Journal of Advance Research in Social Science & Humanities ISSN: 2208-2387

People's Perception towards Wetland Culture: A Case Study of Community,

Puspa Lal Pokhrel, PhD [email protected] Associate Professor , Kirtipur

Abstract Dhimal is an indigenous community of Nepal, whose lifestyle is dependent on wetland. A large number of Dhimal are traditional inhabitants of wetland dominated Jungle area in the vicinity of a popular urban center of Tarai known as Damak. This paper attempts to highlight the linkage between wetlands and cultural practices of Dhimal in Eastern Tarai, Nepal. Likewise, their perceptions towards the wetland have also been studied. Damak was colonized by the Dhimal and Meche community during the 1860s to clear the Jungle. Dhimal communities have unique wetland related culture, rites and rituals. Their culture and way of life have been threatened after the 1950s when Nepal Malaria Eradication Organization was established. Before 1950 pestilence malaria was prevalent in . During that period the people of mountain and hilly region of Eastern Nepal did not dare to colonize Damak by clearing the jungle for cultivation. Until 1965, Damak was opulent and extremely rich in wetlands and wetlands resources. Sufficiency of wetland resources and way of life of Dhimal community had been delightful. In recent years their cultural practices are falling at risk due to shrinking and disappearances of wetlands.

Introduction Wetlands are the most productive ecosystem on the earth surface. From the beginning of the civilization wetlands resources have been providing a source of income and economic activities for human beings. The indigenous communities of developing countries like Nepal still live close to wetlands and rely on them to meet their needs (Pokhrel, 2017). Wetlands provide habitat for several species of flora and fauna living within different ecosystems. Human culture is guided by physical environment and surrounding natural resources. Natural resources provided economic

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activities for the local community, which gives various cultures to the people of different climatic region of the world. Wetlands have been and continue to be part of many human cultures in the world. The peoples who live in proximity to wetlands and their culture is linked to them as wetlanders (Coles and Coles, 1989). Distinctive environments influence the behavior and culture of people who live there (Hardesty, 1977; Moran, 1989). A wetland culture is an identifiable human group (either extant or historic) living in a wetland dominated geographic region and using wetland materials for a substantial portion of food supply, shelter materials, fuel or other critical resources (Kiviat, 1991)

Nepal is a small and landlocked country, rising in Asia, which is rich in cultural diversity. Nepal has an outstanding position in the world. Dhimal cast is categorized under the marginalized indigenous groups of Nepal. The Dhimal represents one of the oldest indigenous groups of Eastern Tarai. They have smallest population in our country. They have separate identity, unique language, peculiar dress and culture. They lie mainly in the Jhapa Morang and Sunsari Districts of Nepal. They have their own distinct identity and way of life. They have been sustaining wetland environment since ancient time. According to Malley (1907), Dhimal habitats is the "marshy tract, formerly covered by dense malarious Jungle. According to census of Nepal, 2011 total number of Dhimal population is 26,298, which constitutes 0.099 percentage of the total population. Among them, 6572 population are settled in urban area. Remaining populations of 19726 are sheltered in rural area (CBS 2011). They are following nature religion (Prakriti Dharma). In other words, they are worshippers of nature who believes in supernatural powers.

Table 1: Trends of Dhimal population in Eastern Tarai

S.no year Population of Dhimal source

1 1921 505 Record of British Sub-continent

2 1952 5671 Nepal Government on the basis of Mother Tongue

3 1961 8188 Census report HMG

4 1972 10016 Members of the Folk-Life Study Team 1972/73

5 1981 13000 Key Informants

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6 1991 16781 CBS 1991

7 2001 19537 CBS 2001

8 2011 26298 CBS 2011

Field Survey 2017

Before the establishment of Nepal Malaria Eradication Organization the fertile lands of Jhapa and Morang were popularly known and considered as "Kala Pani" a "deadly" malaria ridden zone where mountain people would definitely & easily die if they remain there for long time in summer seasons. According to Oldfield 1981, the Tarai region of Eastern Nepal, Jhapa and Morang were reported to be "extremely swampy with its pestilent climate, the most malarious and unhealthy districts". Damak also lies in this Malarial Environment. During the time, hilly people feared the malaria and painful and cruel environmental condition of Tarai. While the Tarai indigenous community, Dhimals were surviving the malaria. Jhapa and Morang were ancestral territories of Dhimal community and were" hyper endemic of malaria" until 1950's .

