INDIVIDUAL‘S PERCEPTIONS ABOUT THE CREDIBILITY OF SOCIAL AND TRADITIONAL MEDIA AND ITS IMPACT ON MEDIA PREFERENCE IN PAKISTAN
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO BEACONHOUSE NATIONAL UNIVERSITY IN FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN MASS COMMUNICATION
WAJID ZULQARNAIN Reg No.F2013-135
Supervisor PROF. DR. TAIMUR UL HASSAN
SCHOOL OF MEDIA & MASS COMMUNICATION BEACONHOUSE NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, LAHORE, PAKISTAN 2013-2016
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Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan ii
Dedication
Dedicated to those who pushed me or pulled me, loved me or left me, hurt me or helped me, who are all part of my progress. I "thank you all"!
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan iii
Declaration I, Wajid Zulqarnain, hereby declare that the matter printed in this thesis is my original work and has been carried out under the supervision of Prof Dr. Taimur ul Hassan,
Dean, School of Media and Communication, Beacon House National University,
Lahore.
To the best of my knowledge, this thesis does not contain any material that has been submitted for the award of any other degree in any other university, neither does this thesis contain any material published or written previously by any other person, except in the text for which due references are given.
Wajid Zulqarnain
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan iv
Certificate
It is hereby certified that the thesis entitled ―Individual‘s Perceptions about the
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media and its Impact on Media Preference in
Pakistan‖ is based on original work carried out by Wajid Zulqarnain that has not been previously presented for the higher degree.
Wajid Zulqarnain has done his work under my direct supervision. He has fulfilled all the requirements and is qualified to submit the accompanying thesis according to the prescribed format for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Mass Communication.
Supervisor
Prof Dr. Taimur ul Hassan
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan v
INDIVIDUAL‘S PERCEPTIONS ABOUT THE CREDIBILITY OF SOCIAL AND TRADITIONAL MEDIA AND ITS IMPACT ON MEDIA PREFERENCE IN PAKISTAN
SCHOOL OF MEDIA &MASS COMMUNICATION BEACONHOUSE NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, LAHORE, PAKISTAN 2013-2016
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan vi
Acknowledgment
I thank Allah Almighty for giving me strength and the opportunity to complete this research despite my arduous office work, and continuous personal obligations.
I was fortunate to have worthy Prof. Dr. Taimur ul Hassan, as my supervisor.
Dr. Taimur supported me at every step, starting from topic selection till completion. His knowledge and expertise in Media studies helped me in completing my thesis within time frame. This would not be possible with his tremendous efforts and appreciation.
My supervisor remained with me throughout this wisdom journey and I never felt alone.
He accompanied me through every trial and consolidated me at every step. Dr. Taimur has been tremendous mentor for me. I would like to thank him for encouraging my research and for allowing me to grow as a research. His advice on both research as well as on my career have been priceless.
Undertaking this PhD has been a truly life-changing experience for me and it would not have been possible to do without the support and guidance that I received from many people. I am also very grateful to my friends especially Mr. Atif Bilal and to all those at the SZABIST Media Sciences Islamabad office, Ms. Iffat Ali, Ms. Amna
Zareef, Ms. Aisha Javed, Ms. Komal Ahmed, Waseem Ghafoor and Mr. Naveed Ullah
Hashmi and most importantly my family Fari Syed, Erum Akram, Shumaila Kauser,
Kainat Shahid, Arifa Batool, Qandeel Kazmi and others who were always so helpful and provided me with their assistance throughout my dissertation.
Wajid Zulqarnain
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan vii
Abstract Mass media are ubiquitous these days, and no one can deny its importance. Journalism and the news media are built on credibility and the concept of media credibility is related to the more general concept of trust, which generates an individual perception.
