Available on line at: p ISSN: 2354-5844 http://ijwem.unlam.ac.id/index.php/ijwem e ISSN: 2477-5223

Spatial Association of Wetlands over Physical Variants in Barind Tract of ,

Rajib Tarani Das and Swades Pal

University of Gour Banga, Malda, West Bengal, India

ABSTRACT

Barind tract of west Bengal is an uplifted old alluvial plain area where only <1 percent area is covered by major wetland. The present paper concentrates on general understanding of wetland association with different geographical settings like geological, geomorphological lithological structures and altitudinal gradations. Another purpose of the research is to find proximity of wetland to river in the study area. To find associationship of wetland with various topographical setting, simple overlay technique is applied such as wetland overlay on geological map, morphological map, and relief map etc. Buffer analysis within 2 km radius along the major has been drawn to show wetland proximity to river. Detail investigation reveals that geological and morphological structures do not have deep influence on wetland formation and their distribution is not biased in any particular favourable sub-region. But altitudinal control on wetland distribution is noticeable. Maximum wetlands are concentrated in low altitudes. Similarly, about 40% wetland is found within 2 km width from major rivers which shows good proximity of wetland to river. An irregular distribution of wetland is found throughout the region because of multi parametric influence on it. In recent decades wetlands in Barind tract has been undergoing into rapid loss. Continuous encroachment of agricultural field and newly built-up area to wetland are considered as main causes of wetland loss in Barind tract.

Keywords: Barind tract, Wetland distribution, Physical Variants, Spatial association of wetland and Size and frequency distribution of wetland.

INTRODUCTION shallow open water etc. (Sather, 1975, Mader, 1991; Martin et al. 1953). Biotic components The term “Wetland” means all types of such as aquatic species, dominant vegetation water logged area, that is wet for some period are other important criteria for wetland of time or permanently. Generally, it classification like, emergent wetlands comprises a rich complex ecosystem and (characterized by erect, rooted, herbaceous represents a transitional zone between hydrophytes) forested wetland (dominated by terrestrial and aquatic system (Cowardin et al. woody vegetation). Identification of accurate 1979, Zoltai et al. 1988, Finlayson et al. category of wetland is essential for 1995). Wetlands can be classified into assessment of wetlands (Mitra et al. 2005). different categories, for example, on the basis Generally Origin of wetlands and their of topographic setting and geomorphology characteristics in an area are deeply there are lacustrine, riverine, shoreland influenced by the geomorphological and wetland and flood plain wetland etc. geological conditions, climatic setup and (Cowardin et al. 1979), on the basis of hydrological characters of that area hydrology or water regime wetlands are (Majumdar et al. 1976; Gray, 2011). But temporarily flooded, saturated, seasonally sometimes this relation does not follow such flooded, intermittently exposed, permanently theoretical rule. Many literatures are available flooded, shallow marsh, deep marsh, and which already have established this type of relationship of wetlands with topographic Correspondence: Das, R.T. Department of Geography, expression. For example, riverine wetlands University of Gour Banga, India are widely available within river corridors Email: [email protected] where wetlands are connected with stream Journal of Wetlands Environmental Management Vol 4, No 2 (2016) 103 – 115 http://dx.doi.org/10.20527/jwem.01.01.02 103 Available on line at: p ISSN: 2354-5844 http://ijwem.unlam.ac.id/index.php/ijwem e ISSN: 2477-5223 channels and gets inundated water from river condition where a large part of this area (Theriota et al. 2013). Similarly, slope belongs to flood plain, alluvial fan, channels wetlands normally found on sloping land, and flood basin of rivers flowing over this elevation gradient may range from steep region. The region is characterized by tropical hillsides to slight slopes. This slope wetland monsoon type climate with moderate to high exists where topographic conditions allow temperature. Seasonal imbalance of rainfall ground water to intersect the surface, creating influences discharge condition of river and a zone of perennial or near perennial moisture ground water level (Rashid et al. 2014). (Stein et al. 2004). Estuarine wetlands occur Various types of wetlands are found in the along coastal estuaries under the influence of Barind tract in which most of the natural sea level change and tidal effects. Sometimes wetlands are situated on newly formed they integrate landward with riverine floodplain area. But at present most of these wetlands where tidal currents diminish and natural wetlands have no connection with river flow becomes the dominant water source rivers. Numerous ponds, constructed tanks (Brinson, 1993). But palustrine wetlands (beaver, partly drained, farmed, impounded, system (Shallow, ponds, marshes, swamp, excavated etc) in this region are distributed and sloughs) is different from estuarine unevenly throughout study area. These wetland which includes all non-tidal wetlands wetlands are manmade and natural ones have dominated by trees, shrubs, persistent been modified to some degree by the human emergent (Cowardin et al. 1979). These activities. Wetlands provides a number of entire examples reflect the wetland goods and services like water quality stratigraphy and existing literature on wetland improvement (Brander, 2006) reduces flood research focusing on the multidimensional peak (Brander, 2006), traps sediment aspects of wetland such as formation of (Galbraith et al. 2005), replenishes ground wetland, function of wetland; wetland loss water (Kotze, 2000), providing woods for etc. on different landscape setting. Barind energy (Rewa, 2007) which are ecologically tract of west Bengal lies between catchment as well as economically important to of the river and its tributaries community. Keeping its beneficial sides, drainage system of Kulik, Mahananda, preservation of wetland should be prioritized. Atreyee, and Punarbhaba Rivers. Drainage Present paper wants to know (1) is there any system of Barind tract shows the meandering specific associationship of wetland with entrenched channels with dendritic drainage geological, geomorphological and altitudinal pattern and rivers are characterized into segments of the study area? (2) study also perennial, semi-perennial and non-perennial emphasizes how far wetlands are associated rivers (Hassan et al. 2013). Generally it has with very proximate zone of the river? unique geomorphological and hydrological

