Integrative Inference of Evolutionary Patterns of Desert Biodiversity: a Spatial and Temporal Multi-Scale Approach Using Herpetofauna from North-Africa

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Integrative Inference of Evolutionary Patterns of Desert Biodiversity: a Spatial and Temporal Multi-Scale Approach Using Herpetofauna from North-Africa Integrative inference of evolutionary patterns of desert biodiversity: a spatial and temporal multi- D scale approach using herpetofauna from North-Africa Duarte Nuno Vasconcelos Gonçalves Programa Doutoral em Biodiversidade, Genética e Evolução Departamento de Biologia 2017 Orientador José Carlos Alcobia Rogado de Brito, Investigador Principal, CIBIO-InBIO Coorientador Salvador Carranza Gil Dolz Del Castellar, Tenured Scientist, IBE (CSIC-UPF) Nota prévia Na elaboração desta tese, e nos termos do número 2 do Artigo 4o do Regulamento Geral dos Terceiros Ciclos de Estudos da Universidade do Porto e do Artigo 31º do D.L. 74/2006, de 24 de Março, com a nova redação introduzida pelo D.L. 230/2009, de 14 de Setembro, foi efetuado o aproveitamento total de um conjunto coerente de trabalhos de investigação já publicados ou submetidos para publicação em revistas internacionais indexadas e com arbitragem científica, os quais integram alguns dos capítulos da presente tese. Tendo em conta que os referidos trabalhos foram realizados com a colaboração de outros autores, o candidato esclarece que, em todos eles, participou ativamente na sua conceção, na obtenção e análise de dados, e discussão de resultados, bem como na elaboração da sua forma publicada. Este trabalho foi apoiado pela Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT) através da atribuição da bolsa de doutoramento (SFRH/BD/78402/2011). Acknowledgements The successful conclusion of this thesis would not have been possible without the support of several institutions, but also many people with whom I have contacted during these last few years. From academics, family and friends, and random passersby like a reckless one-eye moto-taxi driver, I got valuable insights into life that have proved and certainly will continue to prove very useful for the times to come inside and outside academia. First, I would like to express my gratitude to my advisors, for their guidance, friendship, and the opportunity to work with them. I also thank them the autonomy they gave and the trust they placed in me. José C. Brito, my lead supervisor, has demonstrated an incredible patience and trust in my capabilities, even in spite of several deadline mishaps on my part. He was responsible for the early concept of this project, and has allowed me to collaborate on many other since then. It was also thanks to him that I managed to fulfil my life-long aspiration of becoming an explorer, through the many field expeditions in the remotest of regions. To Salvador Carranza, my co-supervisor, I would like to thank the opportunity of working in his group, and many contributions provided to this project. Through that I have got to known many interesting people and live in a fantastic city. His seemingly endless pool of energy has on many occasions inspired me to keep going and achieve greater aims. James Harris, although not an official advisor, has offered several contributions and insights that were instrumental to the conclusion of this work. We have worked together since before this doctoral program, and I hope we will continue to do so on the years to come. I would like to acknowledge the Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT) for the financial support to this work plan (grant SFRH/BD/78402/2011). Also in the financial aspect, data acquisition, including lab, fieldwork, data and sample collection, was only possible due to the sponsorship of several institutions: FCT, through projects “METALAND: Inferring metapopulational dynamics with landscape genetics for vertebrates of Mauritanian mountains” (PTDC/BIA-BEC/099934/2008) and “DESERTFLOW – Assessing gene flow and contact zone dynamics in desert lizards under climate change scenarios” (PTDC/BIA-BIC/2903/2012); FEDER funds through the Operational Programme for Competitiveness Factors – COMPETE (FCOMP-01- 0124-FEDER-008917 and FCOMP-01-0124-FEDER-008917/028276); National Geographic Society through the projects “Biogeographic and evolutionary patterns in isolated vertebrates from Mauritania” (CRE 8412-08) and “Phylogeography of the Spiny-footed lizards, Acanthodactylus spp., in West Africa” (CRE 7629-04); Mohamed bin Zayed Species Conservation Fund through the projects “Conservation Status of Mesalina pasteuri, Tarentola chazaliae, Lytorhynchus diadema, and Varanus griseus in the Parc National du Banc d’Arguin (Mauritania)” (11052709), “Conservation Status of Papio papio, Crocodylus niloticus, and Agama boulengeri in Mauritania (11052707)”, and “Conservation Status of Agama tassiliensis and A. boueti in the Termit Massif and Tin Toumma Desert (Niger)” (11052499); and Synthesis 3 programme through the