Introduction to Knitwear Training Manual 2 3

INTRODUCTION TO KNITWEAR TRAINING MANUAL 2 3

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 4

1. Benefits of Merino Wool in Knitwear 5 2. Australian Merino Wool 5 3. Processing Pipeline 6 4. Woollen Processing 6 5. Worsted Processing 6 6. Yarn Selection 7 7. Twist 8 8. Contamination 8 9. Strength and Elasticity 9 10. Dye Fastness 9 11. Fibre Diameter 9 12. Surface Friction 10 13. Knots 10 14. Knitting 11 15. Making up 13 16. Finishing 13 17. Summary 15 4

The Woolmark logo is one of the world’s most recognisable textile symbols, and for most people it indicates thatThis a product short bearing reviewthe mark is made aims from 100 to per brieflycent Pure New cover Wool. These some products meet of key theperformance technical standards – providing aspects confidence which to consumers must that a quality be product considered is being bought. The Woolmark logo was designed by Italian graphic artist Francesco Saroglia and was launched in 1964 in the whenUSA, Western producing Europe and Japan. Since quality then it has beenMerino promoted and wool used on knitwear.end products in more than 100 countries across the globe. It begins with wool production in Australia and follows the processing route from yarn through to fabric.

Particular attention is given to yarn selection, which is paramount to a quality knitwear product, along with the relationship between yarn and knitting machines.

Wool knitwear requires slightly different finishing procedures to other fibres and these will also be covered. 5

01 BENEFITS OF MERINO IN KNITWEAR

NATURAL FIBRE CRIMP SOFTNESS Merino wool is the natural fibre Merino wool is naturally crimped Australian Merino sheep are choice, made of a protein called allowing for bulky yet light fabrics. renowned for producing the finest keratin, the same protein as human wool. This fineness is the reason hair. RESILIENCE Merino wool garments have superior Merino wool fibres will return to handle and superb drape. BIODEGRADABLE their original state when bent or Under the right conditions Merino stretched, ensuring garments COMFORT wool fibre takes only a few years to retain their shape during wear Merino wool has the ability to respond decompose. and laundering. to changes in temperature and humidity. The hygroscopic core of the RENEWABLE wool fibre has the capacity to absorb Every year Australian Merino sheep up to 35% of its own weight in moisture produce a new fleece, which can be (vapour) allowing humidity to move removed without harm to the animal. away from the body and evaporate.

02 AUSTRALIAN MERINO WOOL

The Australian Merino sheep derives Felting is the locking together of washable product is required there its name and basic appearance from individual fibres during severe are a range of processes which the famed Royal Merino flocks of Spain, mechanical action (such as washing). change the surface of the fibre so that having been introduced to Australia by felting does not occur. Importantly European settlers over 200 years ago. This fibre entanglement is these processes do not significantly irreversible; however if a machine- affect the handle of wool. Australia is the world’s largest producer of Merino wool. In 2010/11 Australia’s 70 million sheep produced 345 mkgs of wool. The Australian wool clip is particularly suited to use in apparel, with 54% of annual production in 2010/11 being less than 20.6 micron. The finer the wool’s diameter, the softer and more crimped it becomes. Crimp, the wave in the wool staple, contributes to the bulk and the lightness of wool knitting yarns.

Examination of a wool fibre under a microscope shows the scale NORMAL WOOL FIBRE TREATED WOOL FIBRE structure which contributes to wool’s performance qualities; for instance, Micron (μm) is a measure of diameter equal to 1 millionth of a metre or 0.04 thousands of an these scales are the cause of felting. inch; human hair is on average 45μm. 6

03 PROCESSING PIPELINE

The first step in creating yarn is WOOLLEN ROUTE WORSTED ROUTE to scour the greasy wool, this is Is shorter and used for heavier Is typically used for finer counts essentially washing the wool in counts of yarn. In this case, fibres of yarn. In this case the fibres are warm water to remove dirt and are randomly distributed in the yarn parallel to each other. grease. The scoured and dried wool and are shorter than those used in a is then ready to process by one of worsted yarn. two possible routes:

04 WOOLLEN PROCESSING

Scoured wool is disentangled in a of fibres which sticks to each tape strand may be suitable for weaving card; the fibres are separated out by is rubbed in the condenser to make but not generally for knitwear as a series of pinned rollers moving at a delicate twistless strand called a it must be two-fold. This means different relative speeds. The opened slubbing. Strength is added to the twisting together two yarns using out wool fibres are stripped off the last slubbing by spinning. opposite twist so that the yarn of these rollers to make a thin web of is balanced and doesn’t snarl or fibre. This web is then split into strips Spinning draws out and twists the twist, which leads to skewing of the by a series of tapes. The fine ribbon wool to make a yarn. This single knitted fabric.

