social re-alignment has also taken place with people of different regions coming together under the initiative.
Hikkaduwa Marine Sanctuary
This is a degraded coral reef and marine area, heavily used by tourists. Though recently declared a sanctuary (48 ha) there was not much protection effort until a community-based initiative was sponsored by donor agencies. A bold attempt to bring together disparate groups, local fisherers, glass-bottom boat owners, hoteliers was initially successful but when donor funded catalysts were withdrawn, the effort reportedly collapsed. Problems of inter-departmental coordination also remain an issue.
Muthurajawela Marsh
Coastal lagoon and marsh area over 6200 ha, very rich in aquatic wildlife but with severe pressure from several sources and very complex social dynamics. NGO initiatives towards conservation with local fisherers have helped to stave off large-scale diversion of the marshes for infrastructure development. Integrated conservation and development planning has been initiated with donor funding, starting with considerable social and ecological research. Community participation is reportedly uneven, being strong in the lagoon with the fisherers but weak in the marshes with communities who mostly work outside the area.
Community Forestry & Participatory Forestry
Undertaken by the Sri Lankan Forest Department with the financial aid from Asian Development Bank was in operation initially in Badulla, Nuwara Eliya, Kandy, Matale and Batticaloa Districts and later spread to the entire country. It was designed to combat deforestation by involving communities in the establishment, management and protection of tree crops. Four subcomponents are built to the plan; Homestead garden, Farmers woodlot, protective woodlot and Miscellaneous planting ie. roadsides, 140 railway and canal reservations, coastal planting and tree planting in schools temples and other public places. This project was carried out with the major objective of creating an awareness among the public as to the benefits of tree planting and maximize the involvement of all sectors of the society towards this task. Many social institutions have been formed ie. School Forestry Societies, Village Forest Societies in districts etc. and they are being facilitated by the Forestry Extension Branch of the Forest Department. The objectives of the project has been met to a certain extent. However, as the Forest Department is still funding certain components of the Project it is too early to make concrete judgments on the overall success of the project.
What lessons can we learn from these initiatives?
Increasing research and insights into the use of local knowledge and local community participation in natural resource management throws some insights to the facets which makes these efforts successful or failures. Some of them are listed below.
Conservation at landscape level
Conservation cannot be separated from other developmental processes both at the local as well as national level. Changes in one can lead to serious impacts on the other, often contradicting each others objectives. This calls for a detailed landscape level or regional planning. Such planning begins with local people planning for their area and then consulting with larger level authorities that in turn help to coordinate the efforts of individual villages. Examples of such landscape planning are scarce in the region, but policies are moving towards it and people’s initiatives will help in understanding what works on the ground.
Transparent, equitable decision making
The process of decision making is an important aspect of any governance, local or national. Most of the community initiatives have shown the success of transparent, equitable and well-informed decision making. In a successful community initiative emphasis is given to equal representation of all sections of society and often to each household, in information sharing and subsequent decision- making. This however, further emphasizes the importance of decentralization because such openness and equitable participation is more likely if the decision making units are small and local.
The power of information
Merely having the power to make decisions is not enough. It is vital that the decisions are made by well-informed participants. In Rekawa, the fisher folk have benefited from the scientific information and training on stock enhancement of the lagoon in the case study cited above. Unfortunately there does not exist a widespread national system to provide such information to the villagers and so often people are not even aware of developmental plans or any other schemes envisaged for their areas or the impacts of these schemes. Therefore right to information movements should be in place.
Fighting the industrial juggernaut
A well informed and empowered community, which has a stake in conservation can even challenge powerful commercial and developmental forces. There are numerous cases where communities have fought and won against destructive project proponents, where even government authorities have felt helpless.
141 Local values of biodiversity
It is a misconception that local people do not know what is right for them as well as for the environment. Even if all communities are not oriented towards conserving the nature, they do know what is best for their own areas and this should be taken seriously.
Tackling inequities
Many local communities are ridden with internal inequities that relate to caste, class, gender and so on. These can be significant deterrents to natural resource conservation and management or any other democratic process. Legal empowerment and recognition of local initiatives should not mean that distant centers of power are simply replaced by local ones.
Primary stakeholders need to be identified, based on dependence, proximity and willingness to participate and so on. This is a critical element in official conservation strategies, including participatory approaches.
The role of the State
Despite statutory powers, communities often realize the difficulty of managing natural resources on their own, especially given the internal and external social dynamics and powerful political and commercial forces. These communities envision an active role for the state as a partner in the management of resources, on equal terms and in the capacity of a supporter and guide rather than a ruler or as police. Because of a bitter history of negative interaction, government agencies will have to overcome a great deal of distrust that exists among the people in order to be seen in a supportive role and people will need to understand the constraints within which conservation officials work.
Policy and legal changes
Slowly but surely, participatory initiatives are being facilitated by polices and laws. Until recently, these have been mostly non participatory, with powers and functions for planning and implementing resource management programmes being largely held by centralized bureaucracies. Local communities have had virtually no legally enforceable means of involvement and even where they are involved it is either through self attained empowerment or at the discretion of government agencies.
Changes in this situation require that policy and legal measures be taken with at least three basic objectives;
. Facilitating the empowerment of local, resource-dependent communities to manage and protect adjoining ecosystems and species and the participation of all other stakeholders in various capacities;
. Ensuring the biomass and other subsistence and livelihood rights of these people, including appropriate tenurial arrangements;
. Regulating human activities to ensure their compatibility with conservation and sustainable livelihood values, in particular, prohibiting destructive commercial-industrial activities in areas of conservation or cultural value.
142 Out of the existing policies and acts, National Forest Policy (1995), Forestry Sector Master Plan (1995) and Costal Zone Master Plan, Sri Lanka Fisheries Act No 2 of 1996 have given substantial recognition to the community-based resource management.
Further, the following broad steps will ensure success of the process;
. Revival of biomass resource rights of communities, especially those with extensive dependence and traditional usage, were this is sustainable. Where unsustainable, participatory development of alternatives is needed.
. Existing positive links between natural habitats and villagers need to be encouraged
. Assistance in enhancing livelihoods based on forest or wetland produce can b couples with increasing the sense of responsibility towards conservation and resource management.
. Legal and policy changes are needed to facilitate participatory conservation.
As much as the legal aspects, many institutions/organizations are working towards promoting indigenous/traditional knowledge which local communities possessed/possess towards achieving sustainable resource utilization. For this, it is imperative to collect, document, and further develop and disseminate this knowledge among the public as well as other development personnel.
Intellectual Property Right Issues and indigenous/traditional knowledge
Indigenous/traditional knowledge is a heritage and not owned by a single person. However, rapidly expanding IPR agreements, the conflict between the global agreements like Conservation of Biological diversity (CBD) and World Trade organizations, TRIPS Provision etc., places undue pressures on the conservation and revitalization efforts of the indigenous/traditional knowledge. While Article 8 of the CBD calls on governments to respect, preserve and maintain knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities in biodiversity conservation and encourage equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of such knowledge WTOs Tripps Aticle 27.3 legitimizes private property rights in the form of intellectual property rights over life and processes entailed in modifying life forms.
Therefore it is imperative to have proper and effective national legislation to protect this time tested valuable knowledge which can be a great impetus to the sustainable natural resource management in Sri Lanka.
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