project “Relict or endemic? Frog highlanders and the role of mountains and climatic fluctuations in the diversification of desert anurans” (FR-TAF-4220/GB-TAF-3882). Other institutions provided logistic support to fieldwork, including the Parc National du Banc d’Arguin (Mauritania), the Fondation Internationale du Banc d'Arguin, the Faculty of Sciences and Technology of the University of Science, Technology and Medicine in Nouakchott, and the Ministère de l’Environnement et du Développement durable of Mauritania. I would also thank to logistic support for fieldwork given by Pedro Santos Lda (Trimble GPS) and Off Road Power Shop. I extend my acknowledgements to the institutions that have hosted me: CIBIO-InBIO, Research Centre in Biodiversity and Genetics Resources part of the Research Network on Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology; and IBE, the Institute of Evolutionary Biology (CSIC-UPF). A special thanks to all people who worked in the field during all these years. Without them, I would not have the essential data included in this thesis. I would like to thank to all the people that have worked with me in CIBIO and IBE during these years, for all the insights, friendship and helpful discussions. To my family, I would like to thank their patience and support, even when my mood was not inviting of such kindness. To Bárbara, my companion, thank you for withstanding the time-sucking constraints of this endeavour, and for the love and kindness during these years. Resumo O Norte de África é uma região de grande importância biogeográfica, cada vez mais reconhecida como um centro de biodiversidade e diversificação, e com uma estreita relação histórica com a biodiversidade Europeia. A maior parte da região é ocupada pelo Saara e Sael, duas das principais ecoregiões de África, que abarcam o maior deserto quente do mundo e as regiões áridas vizinhas a sul. A extensão das duas áreas flutuou largamente nos últimos milhões de anos, devido a ciclos de humidade- aridez com 20 000 a 100 000 anos que fizeram o deserto ir e vir, o que, juntamente com uma série de eventos geológicos e uma paisagem topograficamente variada, providenciam um cenário rico para estudar os mecanismos evolutivos que modelam a biodiversidade local. Pese embora um crescente corpo de estudos acerca da biodiversidade do Saara-Sael, existe ainda um enorme vazio de conhecimento no que toca à distribuição da biodiversidade, aos limites das espécies, ou aos processos evolutivos que levaram aos padrões de biodiversidade presentemente observados. O objectivo geral desta tese foi estender o conhecimento acerca da biodiversidade e história biogeográfica da região árida do Norte de África, assim como dos processos evolutivos que lhe deram forma. Quatro objectivos foram delineados para esse propósito: 1) aumento do volume de dados de amostragem disponíveis para a região, e descrever padrões de diversidade; 2) desenvolvimento e optimização de ferramentas e protocolos orientados para o estudo da biodiversidade local; 3) estudo de padrões evolutivos a grandes escalas espaciais e temporais; e 4) estudo de padrões evolutivos à escala espacial (e temporal) local. Isto foi alcançado integrando ferramentas filogeográficas e eco- geográficas na análise de dados de distribuição, genéticos, e ecológicos referentes a representantes da herpetofauna do Norte de África, incluindo espécies do género Agama, Psammophis schokari, e Hoplobatrachus occipitalis. A área de distribuição conhecida de várias espécies foi estendida e melhor detalhada, tanto em termos de registos de presença como diversidade genética. A parapatria foi o padrão dominante na distribuição de espécies e linhagens genéticas dos objectos de estudo. Mostrou-se que o clima desempenhou um papel preponderante na formação dos padrões de biodiversidade e evolução na região, influenciando extensões de ocorrência, causando flutuações demográficas e extinções locais, ou restringindo a dispersão, o que em última instância levou a eventos de diversificação e especiação. A hipótese de vicariância induzida pelo clima como principal motor de diversificação foi ii FCUP Integrative inference of evolutionary patterns of desert biodiversity: a spatial and temporal multi-scale approach using herpetofauna from North-Africa testada no género Agama, avaliando a ocorrência de padrões biogeográficos esperados e usando comaprações de nichos ecológicos. Os resultados aparentam suportar esta hipótese. Exemplos particulares de agentes vicariantes detectados incluem a cobertura de áreas rochosas devido à deposição de areia (para A. boulengeri), ou a bacia do paleo-rio Tamanrasset (para P. schokari). A hipótese de que os corredores trans-Saarianos permitem o fluxo génico entre populações de espécies mésicas foi avaliada usando a espécie P. schokari. A permanência do corredor mésico do Saara Atlântico foi suportada, pelo menos para espécies mésicas que tendem para o extremo xérico e com alta dispersão
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