Earlier than the Nepal Malaria Eradication Organization (6 December, 1958), malaria was prevalent in the lowlands of Eastern Tarai, Jhapa and Morang districts. Malaria was the threat for the people who wished to settle in the Tarai. Because of the terrible and life threatening disease of malaria, the people who lived in Mountain and Hilly Region did not dare to establish colony in Tarai through forest land reclamation. Till mid of 1960s outsiders did not dare to exploit the dense forest land of Tarai, because of the presence of the epidemic malaria disease. According to various scholars, Dhimal were nomadic people at the beginning who used to hunt and gather animals and fish for their daily life. Afterwards, there was scarcity of land to hunt animals; they began to settle in specific areas. According to old generation Dhimal people; Rajarani of Northern Morang is the ancient and original settlements of Dhimal community. Before 1981, Dhimal community were concentrated mainly in 14 Village Panchayats of Morang and 13 Village Panchayats of Jhapa. Among them, ancient settlements of are Haraicha, Kaseni, Dangihat, Bahuni, Keraun, Bayarban, Belbari, Urlabari, Amardaha, Rajghat, Letang, Madhumalla, Babiyabirta, Gobindapur Village Panchayats. Likewise, antique Dhimal's habitation of Jhapa are Damak, Gauradaha, Topgachhi, Parakhopi, Anarmani, Sanischare, , Duhagadhi, Shantinagar, Nakalbanda, , Jyamirgadhi, Village

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Panchayats. Dhimal communitty still like to live in traditional villages' mainly compact settlement where 15- 30 houses accumulated together. Majority of Dhimal community enjoyed thatched roofed houses. According to rural local elders, thatched roofs are sustainable and environmental friendly credentials. They provide excellent insulation, keeping houses warm in winter season and cool in summer season. Among the Village Panchayats of Jhapa and Morang, Damak Village panchayat was populated and inhabited mainly by Dhimal communities before 1958. According to the old generation people of Dhimal, malaria was the most serious health problem affecting roughly 20% of the households of this area. Popular imagination before 1950 of Tarai as Kalapani and Kala Banjar (barren land) may have been drawn from the history as a malarial environment of Tarai. Dhimal community transformed these outwardly "deadly place or lethal and pernicious places" into their home. Dhimal community imbued Damak with their common cultural histories and identities. They made Damak a habitable dwelling place for all today's dense cultural landscapes. Now, Dhimal population reached 4980 in Damak Municipality.

Damak municipality is situated in the Eastern part of of Nepal. Total area of this municipality is 75.3 square kilometer (7513 hectares). It is located between two rivers Ratuwa in the East and Mawa in the West. Damak lies in Subtropical climatic zone. There are 10 wards including the largest tea garden in the Jhapa Districts. The municipality lies between 98- 232 meter above the sea level.

Methodology The study has covered the 71 households of surrounding area of Dakini Kharkhare wetland. The wetland was divided into two zones- one within 1 km around the wetland and another of 3 km. Sample size was determined on the basis of statistical norms. According to the rule of thumb, if the size of sample is 30 or more, the distribution becomes normal and statistical test can be performed (Daniel & Terrel, 1995). Following the rule a quota sampling of 35 households in each zone was randomly used for household survey. The study area of 3 km around the wetland was determined by the help of Topographical Map 1991. Purposive sampling technique has been used for qualitative data collection. Households for the interview were selected by the lottery method. Data were collected from different map, Aerial Photo, Census Report, and Booklets. Data was analyzed and filtered as per need of the study. Sometimes, secondary data were

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supplanted by primary data in conventional and meta form, which is directly collected from field observations, household survey and interviews. Topographical Map Sheet 72 N/10, 1959, prepared by Surveyor General of was used to find out the settlement pattern of Dhimal during the 1950s. Specific objective of the study is to assess the status of wetland related culture of Dhimal communities.