Taking the dire need and importance of media the main aim of the study is to investigate the relationship of traditional and social media credibility on traditional and social media preference through the mediating role of individual perception about media. Furthermore, the moderating role of traditional and social media usage and gender are also investigated in the study. The data has been collected from the students
(N= 1383) of seven metropolitan cities of Pakistan i.e. Lahore, Karachi, Quetta,
Peshawar, Islamabad, Muzaffarabad and Gilgit Baltistan. The data has been collected using a survey based questionnaires. The data has been analyzed statistically, using
SPSS. The reliability and validity tests were applied to validate the instrument.
Statistical analysis like correlation, regression and bootstrapping were used to test the direct and indirect hypotheses. The findings indicate that traditional and social media credibility has a direct and positive relationship with individual perception and traditional and social media preference. Additionally, the individual perception mediates the relationship between the traditional and social media credibility and traditional media preference. Moreover, the moderation analysis shows that Social and traditional media usage moderates the relationship between Social and traditional media credibility and individual perception. The moderation analysis of gender between different variables also provided some interesting insight. The results indicate that in male media users the relationship is stronger than the female media users. The relationship between traditional media credibility and individual perception and
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan viii
predicted that the male has a stronger relationship. The results found a higher level of individual perception in male media users than female media users. Pakistan is a developing country where private news media and the social media networks are growing rapidly. In such situations, understanding about the individual's perceptions with reference to the media credibility and media preferences are becoming more complex. The present study adds to the body of knowledge in the area of media credibility and individual perception in Pakistan.
Keywords: Credibility, Social Media, Traditional Media, Media Preference, Individual Perception
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan ix
ACRONYMS / ABBREVIATIONS
BBC British Broadcasting Cooperation
CNN Cable News Network
FM Frequency Modulation
ICT Information and communication technology
IP Individual Perception
ISPR Inter-Services Public Relations
JI Jamat-e-Islami
PEMRA Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority.
PPP Pakistan People‘s Party
PRC Pew Research Center
PTI Pakistan Tehrik-e-Insaaf
PTV Pakistan Television Corporation
SMC Social Media Credibility
SMP Social Media Preference
SMU Social Media Usage
STN Shalimar Television Network
TMC Traditional Media Credibility
TMP Traditional Media Preference
TMU Traditional Media Usage
VCR Video Cassette Recorder
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan x
Table of Contents
1. Introduction ...... 2
1.1 New Media Research ...... 4
1.2 Media Credibility ...... 8
1.2.1 Constituents of Credibility ...... 8
1.2.2 Perception of credibility towards traditional vs social media ...... 9
1.3 Significance of the Study ...... 11
1.4 Problem Statement ...... 12
1.5 Research Objectives: ...... 13
1.6 Research Questions ...... 14
1.7 Social Media in Pakistan ...... 15
1.8 Types of Social Media ...... 17
1.8.1 Facebook ...... 18
1.8.2 Twitter ...... 19
1.8.3 LinkedIn ...... 20
1.8.4 YouTube ...... 20
1.8.5 Patterns of Social Media Users in Pakistan ...... 21
1.9 Traditional Media in Pakistan ...... 23
1.9.1 Newspaper ...... 24
1.9.2 Magazine: ...... 26
1.9.3 Radio ...... 26
1.9.4 Pakistan Television as State Channel ...... 27
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan xi
1.9.5 Cable Television in Pakistan ...... 29
1.9.6 Private Media in Pakistan ...... 31
1.9.7 Television Consumption Trends in Pakistan: ...... 33
2. Literature Review ...... 37
2.1 Credibility of Social Media in Pakistan: ...... 37
2.2 Credibility of Social Media in World...... 42
2.3 Credibility of Traditional Media in Pakistan: ...... 43