MATERIALS AND METHODS 2. Geological, geomorphological and relief map generation: Major geological and Data set used here and their relevant geomorphological units are demarcated and sources have been shown in Table 1. their respective areas are calculated from geological map of Geological Survey of Method for determination of wetland India, 1985 and relief map generated from association: Determination of wetland DEM data of USGS of the projected area. association includes three successive stages, namely: 3. Wetlands overlay: Delimited wetlands are then draped over geological, geo- 1. Wetland delimitation: Wetland area morphological and altitudinal units to assess demarcated from google earth imagery and the nature of association by measurement and toposheet. Simple digitization is done for visual detection. creating wetland layers of different kinds with the help of Arc GIS software (version: 9.3).

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Method for analysis of wetland proximity string from river to 1km and second string to river: First buffer analysis has been done from 1km to 2 km) and after that total area of with 2 km radius along the major river various types of wetland within buffer zone is (Buffer zone divided into two strings; first measured to see concentration of wetland in selected proximate zones of river.

Table 1. Dataset used for the work with their relevant sources and purposes

Objectives Specification of objectives Data used Data sources Administrative Boundary Malda District Map of District Bureau of Delineation (State and Census of India, North Statistics Office., International Boundary) and South Dinajpur Topographical Map District Map of Census of India. 2011 Objective 1 Water-body Detection and Google Earth Imagery Google Earth Map River Boundary Delineation of 2015 and (Atrei, Punorvaba, Tangon, Toposheet Kulik, Nagar, Fulhar & (USDA, 1951) Mahananda river) Demarcation of geological Geological map Geological Survey of and geomorphological unit India (GSI, 1985) Delineation of river Google Earth Imagery Google Earth Map, of 2015 and Toposheet from Texas Toposheet university website (USDA, 1951) (USA). Objective 2 Wetland measurement Data measured from Google Earth Map within 2 km radius from Google Earth Imagery river of 2015