Wetland Related Culture of Dhimal Community Based on hearsay, the Dhimal castes worship the goddess Shaliwerang and Kaliwerang since immemorial. They believe that the goddess owner own their home. It is believed that by the end of mother sovereignty the goddess took shelter at the homes of Dhimal castes. During the period of shelter, the goddess was satisfied and happy with their support and devotion. The Dhimals were blessed by Shaliwerang goddess for the success on getting large quantity of fish during fishing. Likewise, the goddess Kaliwerang Devi also blessed the Dhimals for enough prey during the hunt and furthers no shortage of hunting. In addition, the goddess blessed them to preserve the wetlands rather than misusing them further. The epithet of goddess during the ancient period denotes that the Eastern Region of is rich in wetlands, wetlands ecosystem, and aquatic biodiversity. Likewise, Dhimal community is found to be fully dependent on food, nourishing element, and economic activities on wetlands resources. The customs, rituals and cultures of Dhimals is based on wetlands and aquatic resources. The Dhimals state that they worship wetlands since the ancient to the present time, during the occasion of Ashare Puja (Dhangdhange fair) and Tihar (national festivals of Nepal or, Festival of lights). Dhangdhange fair is important festival of Dhimal which is celebrated during April, May,June and July (began 14 April Nepali New year and end Mid-July Asar month in Nepali Calander). This fair is celebrated in the local and regional level of Jhapa and Morang in different times and worship wetlands. During the Dhangdhange fair wetlands is worshiped from Tista River to Sapta Koshi River. Local level fairs were concentrated near small wetlands.

The places for bathing of Dhimals were near streams, rivers, ponds and lakes. They were made shallow well at the bank of wetlands. They call it as Chileghate in their Language. During 1970s, most of the Dhimal household members were bathed in Chileghate (bank of wetlands). Dhimal community has been enjoying in subtropical monsoon climatic region, therefore bathing became their daily activity. Women and children's used to bath and wash clothes on Chileghate before 40

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years ago. On the other hand, male and boys used to swim on Holies, ponds and lakes. During the hot season of March and April, they used to swim on wetlands likewise, fishing was their hobby. At present, bathing place of wetlands (Chileghate) is seen only in few places. They worship wetland as a holy place. Therefore they cremated dead body in the bank of wetlands.

Table 2: Changing Pattern of Bathing Place (Chileghate) or Swimming

S.No year Households Bathing and swimming on Time of the Year wetland (Chileghate)

1 1970 71 all year round

2 1980 62 all year round

3 1990 39 all year round

4 2000 19 all year round

5 2010 11 only on rainy days

6 2010 6 Only on rainy days

Source: Household Survey 2017

Table 2 shows that till 1971 whole family of Dhimal used to bath on wetlands. Every decade wetlands have been shrinking and their bathing activities also changed. During the period of 1970s there was favorable condition for their daily life

In the past, they use to go for excretion in open places downstream of Chileghate (Bathing places of wetlands). Now majority households have toilet. Dhimal communities were economically, socially, culturally and religiously depended on wetland environment from ancient time. There are many types of matrimony system in the Dhimal society in Damak municipality. They are Supari Bibaha (marriage by offering a betel nut), marriage by force, marriage by elopement and Magi Bibaha (Arranged marriage). Betel nut marriage and marriage by force were common till 1960s. Now days, these two types of marriage ceremony are completely abrogated by Dhimal society. They celebrated marriage ceremonies for one week till 1973 (2030 B. S). On behalf of bridegroom, on last day of marriage ceremony, neighbors go to wetlands for fishing and returned back with cooked fish as well as they request the guest to take fish with beaten rice, roasted gain and alcohol , after that the guests are seen off. This traditional culture clearly shows how the

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relation of Dhimal people is connected with wetland environment. Now these rites and rituals are forgotten by the new generations, due to depletion of fish fauna, shrinking and disappearing wetlands.