2.4 Credibility of Traditional Media in World...... 48
2.5 Factors Influencing Media Credibility ...... 52
2.6 Media Reliance in Pakistan ...... 53
2.7 Media Use ...... 53
2.8 Source Credibility of the Internet ...... 55
2.9 Credibility of TV versus Newspaper: ...... 55
2.10 Online versus offline news credibility ...... 56
2.11 Types of News: ...... 60
2.11.1 Local News ...... 60
2.11.2 National News: ...... 61
2.11.3 International News ...... 64
2.11.4 Disaster and Relief Activities News: ...... 67
2.11.5 Entertainment News: ...... 70
2.12 Theoretical Framework: ...... 74
2.13 Hypothesis ...... 76
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan xii
3. Research Methodology ...... 79
3.1 Research Design ...... 79
3.2 Method ...... 81
3.2.1 Population ...... 82
3.2.2 Sample ...... 83
3.2.3 Unit of Analysis ...... 84
3.2.4 Questions ...... 84
3.3 Type of Study ...... 84
3.4 Time Horizon ...... 86
3.5 Sample Selected ...... 87
3.6 Procedures and Sampling ...... 88
3.7 Variables ...... 92
3.8 Theoretical Framework ...... 96
3.9 Research Instrument ...... 97
3.9.1 Credibility toward Media...... 97
3.10 Demographics ...... 98
3.10.1 Age ...... 98
3.10.2 Education Completed (In Years) ...... 98
3.10.3 University Location ...... 99
3.11 Type of Media ...... 99
3.12 Exposure and usage of Media per day ...... 99
3.13 Short-term and Long-term Media Use...... 100
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan xiii
3.13.1 Time Spent ...... 100
3.13.2 Frequency ...... 100
3.14 Face and Content Validity ...... 101
3.15 Data analysis techniques ...... 101
3.16 Reliability Analysis: ...... 101
3.17 Correlation ...... 101
3.18 Direct and Indirect hypothesis testing ...... 102
4. Results ...... 104
4.1 Testing of Hypothesis: ...... 131
5. Discussion ...... 144
5.1 Media Preference: ...... 160
5.2 Conclusion ...... 164
5.3 Limitation of the Study ...... 166
5.4 Future Research ...... 167
References ...... xvi
Appendixes ...... xvii
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan xv
List of Tables
Table 4.1 Gender...... 104
Table 4.2 Age ...... 105
Table 4.3 Education (Completed in years) ...... 106
Table 4.4 University Location of the respondents ...... 107
Table 4.5 Which media do you use? ...... 103
Table 4.6 Socail Media Usage (per day) ...... 107
Table 4.7 Traditional Media Usage (per day) ...... 1076
Table 4.8 Socail Media Usage (Years) ...... 1077
Table 4.9 Traditional Media Usage (Years) ...... 1078
Table 4.10 I use social media for? ...... 1099
Table 4.11 I use Traditional media for?...... 109
Table 4.12 I use Social Media for? ...... 115
Table 4.13 I use Traditional Media for? ...... 115
Table 4.14 Which is your primary source of news in social media? ...... 117
Table 4.15 Which is your primary source of news in traditional media? ...... 118
Table 4.16 Descriptive Statistics ...... 125
Table 4.17 Correlation Matrix ...... 119
Table 4.18 Direct Hypothesis Testing (Hypothesis 1 & 2) ...... 119
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan xvi
Table 4.19 Direct Hypothesis Testing (Hypothesis 3 & 4) ...... 122
Table 4.20 Hypothesis 5: Results SMC on SMP ...... 123
Table 4.21 Hypothesis 6: Results SMC on SMP ...... 124
Table 4.22 Hypothesis 7: SMU on IP at values of themoderator(s): ...... 126
Table 4.23 Hypothesis 8: TMU on IP at values of the moderator(s): ...... 126
Table 4.24 Hypothesis 9: SMC on IP at values of the moderator(s) ...... 127
Table 4.25 Hypothesis 10: TMC on IP at values of the moderator(s) ...... 128
Table 4.26 Hypothesis 11: SMP on IP at values of themoderator(s) ...... 129
Table 4.27 Hypothesis 12: TMP on IP at values of the moderator(s) ...... 129
CHAPTER 01
INTRODUCTION
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Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 2
1. Introduction
Kovacic, Erjavecand Štular (2010) and Flanagin and Metzger (2017) described that both the news media and journalism are built on credibility. Matheson (2014) found that with the emergence of online news websites, the traditional news media and journalism started facing a relentless competition in extending the news to their audience. Based on this premise, the current study aims to explore and document the individual‘s perception about the credibility of social and traditional media and its impact on media preference in the Pakistani perspective.