Study area plains and uplands. Hence, out of total area, only 1 % (4,315.31 hectare excluding paddy The Barind tract of west Bengal is a field) area is covered by various surface water distinct physiographic unit comprising a bodies. Selected Lithological sites (site 1, 2, series of uplifted blocks of terraced land 3, 4, 5, and 6) represent underground Litho- covering 2637.66 sq. mile (679,038.39 logical condition and geological pattern hectare) area with latitudinal extension (Figure 1). The Barind tract is mainly between 24°52´20´´N to 26°29´16´´N and composed of alternating sand, silt and clay longitudinal extension between 87°47´32´´E layer with average elevation of 35 m to 40 m. to 89°00´29´´E (Figure 1). Its southern from mean sea level. Various size of sand boundary is delineated by the left bank of grain size ranging from find sand to very Mahananda River, western part by Phulhar coarse sand with pebble and gravel at River; northern part is by Balason River and different depth determines water bearing layer eastern part by Atrei river basin. with different water holding capacity. Geomorphologically, it is divided into active Average rainfall of this region is 1,250 mm. flood plain, inactive flood plain, extended occurring mainly from late April to October flood plain, uplands, piedmont, alluvial fan and temperature ranging from 25° to 35°C and swampy water logged area. But a vast (Das et al. 2016). area of Barind tract falls under inactive flood

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Figure 1. Study Area: Barind Tract of West Bengal and surrounding area Source: Google earth imagery (2015) and USGS toposheet (1951)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Most of the natural wetlands in the study area belong to depressional type of wetland Since geologic and topographic attributes which occurs in topographic depression. have control on wetland formation processes Dominant water sources are precipitation, and therefore it greatly influences distribution ground water discharge, and overland flow of wetlands in different geologic units (Genet, from adjacent uplands as usually happen 2015). But in the present study area, (Riddell et al. 2010). Some oxbow lakes are investigation of wetlands on different formed adjacent to river corridor where river geological formations reveals an irregular continuously shifting their courses mainly pattern of distribution of wetlands. There is along Mahananda, Fulhar, Kulik river etc. no distinct harmony in the association of Large numbers of man induced inland wetlands with geological formations. In a wetlands (pond, tank etc) are unevenly broader sense wetlands in this region are fall distributed throughout the study area in which under three major groups namely wetlands average size of this wetland is < 0.5 hectare. from channel remnants or riparian wetland, Size wise comparison of wetland between depressed wetland and man induced inland two different phases (Present: based on wetlands. Riparian wetlands include oxbow google earth image, 2015 and Past: based on lake, residues channel, channel cutoff etc., US Army Toposheet, 1951) reveals that in depressional wetland mean isolated surface recent decade, average size of wetland in depression wetland (Kirkman et al., 2000) barind tract has been reduced (Table 2). and man induced inland wetland includes pond, tank etc. (Lefor et al. 1977).

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Table 2. Present and past account of wetlands in Barind tract, West Bengal

Present (based on google Past (based on US Army Parameters of Comparison earth image, 2015) Toposheet, 1951) Total area of Barind tract 679,038.39 hectare 679,038.39 hectare Total number of wetland 2,848 (> 0.1 hectare) 597 ( >1 hectare) Total area of wetland in Barind tract 4,315.31 30,438.14 hectare Wetland density 0.0064 hectare/ hectare 0.045 hectare/ hectare Total number of natural wetland (N) 95 140 Total area of Natural Wetland(N) 2138.64 hectare 24124.22 Total number of man induced wetland 2753 456 (M) Total area of man induced wetland (M) 2176.67 hectare 6313.92 Source: Computed by authors based on google earth map (2015) and US Army Toposheet (1951)

In 1951, total wetland frequency with average size of >10 hectares was 141 but in 2015 it is decreases to only 65 (Table 3). Earlier, frequencies of larger size wetlands were more frequent than present (Figure 2) and overall size of the wetland has been reducing due to fast reclamation of wetland.

Table 3. Size wise frequency distribution of wetland in different time periods.

Number of wetland Size of wetland Present (based on google earth Past (based on US Army (Hectare) image, 2015) Toposheet, 1951) < 0.5 1,584 Not identified 0.5-1 770 3 1-2 273 73 2-4 98 155 4-8 50 189 8-10 8 15 >10 65 141 Source: Computed by authors based on google earth map (2015) and US Army Toposheet (1951)