05 WORSTED PROCESSING

Worsted processing shares common spinning is then drawing out of the steps with woollen processing, top to make a small package of fine YARN QUALITIES however the transformation route sliver known as a roving. This is the WOOLLEN WORSTED is longer. Scoured wool is carded in equivalent to the slubbing produced in a similar way to the woollen route, the woollen route and has taken more Shorter fibre Longer fibre however it is removed from the card steps to achieve. length length not as individual twistless slubbing but as a single thick sliver of parallel During spinning, the roving is drawn Random fibre Parallel fibre distribution distribution fibres. The next stage is a repeated out to about 20 times its original sequence of gilling in which a number length and twist is inserted to produce Bulky yarns Smooth yarns of different slivers are blended and a fine worsted yarn. Any large knots then drawn out to increase the are then removed and replaced by Coarse to medium Medium to fine regularity. Combing, a similar process, fine splices before winding onto large yarn counts yarn counts is the next stage, in which the shorter packages. As with woollen yarns, Wet or steam Wet finished fibres are removed to be processed worsted yarns destined for knitwear finished knitwear as noil. The resulting combed sliver is are generally two-fold. knitwear known as top. The final stage before 7

06 YARN SELECTION

There are many factors which a knitter should take into account when selecting the right yarn for the end product. YARN COUNT (Nm) Depending on the machine gauge and fabric structure.

MACHINE TYPE GAUGE YARN COUNT (Nm)

9 9/2 - 12/2

12 12/2 - 17/2

STRAIGHT BAR FULLY 15 13/2 - 20/2

FASHIONED 18 20/2 - 28/2 (gauge is needles per 1.5 inches) 21 22/2 - 32/2

24 28/2 - 36/2

27 32/2 - 40/2

3 2/2 - 4/2

5 4/2 - 9/2

7 10/2 - 14/2

8 12/2 - 17/2 V-BED FULLY FASHIONED 10 20/2 - 24/2 (gauge is needles per 1 inch) 12 24/2 - 32/2

14 28/2 - 36/2

16 36/2 - 48/2

18 44/2 - 60/2

8 17/2 - 24/2 10 22/2 - 36/2 12 28/2 - 40/2 14 32/2 - 48/2

SINGLE JERSEY CUT & SEW 18 40/2 - 30/1 (gauge is needles per 1 inch) 20 48/2 - 32/1 22 28/1 - 36/1

24 32/1 - 40/1

26 36/1 - 44/1 28 48/1 - 55/1 8

WORSTED OR WOOLLEN by steaming only, however it is • Balance twist Which one of the two basic yarn generally better to give a light wet • Count and twist regularity types that is selected will depend on finish which has the advantage of • Correct mean fibre length the end product required. Woollen improving fabric bulk and softness. • Correct fibre diameter and yarns produce products that need distribution for the count wet finishing after knitting in order COLOURED OR UNCOLOURED • Consistent and appropiate to remove the lubricants used in Depending on whether the end strength and extensibility carding and create the characteristic product is to be piece dyed. • Low yarn to metal surface friction bulk. Worsted yarns produce smooth • Freedom from contamination compact fabrics. If the yarn and Once these decisions have been • Good dye fastness knitting conditions are clean it can be made it is essential that the yarn • Free of knots possible to finish worsted garments selected has the following attributes:

07 TWIST

A knitting yarn normally has lower balanced twist, knitwear yarns are twist than a weaving yarn so that it nearly always two-folded. can produce a soft bulky product, however this twist must be balanced. By twisting together two single yarns If the yarn snarls or untwists it will in the reverse direction to the spinning Z+Z ›S cause spirality or skewing in the twist and at about 60% of the spinning knitted fabric. In order to achieve twist, the yarn should be balanced.

08 CONTAMINATION

Contamination can be a problem as stage is not done properly VM will SYNTHETIC FIBRES the contaminant may dye differently be seen as brown flecks in the yarn If present might not take the dye from the yarn. and garment. and are difficult to remove.