Abrar (2014) described that with an incredibly fast expansion of media and establishment of Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority (PEMRA), after 2000 in Pakistan, the horizon of media changed and the new TV channels telecasted their transmissions ranging from news to entertainment. FM broadcast mushroomed and the print media also changed their strategy to cope with the emerging challenges. Stavitsky,
Avery and Vanhala (2001) elaborated that the outlet for information and news spread out with in no time and resulted in an uninterrupted flow of information from the
Government to the masses Eijaz (2013) found that the whole sphere of information system underwent major changes particularly with the arrival of new media technologies and the internet. The user of media information became a contributor to its content. With all these developments, the political, economic, social and cultural facets in Pakistan changed accordingly.
Yusuf (2009) emphasized that another factor which contributed in keeping the society well informed in Pakistan is social media and the internet. From 2006 with Facebook advent in Pakistan, then introduction of other social network sites like Twitter, Skype,
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 3 and Instagram with time, SNS gained popularity among the masses in Pakistan within short period of time, as today according to Baig(2017) reported that there are 31million active social media users in Pakistan. Hassan, Kouser, and Abbas (2014) elaborated that emergence of mobile technology and the broadband accelerated the usage of social media especially among the youth. They got new platforms for information, entertainment, communication and socialization. The affordable Smartphone made it more accessible and increased the use of social media in Pakistan. Now, it has become a common practice in Pakistan to express opinion, share experience and suggestions and seek feedback from other through social media regardless to any topic.
Internet World States (2016) stated that in Pakistan, Facebook has taken lead over other social networking sites. Here, more than 21 million users have active accounts on social media. Yusufzai (2016) quoted that twitter comes second after Facebook but, gradually, number of Twitter users is increasing.
Mangold and Faulds (2009) found that social media brought individual and companies as well at the same online platform for communication and socialization. Now, instead of the traditional media, business community, celebrities, institute, media outlets, general public and even the Governments use social media to bring any issue in front of people. Even particular apps are created and operated to take people on board for debate and discussion on certain areas. Shirky (2011) explained that the new trends of communication have brought the comity of nations and Governments at the same threshold. Hussain (2014) described that the penetration trends of social media in
Pakistan can easily be assessed by its application in Federal and State Governments, regulatory authorities are also taking advantage by social media, and for political parties
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 4
Twitter and Facebook have become an announcements booth to deliver messages to keep public inform and gain their immediate feedback
Seib (2012) elaborated that in Pakistan, social media has played an undeniably significant role in politics and democratic system. Social media inspires people to talk about politics. This easy access and open platform has connected millions of people with diverse backgrounds and knowledge through social media. The dependence on traditional media for news has diminished; the updated news on the social media has replaced the traditional hourly news bulletins. Therefore, politicians and the State have started utilizing social media for news and statements for the rapid and swift access to information.
Aslam (2015) found that in multiple crisis and political turmoil in Pakistan, social media played integral role and Inter Service Public Relation‘s (ISPR) actively engaged social media in their practice such as official Twitter updates, which later became a source of breaking news for traditional media. The power of social media can be accessed from the fact that ISPR used to notify Army‘s policy through Twitter.