Table 3: Decreasing trends of wetland areas in Damak Municipality S. N. year Wetland covered area Total area of municipality (area in square kilometer) (area in square kilometer)

1 1959 44.03 75.3

2 1981 41.47 75.3

3 2016 9.05 75.3

Source: Topographical Map Sheet No 72 N/10, Survey of India Offices 1959, Land utilization map, 1982 and Google earth 2016

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Wetlands are dynamic in terms of the area and shape. Change in wetlands area between 1954 and 2016 is given in Table 3. Total area of wetland has decreased drastically during the period of 60 years. During the 1950s, about 58.67 percent of the total area was under wetlands. Now, 12 percent of the total areas are occupied by wetlands environment. The decrease is about between 1954 and 2016. Per year 8.1 percent wetland area has decreased. The shrinking and disappearing of wetlands has several consequences in fish population. Some species of fish have disappeared. The attributes of wetlands around this urban area have changed, which has changed the economic activities, cultures and food habit of native Dhimal communities. Till 1981 Dhimal people never used to go to the kitchen for lunch or dinner without fish and other edible aquatic fauna. This food habit is still in practice but in lesser extent. Dhimal people prefer fishing, bathing, and enjoying the beauty of wetlands. If they capture more fishes, then the middle and rich family dry or smoke them whereas the poor family surplus capture goes to the local market.

Table 4: Trends of Dhimal Population in Damak Municipality

S.no Year Households Total Population Remarkable sources

1 1954 305 1925 Aerial Photo 1954, Topographical Map 1959

2 1961 392 2744 KIS and FGD

3 1971 602 4214 KIS and FGD

4 1981 678 4900 KIS and FGD

5 1991 700 4962 KIS and FGD

6 2001 690 50015 KIS and FGD

7 2011 687 4980 Office of Damak Municipality 2017

Field Survey 2074

Table 4 shows the trends of households and population of Dhimal caste. According to old generation of Dhimal community and Key informants Damak was settled by Dhimal and Meche community during the 1860s to clear the vast dense forest. Till 1950 few patch of forest land was cleared for cultivation. Dhimal community concentrated these limited patches of land. Administrators of Jimidari and Patuwari system had long made efforts to settle the area of Damak by people for land reclamation. But endemic prevalence of malaria had discouraged the

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settlement pattern of Damak. Only Dhimal were surviving that lethal environment. According to Aerial Photograph on March 1954 (2011 BS) there were 416 houses that time. Among them 305 houses were Dhimal communities, remaining households were Kumal, Satar, and Rajbangsi, hilly cast were least in numbers. Since 1954 to 1981 the population of Dhimal has been increased at a faster rate. Then population growth rate has been decreasing. During the 1991 to 2011 Dhimal family migrated outside the municipality.

From 1975, wetlands have been filling and registered in government records as personal property, which is the major reason of shrinking and disappearing of wetlands environment. Similarly, human settlements densely concentrated upwards to the wetlands, which have created pollution of wetland water. Due to polluted water swimming and bathing habit in wetlands is being lost. Old age people, who has been bathing and swimming in Chileghate and wetlands, are suffering from skin diseases.