Figure 2. Size wise frequency status in 1951 and 2015

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Association of wetlands with Geological channel keeps up fast rate wetlands formation unit: Estimation of wetland distribution has (Hassan et al. 2013). At present wetland been done in two different phases, one is past density decreases at significant level wetland account based on US Army toposheet principally because of agricultural (1951) and another is present status based on encroachment. In 2015, average wetland field survey and reviewing google earth density on Barind tract was 0.07 hectare/ imagery. Major geological units (Present day hectare. Large areas of wetlands have already deposit, Shaugaon/ Ganga-Mahananda diminished. But rate of wetland loss varied in formation, Malda formation, Baikunthapur different geological units (Table 4). Out of all formation, Barind formation) are identified geologic units, Shaugaon formation is from district geological map (see Table 3). recorded highest rate of wetland loss (276.34 Both account of wetland i.e. past and present hectare/year in the stipulated study period). status are analyzed on same geological unit. Perhaps it is because of steady loss of some Result shows that in year 1951 wetland small loop channels and deposition of density on Barind tract was 0.103 sediment at the source of those channels hectare/hectare and highest density (0.23 (Rashid et al. 2014). Flow regulation, mostly hectare/hectare) is found in Shaugaon or attenuation of flow through the concerned Ganga Mahananda formation and lowest major rivers like Mahananda, Atreyee, density (0.008 hectare/hectare) found in Punarbhaba, Nagar, Kulik etc. are one of the present day formation. Highest density is major reason behind declining density of found in Shaugaon formation because of wetlands in the present day formation (Figure steady shifting of river Ganga and imprint of 4). river scours. Steady shifting of

Table 4. Changing wetland account in different geological sub units. Associated lithological, soil characters, total area covers of the geological units are also mentioned.

Based on US Army toposheet, Based on google earth 1951 imagery, 2015 Changes Geological Area Litho Change Soil Wetland Wetland Wetland per year Unit (Ha) logy Wetland (Ha) Types density Types area density (Ha) area (Ha) (Ha/Ha) (Ha) (Ha/Ha) Present day 23,504.07 Sand, Silt Entisol Total 1,891.89 0.08 Total 31.16 0.0013 -1,860.73 -31.01 deposit and Clay N* 1,864.85 N 26.93

M** 27.04 M 4.23

Shaugaon/ 71,764.9 Alternate Entisol Total 17,136.87 0.23 Total 556.34 0.0078 -16,580.5 -276.34 Ganga- sequence Mahananda of Sand, N 9,007.32 N 447.98 formation Silt and Clay M 8,129.58 M 108.36

Malda 300,367.5 Alternate Inceptisol Total 10,256.79 0.034 Total 2,085.52 0.0069 -8,171.27 -136.19 formation sequence of Sand, N 8,783.6 N 1,438.79 Silt and Clay M 1,473.2 M 646.73

Baikunthapur 231,479.6 Calcrete Pedocal Total 5,360.32 0.023 Total 1,334.66 0.0058 -4,025.66 -67.09 formation bearing calcisol Sand, Silt yellowish N 4,438.88 N 224.94 and Clay grey loamy to clayey soil partly M 921.44 M 1,109.72 ferruginised

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Barind 51763.15 Ferricrete Pedalfer Total 799.7 0.15 Total 302.59 0.0058 -497.11 8.28 formation bearing alfissol Silt and ferruginised N 29.57 N 0 Clay

M 770.13 M 302.59 *Natural wetland ** Man induced wetland

Source: Computed by authors based on google earth map (2015), US Army Toposheet (1951) and geological map (1985)

Figure 3. Wetland drapes over different Figure 4. Wetland drapes over different geological units, 1951 geological units, 2015

Source: Wetlands of 1951 extracted from USGS Toposheet (Figure 3) is draped on geological unit (1985) and wetland of 2015 extracted from google earth imagery (Figure 4) and draped on geological unit (1985)