VEGETABLE MATTER (VM) DARK FIBRES Plant matter picked up by the sheep If present will show in pale whilst grazing. If the carbonising coloured knitwear. 9 9

09 STRENGTH AND ELASTICITY

Wool fibres are strong and elastic fibre length is shorter, and the twist due to the fibre structure. Yarn lower, can result in garments which strength and elasticity are related are more prone to weakness and to the fibre length and yarn twist. more likely to wear through. Woollen spun yarns, where the

10 DYE FASTNESS

One of the most important points to carding. This is called stock dyeing. consider when buying a dyed wool yarn is the colour fastness, in other Worsted yarns can be dyed at the words its resistance to dry rubbing following three stages: before spinning and domestic washing. (as top) or after spinning in the form of open hanks or wound packages. The detailed process of dyeing wool is an extensive topic which cannot Stock, top and hank dyeing usually be covered here. However, it is worth produce a bulky yarn whereas considering the different stages in packaged dyed yarns tend to set flat the processing pipeline at which and are less bulky. Package dyeing dyeing can be carried out. Woollen is therefore not recommended for yarn dyeing nearly always occurs at knitwear yarns. the loose scoured stage – just before

11 FIBRE DIAMETER

The wool fibres which make up the fabric lose its softness, but yarns the yarn are of fundamental also become irregular. Lower quality importance. The following table yarns can result in an irregular fabric shows the typical ranges of average surface (stitch distortion). Stitch fibre diameters for knitwear yarns. distortion occurs when the knitted stitches, of irregular yarn, twist in The finer the wool fibre, the finer a different directions. Distortion is most yarn can be spun. In general both likely seen in worsted rather than the softness and the bulk increase woollen fabrics and typically in yarns as the fibre diameter becomes finer. containing wool fibres with a diameter This applies to both worsted and greater than 22 microns. woollen yarns.

Trying to spin fine yarns from wools with too high a fibre diameter leads to various challenges. Not only does 10

TYPICAL FIBRE QUALITIES OF MERINO WOOL KNITWEAR YARNS

17 18 19 19.50 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

Merino Extrafine 2/24 to 2/48Nm

Pure Merino wool

Other 2/14 - 2/32Nm WORSTED SPUN YARNS 58 - 70mm length

Lambswool blend 2/24 to 2/48Nm

55 - 65mm length

Pure Lambswool Lambswool blends Soft Shetland Shetland WOOLLEN 2/15 to 1/27Nm 2/12 to 1/14Nm 2/12 to 1/14Nm 2/8 to 2/12Nm SPUN YARNS 35 - 55mm length 40 - 50mm length 48 - 60mm length 48 - 60mm length

12 SURFACE FRICTION

For efficient knitting the yarn-to-metal friction should be low. If the yarn has a high friction it tends to stick on the knitting needles, reducing knitting efficiency and possibly causing defective products. It is always recommended that knitting yarns are waxed by the spinner to ensure optimum knitting performance.

13 KNOTS

Most Merino wool yarns produced by spinners are knot free. Any yarn breakage which occurs in knitting will result in the need for knotting. Any necessary knots should be tied at the edges of the knitted panels where they are less noticeable and can be tied more securely. 11

14 KNITTING

In the industry the two main types Straight bar machines and most of knitting machines are flat bed WOOL KNITWEAR MACHINES V-bed machines are suitable for machines (with two knitting beds shaped knitwear. The only type not forming the shape of an inverted V-bed Straight bar ideal is the single–carriage wider “V”) and the straight bar or fully (flat bed) (fully fashioned) bed electronic V-bed. Manual fashioned frame with a single For shaped or machines for instance can produce For classic knitting bed. V-bed machines can cut and sew excellent products at a low price shaped products be used for almost any knitted products provided care is taken in setting up structure including cables and stitch lengths, yarn tensions and jacquards, whereas the straight bar ensuring machines are clean and machines are generally limited to plain knitwear styles in wool at a high well maintained. classic, plain-knit styles. rate of production. The more modern version produces a similar type of Straight bar products are mainly The typical hand powered V-bed product although it may also knit classic plain knitted styles with machine is simple in design, but Intarsia in a plain knit structure, that worsted yarns being used on 21 can be used to produce a wide is a patchwork type of fabric using a gauge (14 needles/inch) or finer and range of fabric structures. The number of different coloured yarns. woollens on the heaviest gauges. garment panels can be shaped The standard for woollen lambswool by transferring selvedge stitches More recent straight bar machines yarn is 15 gauge (10 needles/inch) to widen or narrow the piece or tend to be highly automated and, moving to the coarser woollens as they can be cut out of a simple like the electronic V-beds, computer the gauge becomes heavier. rectangular piece. controlled. Perhaps one of the basic decisions when developing a new A V-bed machine with a knitting bed range is whether to make a “cut and WHICH MACHINE TYPE? about two metres wide is typical of sew” product or a shaped product. machines of this type, built for cut There is little doubt that a shaped V-BED STRAIGHT BAR and sew products. A single knitted product is usually better than “cut Structured High panel could, for instance, produce and sew” in terms of overall quality. versatility productivity three bodies or four sleeves with The seams are neater and less bulky perhaps 25% of cutting waste. The and the whole garment is usually Shaping Good stitch newer type of electronic V-bed more attractive. In addition there is possibility quality is narrower, about 1.2 metres, very little cutting waste which is an Handflats: low and designed to produce shaped advantage when buying a premium Shaped products: capital expense knitwear panels with minimal yarn such as wool. The cost of the limited structure and lower cutting waste. However, the speed extra quality is in time, whether range of knitting is reduced because of the manual or electronic machines are production rate time taken in transferring stitches to used, although shaped garments Electronic: high High capital narrow or widen the panel. will take longer to knit than “cut capital expense expense and sew” and probably longer to The older type of straight bar make up. We strongly recommend Handflats: machine is highly mechanical. There that trials in the development of a quality control are still many of these machines wool knitwear range are based upon difficult across the world producing classic shaped products. 12