1.1 New Media Research
Kim, Weaver and Willnat, (2000), Flanagin and Metzger (2017) and Schweiger (2000) researched that in 1990s, the arrival of internet as source of new channel, the direction of media research shifted towards social media and the news media. Initially, researchers tried to dig out the differences between both media and explored the level of credibility. However, sufficient knowledge does not exist about the possible differences of credibility determinants of the old and the new media.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 5
Thomas and Mariswamy, 2017 explained that the media research and scholar of mass communication have appreciated the importance of medium credibility and started to explore different facets of source credibility. Rimmer and Weaver (1987) and Jones and
Glynn (2017) further found out the difference in perceived credibility attributed to different media channels. Flanagin and Metzger (2000) have found that this resulted in expansion in media field research, although the exploration of online news credibility has just recently been analyzed. The initial studies were limited as they were primarily concerned with non-randomly selected internet users or populations.
Johnson and Kaye (2014) began their work on politically interested online users in and assessed their level of credibility for online news. The findings suggested future studies to involve general population to document their reliance and determine credibility which medium would be more trustworthy either the internet or traditional media. This study was aimed at fulfilling the gap in media credibility domain and compared the new and traditional media.
Liu (2003) and Xenos (2014) discussed that it is evident that arrival of new medium exerts influence on existing media. It is pertinent to mention that the invention of radio attracted a number of newspaper readers to radio, and TV within a short time grabbed a huge number of audiences. Johnson and Kaye (2014) explained that this shift of audience also highlighted the credibility of medium as well, which influenced the scholars of mass communication to explore the credibility of a medium.
Strengers (2013) states that the beginning of information and communication technology (ICT) particularly the internet has impacted the daily life routine and human practices, Fogg et al. (2001) discussed the exponential development of the Internet has
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 6 resulted in various technologies and communication system which include telephone, radio, television, or even cellular telephones since 1980s.
Chhachhar (2013) highlighting the situation in Pakistan said that with the advent of internet technology in Pakistan in 1990 communication scenarios have changed a lot, as
Javed (2012) explained that internet is one of the most beneficial sources of reference for obtaining different information, and one of the most important characteristic is the easy access of educational resources for students.
Sotiriadis and Van (2013) explained the tremendous development of technologies opened up new avenues of resources, and social media platforms and tools are one of them avenues. The inception of internet in the late 1990s, it bestowed people with a single but interactive forum of information that gratify information and communicate needs which was not possible before it. Hilligoss and Rieh (2008) focused the considerable attention was given to concept of credibility. Lu and Andrews (2006) explained that this rapid growth and excessive use of the internet and social media, diverted media researchers‘ attention to study the reasons for penetration and factors behind credibility of online news as compared with traditional news media.
Lecheler and Kruikemeier (2016) studied that internet has become a popular and easily available source of news in recent times. Boyd (2014) said that readers seek information from the internet rather than traditional media mostly. The internet offers an opportunity to users to keep their identity, location and role anonymous, but there are certain barriers which restrict people from publishing on the internet. Fogg (2003) suggested that these issues generate concern about credibility of content and medium where the anonymous identity of sender may result in fake and fabricated information.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 7
However, rapid flow of information available on the internet is considered as a complete information storehouse, like various forms of information channels available through the online media and traditional media, but still the possibility for false information creates concern. Eastin (2001) described that the credibility research needs proper care to assess all the factors which affect the credibility of any medium. In short, rapid development of internet and recent digital media environment has created a few questions, particularly in media credibility and concerned raised which medium to be considered credibility traditional or internet for posting news. Metzger, Flanagin, Eyal,
Lemus and McCann (2003) explained that past media studies grounded in these questions to understand media credibility may help to comprehend the relative credibility of the Internet as a new medium
Lecheler and Kruikemeier (2016) discussed that numerous researches at different levels and in different regions were conducted and commented on the premise of credibility of the internet in different ways. Out of these, a few were carried out in the West and found out that Internet had replaced TV and Newspapers. Similarly Flanagin and
Metzger (2001) also emphasize that basically major segment of media research was denoted traditional media credibility, but the Internet and World Wide Web was unwittingly neglected. The gradual new trend of media usage indicated that now mostly people rely on online media for information, but the question of need gratification through new media is still not certain. Hilligoss and Rieh (2008) stated that despite the fact that fake and false information on the Internet is available to misguide users, number of online audiences is growing. Huang and Benyoucef (2014) highlighted that people are using online media, because they must trust this media. Lu and Andrews
(2006) said that the concern about media credibility for traditional and social media is
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 8 gaining attention of the researchers in the field of mass communications and various studies have documented different results in different countries about the Internet credibility. Despite all these concerns, internet has become a main repository of news and information in recent times but other serious factors in new media study include privacy issues, content accuracy, reliability, and some related concerns. Abdulla,
Garrison, Salwen, Driscoll and Casey (2002) envisaged that difficulty for online news in future. Johnson and Kaye (2014) discovered that social network sites (SNS) are gaining popularity which is leading to improve amongst users and credibility is vital for the internet.