Lithological control on wetland wetlands and ground water levels. Based on association: Ground water has a profound sand grain size, water bearing layer is divided influence on perenniality and ecology of the into three classes, i.e fine sand indicates wetlands (Kirkman et al. 2000). But, ground minor water bearing strata, fine to medium water formation depends on lithological sand indicates meso water bearing strata and structure because of runoff, infiltration and coarse sand indicates major water bearing seepage process are all controlled by strata. Presence of water level very nearer to lithological condition of soil profile [24]. the surface support stagnation of water and Lithological structure of barind tract wetland formation. Presence of major ground represents alternate layers of various size of water level near to surface depression creates sand grain, silt and clay layers. Lithological effulent condition and provides continuous structure of six selected sites on different water supply to wetland (Hoque et al. 2012). geological units have been analyzed to inspect So, location of water bearing strata, Presence whether there is any strong relation of of clay soil on upper surface layer helps for Journal of Wetlands Environmental Management Vol 4, No 2 (2016) 103 – 115 http://dx.doi.org/10.20527/jwem.01.01.02 109 Available on line at: p ISSN: 2354-5844 http://ijwem.unlam.ac.id/index.php/ijwem e ISSN: 2477-5223 long term rain water stagnation. Out of six water stagnation over the surface because it sites, surface clay soil presence found in five resists free percolation of water. It is very sites (site 2, 3, 4, 5, & 6) where most of the difficult to establish any strong relation natural depressional wetlands are found between depth of clay layers and water (Figure 5). Lithological sequence of site 5 & bearing layers with wetland formation and 6 represents ground water layer is very close stagnation of water but, it can be stated that to surface layer within 20 meters. Sticky clay this type of lithology can support wetlands. of different kinds at sites 3 and 4 can support

Figure 5. Lithological structure of six selected sites.

Association of wetlands over different geologic structure (Table 4). Out of these Geomorphological units: Morphological units inactive flood plain comprises large condition of the study area is relatively stable. areal extension (309,506.72 hectare) and There is no rapid change found in landscape extended floodplain have lowest area formation and function (Hoque et al. 2012). (17,777.78 hectare). Average wetland density For the convenience of study, entire area in the study area is 0.007 hectare/ hectare but divided into seven major geomorphological it varies unit wise. Highest density of wetland units (Active Flood Plain, Extended Flood is found in back swamp area (0.0119 hectare/ Plain, Inactive Flood Plain, Uplifted Flood hectare) and lowest density is found in the Plain, Upland, Piedmont/Fan and Back uplifted flood plain (0.005 hectare/hectare). Swamp) based on soil condition, height and All other units show that wetland density is Journal of Wetlands Environmental Management Vol 4, No 2 (2016) 103 – 115 http://dx.doi.org/10.20527/jwem.01.01.02 110 Available on line at: p ISSN: 2354-5844 http://ijwem.unlam.ac.id/index.php/ijwem e ISSN: 2477-5223 near to average density. Wetlands in back thereon (Riddell et al. 2010). Uplifted flood swamp area are depressional wetlands in plain usually experiences draining of water which precipitation is the main source of from that land after upliftment and thereby water and often flood water enters there loss of the wetland if those were present during peak flood period overtopping the there. Wetlands found in active flood plain bank. Trapped water becomes slowed down and extended flood plain area have while releasing from back swamp and it connection with stream channel. causes more water stagnation tendency

Table 5. Wetland account in different geomorphological sub units

Total area Wetland Area Density of Wetland Geomorphological Unit (hectare) (hectare) (hectare /hectare) Active Flood Plain 95,983.85 663.89 0.0069 Extended Flood Plain 17,777.78 103.59 0.0058 Inactive Flood Plain 309,506.72 1,973.79 0.0064 Uplifted Flood Plain 71,599.38 355.47 0.0050 Upland 96,948.48 639.28 0.0066 Piedmont/Fan 66,056.63 422.97 0.0064 Back Swamp 21,006.5 251.28 0.0119

Figure 6. Draped wetland scenario in different Figure 7. Wetland association in different geomorphological units altitudinal niches

Source: Geomorphological map generated from morphological map of west Bengal, 1985 (Figure 6) and elevation map generated from SRTM Data, 2000 (Figure 7)

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Association of Wetlands in Altitudinal 150 m. Relatively steeper slope in this high Units: Altitude wise distribution of wetlands altitudinal surface drains water rapidly and in the projected area shows that wetlands therefore chance of wetland association in the increase in number and in size with upper segment of the river is less. In the river decreasing height. Average height of this area usually emanating from ice melt water region, ranges between 30 to 40 m. Entire study area sometimes create high latitudinal lakes of is classified into 5 altitudinal classes and total different kinds (Riddell et al. 2010). But, area of wetlands is estimated. Result shows, where most of the source regions of the rivers there is general trend of decrease in wetlands are not found within the present study area, with increasing height (Table 6). Highest no such wetland association is noticed hereon density of wetlands is 0.0076 (hectare/ (Figure 7). Expectedly, in the lower part of hectare) found at height ranges between 0-31 the flood plain registers maximum wetland meters and lowest density 0.0002 (hectare/ cover area due the association of back swamp hectare) found in the height ranges from 70- area.