Food habits of Dhimal communities are also based on wetland resources. Most of Dhimal community has been domiciling on wetlands environment since beginning of their origin. Therefore, the environment determined their test on wetland resources. They prefer to collect different species of fishes, shells, snails, crabs and aquatic birds in their kitchen. Till 1970s, most households of Dhimal had cooked varieties of fishes in their meal. Fish fry, fish gravy and pickle of Sidhra fish were common in their lunch and dinner. During the mid of 1970s, there were limited fish market in surroundings of Damak Municipality. Money was scarce in majority of Dhimal people. But food grains were enough with the households. Fishmonger family who were under the poverty line, exchanged fish with rice to support their family. During the 1970s, 36 households had exchanged fish with rice with the landlords, money lender and wealthy person. Surplus fishes were dried and stored for winter. Every roof and courtyard of Dhimal households was covered with Chelangi (fish drying equipment). New visitors would easily identify the habitation of Dhimal community due to the smell of dry fish from a distance. Wetland cultures show cultural behavior, habit and religious observance that are adaptive and suitable in wetland environments. Following are the scenery of cultural practices:

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Field survey shows the real situation of Dhimal ethnic groups towards the wetlands environment. Dhimal community is a female dominated ethnic group. So, they are free to walk and do the work and their role is also supreme in their family. The images clearly show that all the household members are involved in fishing. School and college girls of Dhimal society are also engaged in capturing fish. Nature of resource harvesting is pastime fishing. They made the fish selling income as private money (Pewa) and used the money to lend to others.

Perception of Dhimal Community on Wetlands

Wetlands are identified and classified by the native community, based on soils types, hydrology, abundance of fauna and floral species. Native communities recognize swamps, marshes, oxbow lake, pond, lake, jheel and bogs as wetlands. Cattail marshes, toad rush swamps, Dalki Ghari (Paspalidium punctatum ), muddy area and sweet flag areas are common images brought to mind by the term “wetland” for many, indigenous communities.

Dhimal community has a feeling that the areas characterized by the presence of cattail and toad rush marshes, Dalki Ghari, Holi, frequent inundation, grassy area, shallow water above the surface for a sufficient period of time (6-9 months) are wetlands. Dola is a word (in Dhimal language), which denotes to the permanent water logged area. For them it is the place where men can drawn up to neck height, impossible to plant paddy plough by yoke of oxen (Bhasland) and remains water constant. They take such kinds of swampy paddy fields, small ponds, Holi as wetland where they find Lesser Adjutant and enough waterfowls. It is that type of muddy land, which is rich in fish fauna and other edible aquatic life all-round the year where they are surviving and enjoying.

Findings and Conclusion Findings: All the available resources and raw materials that the Dhimal ethnic group use in their life cycle rituals and they offer to the deities are obtained from wetland and the wetland environment. Such culture and rituals have been established as the real culture of Dhimals. In this way the Dhimal, wetlands and Dhimal cultures are integral to each other.

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Conclusion: Whenever we observe the ancient settlement pattern of the Dhimal Community, their settlement seems to be settled at and around the wetlands areas. Their custom, culture, rites and rituals and economic activities are also strongly related with wetland environment and wetland resources. If we want to conserve their original fundamental culture, custom, rites, rituals and food habit, we must stop people from encroaching private and public wetlands. The encroached wetlands after 1971 AD must be snatched by the local level executive and it must be under local level control. The modified wetlands by filling them with soil and sand by land traders must be banned as soon as possible. As wetlands are the boons given by the nature, they must be utilized publicly for the maximum human welfare. This study shows wetlands as shrinking and disappearing, their daily life and culture have also been changing in the same way in the same ratio. Wetland cultures (the collective practices of wetland surroundings native community) evince cultural behavior, habit and religious observance that are adaptive and suitable in wetland environments. The Dhimal community of Damak (Jhapa) seems to be much more concerned than other communities regarding wetland conservation against degradation ad disappearing conditions of wetlands and aquatic biodiversity. Therefore for the entire conservation of the wetlands, its conserving responsibility must be given to the concerned Dhimal community.

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