The V-beds give a lot more scope for of ends of finer worsted yarns structure variety. Fine gauge (14) is ideal together. for “Merino Cool™” products in smooth worsted yarns. This higher-value type of A relatively new approach to knitting knitwear may often feature interesting is the use of whole garment knitting shaping or structure detail. Medium machines from companies like gauge V-bed (seven or eight gauge) Shima Seiki and Stoll. products can be of all types. Jacquards and structures are usually included in The garments resulting from these the gauge which is important for men’s machines use one end of yarn and knitwear. have no seams thus reducing labour content of the garment. Currently Moving down to the heavier five the finest gauge is 18npi though finer gauge, this is ideal for Aran type gauges are being developed by both knitwear with traditional cable companies. structure features. Although knitted in coarse gauge, these garments may be very soft and bulky, especially if knitted from a number

V-BED STRAIGHT BAR WHOLE GARMENT

21-27 gauge 14-18 gauge 12-18 gauge FINE (14-18npi) “Cool Wool” Classic worsted Classic and Ladies Knit Merino Jacquard knits

15-18 gauge 7-10 gauge 7-10 gauge (10-12npi) MEDIUM Men’s Jacquard Classic woollen Men’s Jacquard sweater Lambswool sweater

9-12 gauge 3-5 gauge 3.5-5 gauge (6-8npi) COARSE Chunky Aran Classic woollen Chunky Aran sweater sweater soft Shetland and cardigans 13

15 MAKING UP

The making up of shaped wool each stitch of the chain passes skilful operative, can be very neat. knitwear is normally done by means through a knitted stitch. This is An overlocking machine is used of specialised equipment, primarily known as stitch-for-stitch linking, extensively in cut-and-sew work. a linker for attaching the collar and and creates a very neat compact This machine simultaneously cuts shoulder seams and a cup seamer seam. Cup-seaming is carried out by and then binds the raw edge with a for side seams and completing running the two selvedges between thread. The result is rarely as neat the sleeves. Both machines use a two knurled wheels. Although not a as linked or cup seamed panels. simple chain stitch to attach the stitch-for-stitch seam, this process parts without cutting. In a linker, is faster, and when carried out by a

16 FINISHING

FINISHING HAS THREE PURPOSES This has the advantages of also In this case a more severe treatment helping the fabric to relax to its is required. 1. To relax the fabric structure so natural shape and of increasing that no further shrinkage occurs bulk and softness by allowing fibres The rotary milling machine is rather during domestic washing in the yarns to expand. like a large domestic washing machine. Again warm water and 2. To clean the product, removing oil A side paddle is a simple machine for detergent are used, the action is more and dirt accumulated during the wet finishing or scouring knitwear. severe than a side paddle. Whichever manufacturing process Garments are allowed to circulate machine is used, a good rinse is gently in warm water and detergent essential afterwards to remove all 3. To provide the desired surface for about 20 minutes before tumble- traces of detergent and oils. finish, whether soft, smooth or drying and steam pressing. milled After the attachment of a label and Sometimes a fuzzy “woollen” a final press the garment is ready for As mentioned earlier, unless surface is required, particularly delivery to the retailer. conditions are extremely clean, for knitwear produced from woollen it is normally best to finish in water. spun yarns. 14 15

17 SUMMARY

In this review, the different stages of manufacture have been examined very briefly. The Woolmark Company technical staff, located across the globe, are available to provide detailed guidance on all aspects of knitwear production. WOOLMARK.COM

This publication should only be used as a general aid and is not a substitute for specific advice. To the extent permitted by law, we exclude all liability for loss or damage arising from the use of the information in this publication. The Woolmark and Woolmark Blend symbol are a Certification mark in many countries .