Table 6. Wetland account in different altitudinal zones

Total area Wetland area Density of wetlands Height class (meter) (hectare) (hectare) (hectare/hectare) 0-31 285474.76 2171.05 0.0076 31-40 224189.89 1622.32 0.0072 40-53 96249.76 457.14 0.0047 53-70 36204.19 53.37 0.0013 70-150 36760.75 11.39 0.0002 Source: Data computed by authors based on SRTM Data and Google Earth Imagery, 2015.

Figure 8. Control of altitude on wetland density

Proximity of wetlands to river: Large to the Brahamaputra and Padma system have number of wetlands is usually associated with also encouraged for fluvial channel into water lower reach of the main river mainly in the retaining wetlands. Such evidences are found flood plain region (Wagner, 2008). Present from the maps of study area (Figure 1). It is study area is fertile for forming wetlands due found that wetland density maximum in the to steady shifting and transformation of riparian flood plain and most of them are wetlands. A good number of rivers once a associated very proximity to the main time were traversed Barind tract emanating channels and for these wetlands, origin and from Tista river system and merged with river survival are purely determined by dynamics Ganga. But, redirection and draining of water of river. Here buffer analysis has been done

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Table 7. Distance from main streams and wetland association

Total area of wetlands Total area of natural Zone Distance (%) wetlands (%) Buffer Zone1 Within 1 km. 19.29 21.08 Buffer Zone2 Within 1- 2 km. 21.69 21.11 Source: Data computed by authors based on google earth image, 2015

Figure 9. Proximity of wetlands to river Source: Map generated from google earth imagery

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CONCLUSION Cowardin LM, Carter FC, Golet ET, LaRoe. 1979. Classification of wetlands and From the analysis, it is very difficult to deepwater habitats of the United States: draw any concrete inference regarding U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report association of wetland with influencing FWS/OBS-79/31, Virginia p.131. geographical parameters like geology, Das RT, Pal S. 2016. Identification of Water geomorphology, altitude, proximity of Bodies from Multispectral Landsat channel etc. The thing which is true in Imageries of Barind Tract of West theoretical sense may not be applicable Bengal. International Journal of practically because of multi-parametric Innovative Research and Review, 4(1): influences. Here, geology, geomorphology do 26-37. not have significant role for associating Finlayson CM, van der Valk AG, 1995. wetland in their favourable sub regions. Wetland classification and inventory: a Superimposition of different neo lithological summary. Vegetatio, 118:185-192. layers over geological basement can mundane Galbraith H, Amerasinghe P, Huber-Lee A, the effects of original geology as happened 2005. The effects of agricultural irrigation here. Geomorphologically, the region is so on wetland ecosystems in developing altered; it is also equally difficult to capture countries: A literature review. CA any influences on wetland association. Linear Discussion Paper 1 Colombo, Sri Lanka: array between altitude and wetland Comprehensive Assessment Secretariat. association is distinctly evident. Gray RP. 2011. Techniques for Assessing the Concentration of wetland is gradually Impacts of Wetlands on Hydrological decreasing with increasing altitude. It Responses Under Varying Climatic indicates the area with lower altitude is Conditions. MSc dissertation, University characterized by denser wetland cover. Study of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, reveals another thing clearly that frequency RSA, School of Bioresources Engineering and density of wetland is decreased between and Environmental Hydrology. 3-23 the selected time and larger wetlands are Hassan S, Mahmud-ul-islam S, 2013. Drought squeezing and becoming smaller and smaller Vulnerability Assessment in the High size wetlands are becoming reclaimed. No Barind Tract of Using definite trend is identified regarding alteration MODIS NDVI and Land Surface of wetlands over different units. Slightly the Temperature (LST) Imageries, wetlands near to the rivers with available International Journal of Science and water all through the years are getting Research, 2319-7064. reclaimed with very fast rate and for which Hoque, Burgess AWG, 2012. 14C dating of agricultural sprawl is the main vector. deep groundwater in the Bengal Aquifer

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