1.2 Media Credibility
Goldsmith, Lafferty and Newell (2000) stated that the credibility could be defined as
‗the extent to which the source is perceived as possessing expertise relevant to the communication topic and can be trusted to give an objective opinion on the subject‘.
Williams (2012) explained that media credibility may have influence on pattern of news consumptions.
Media is one of the major and important institutions in the society. Hopmann, Shehata, and Strömbäck, (2015) emphasized that people seek information from media and form their opinions and decisions. That is why the credibility of the media has been a major concern among many scholars
1.2.1 Constituents of Credibility
Media credibility has some indicators. Kiousis (2001) described five main indicators that show how much the medium is credible; accuracy of medium, motivation by
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 9 money, invasion of privacy, concerns for the community and trustworthiness. Bucy
(2003) said that the credibility is possible only if the source is believable, accurate, fair, informative, and in-depth. For their internet information credibility study, Flanagin and
Metzger (2000) employed five indicators; believability, trustworthiness, bias accuracy, and completeness.
Westerman, Spence and Van Der Heide (2014) explained that as usage of social media is increasing as information source and its credibility is also improving. In recent studies
Porter, Anderson and Nhotsavang (2015) have depicted that, the credibility of social media are likely to become at least equal to that of traditional media
1.2.2 Perception of credibility towards traditional vs social media
Research about perceptions of the users on the subject of the credibility of social and traditional media is comparatively new and interest in this field is growing. Flanagin and Metzger (2000) found that people had different patterns for evaluating the information from social and traditional media as they knew that information was filtered and there were some levels of verification in earlier studies. As a result, people formulated their own ways for evaluation regarding credibility of information.
Hermida, Fletcher, Korell and Logan (2012) randomly selected 1682 people to check how social media was affecting news habits of the people. They found that social media especially Facebook had grown to be a source for information and news for a considerable number of internet users. They further observed that participants of the study gave preference to those links that were recommended by their family and friends as compared to journalists or news organizations.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 10
Miller and Kurpius (2010) conducted an experimental study in which two hundred and forty four (244) people participated. They were shown a short news story and then they were made to fill out a questionnaire about media use and news source credibility. The results showed that 22.7% people were of the view that TV news was credible or very credible. In addition to this, TV news awarded 7.27% points to credibility out of 10.
They also found that TV users perceived hard news more credible as compared to soft news.
The Pew Research Center (2008) reported that Yahoo News and Google News were the only two online websites that received positive credibility rating. The Center further reported that online news was found viewed with more skepticism as compared to any other news outlet.
Johnson and Kaye (2004) accessed in two different projects perceived credibility of traditional media and internet sources. The findings indicated that online users perceived online media more credible than the traditional media. In addition, they observed the influence of demographics on the habits of media users and their perception of credibility.
Westley and Servin (1964) and Mulder (1981) examined the significant role of different demographic variables such as age, gender, education in making people's perception of medium and credibility of the medium. Shim (2015) also highlighted that audience- based demographics can be a factor in understanding media credibility. In a developing country like Pakistan, user‘s demographics can be significant predictors in analyzing media credibility.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 11
Avery (2009) correlated media credibility with trust on the government; study showed that negative coverage of politicians resulted in less media credibility.
Pinkleton (2012) opines that trust in internet is somewhat different as it enjoys freedom especially in tough situations like tight control of government on traditional media, the interference of political parties or the financial interests. He further adds that in such an environment, people are forced to direct their attention to extract information even from an environment of skepticism, and Tasfati (2003) depicted that media skepticism also influence the perception of the opinion and media credibility.
Cook (2013) concluded that the traditional print media was more credible for local and national news in a recent study to find the Chinese youth perceptions of credibility toward traditional and social media. However, surprisingly, the usage of the print media was much less as compared to the usage of social media
1.3 Significance of the Study
Haque (2013) and Mushtaq (2015) specified that Pakistan is a developing country where private news media and the social media networks are growing rapidly. Hussain
(2014) has researched that social media is eroding the myths of traditional patterns of news sharing and exploring new avenues of information in Pakistan. On the other hand, the traditional media (news channels, print media and radio) due to the cut-throat rating competition, breaking news and professional rivalry are being exposed badly with their biases toward certain political parties and groups are losing credibility among the audiences. Warraich (2011) described that though social media, especially Facebook and Twitter are gaining much attention, yet their credibility has still not been appreciated widely in the country.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 12
The research is based on two mass communication theories; one was credibility and second was Uses and Gratification theory. This study aims to answer the following research queries: which medium is considered the most credible and why? Do people still prefer traditional news sources on social media? If yes, why they do so and if not, then what are the reasons behind that? Do people use similar media for hard and soft news and do they have equal trust on these sources? Does heavy usage have impact on media credibility? To obtain more accurate and profound results, the researcher opted for discussion the following five important dimensions based on (1) Local News (2)
National News(3) International News (4) Disaster and Relief Activities News and (5)
Entertainment News in Pakistani perspective.
1.4 Problem Statement
Credibility is an important factor in news media. Everyone wants to get information through reliable source and literature gives evidence that people prefer the medium that they think is most credible. Lankes (2007) found that the internet and social media sites are changing the perceptions of the peoples about the credibility of the source. The Pew Research Center (2008) found that during 1998 to 2008, there was a decline in the credibility ratings of almost every news channel. For instance credibility of CNN was reduced to 27% in 2008 as compared to 42% in 1998. Arabi (2012) found that when there is decline in the credibility of news and print media there is a rising trend of internet use and trust on social media. Therefore, the relationship between social and traditional media is becoming complex and the factors of their credibility and the media preferences needs to be addressed in order to gain deeper understanding about the phenomenon.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 13
1.5 Research Objectives:
To analyze the impact of Social Media Credibility on Social Media Preferences.
To analyze the impact of Traditional Media Credibility on Traditional Media
Preferences.
To investigate the mediating role of Individuals perceptions between the
relationship of Social Media Credibility and Social Media Preferences.
To investigate the mediating role of Individuals perceptions between the
relationship of Traditional Media Credibility and Traditional Media Preferences.
To investigate the moderating role of Social Media Usage between the
relationship of Social Media Credibility and Individuals perceptions.
To investigate the moderating role of Traditional Media Usage between the
relationship of Traditional Media Credibility and Individuals perceptions.
To investigate the moderating role of Gender between the relationship of Social
Media Credibility and Individuals perceptions.
To investigate the moderating role of Gender between the relationship of
Traditional Media Credibility and Individuals perceptions.
To investigate the moderating role of Gender between the relationship
Individuals perceptions and Social Media Preferences.
To investigate the moderating role of Gender between the relationship
Individuals perceptions and Traditional Media Preferences.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 14
1.6 Research Questions
What is the impact of Social Media Credibility and Traditional Media
Credibility on Individual perceptions?
What is the impact of Social Media Credibility on Social Media Preferences?
What is the impact of Traditional Media Credibility on Traditional Media
Preferences?
Does an Individual perception mediate the relationship between Social Media
Credibility and Social Media Preferences?
Do Individual perceptions mediate the relationship between Traditional Media
Credibility and Traditional Media Preferences?
Does Social Media Usage moderate the relationship between Social Media
Credibility and Individual perceptions?
Does Traditional Media Usage moderate the relationship between Traditional
Media Credibility and Individual perceptions?
Do gender moderates the relationship between Social Media Credibility and
Individual perceptions?
Do gender moderates the relationship between Traditional Media Credibility
and Individual perceptions?
Do gender moderates the relationship between Individual perceptions and Social
Media Preferences?
Do gender moderates the relationship between Individual perceptions and
Traditional Media Preferences?
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 15
1.7 Social Media in Pakistan
Sabir (2011) explored that during the last decade, Pakistan has become a major source of news update across the world mainly due to its alliance with US in the war against terrorism. By keeping the pace, mostly, news updates are posted on social media for immediate action and promotion. Khan & Bhatti (2012) said that, Facebook; Twitters and blogs are widely used to mobilize people for collective action and implementation of policy. Bardici (2012) explained that Social media has played an instrumental role in facilitating political and social movements around the world by allowing people to express political thoughts openly and exchange diverse ideas freely, which helps achieve consensus of people for collective action.
Groupin (2011) researched that Pakistan also introduced Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) technology to cope with the flow of international communication. Similarly the researcher also explained Internet explorer is the high reputation i.e (IE) got 53.53% market share in Pakistan. Moreover, it provided business friendly environment for the promotion of media in the country that Individuals and companies were encouraged to invest in this field and combat the challenger of international communication.
Abbassi (2013) analyzed that the trends of using social media in Pakistan are similar to those of the other developed countries. In Pakistan, like elsewhere in the world,
Facebook is extensively used and gradually Twitter is also gaining popularity. Fifty percent of Facebook users are between 18 and 24 years of age and 25 percent users fall between the ages of 25 to 34 years. In gender difference, 70 percent users are male, whereas, 30 percent are female. According to the Poushter (2016) higher rank of users
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 16 were young between age bracket 25 to 34 years, moreover 50% of social media users use facebook and twitter.
Yusufzai (2015) explored that the availability of cheap smart phones in Pakistan has also resulted in higher use of social media, as people mostly connect to Facebook through phone rather than desktop system. This portability and 24/7 access has facilitated people for fulfillment of multiple needs like seeking information, socialization through social media and making efforts to get rid of their personal and social problems.
Rehman, Esichaikul, & Kama (2012) discovered that Pakistan is also facing numerous political and social challenges, which are particularly related to establishment of democracy and resolution of political conflicts. Social media is also enlightening people regarding their political and social rights. Through social media, political parties mobilize the youth who neither cast vote nor are they interested in political agendas.
Malik (2013) found that Pakistan is one of those fortunate countries which are blessed with predominant proportions of young population. Thirty four percent of the total population in Pakistan is comprised of youth in age bracket of 15–24. Eijaz, (2013) said that social media empowered its users to generate the debate and disseminate the information on political issues and event through the social media, which also affect the policy making process. similarly according to the agenda setting theory the process of shifting from media agenda to public agenda and then public agenda become the part of policy agenda and when it comes to social media, the users of the social media is more powerful to influence the main stream media and channels. Consequently political parties have embarked upon this policy to captivate the youth and involve them in
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 17 electoral process. In this connection one of the main stream political party named as
Pakistan Tehreek-i-Insaf (PTI) took the lead and utilized social media to involve the youth, projected their political ideology, giving them a sense of empowerment. The researcher also said that the slogan of change became the voice of every young man in the country and in no time the youth became interested in this agenda of change. As a result, individual politicians also developed their Facebook pages and Twitter accounts which resulted in direct connection between politicians and the people. This social unprecedented rise of media guarded the political movements in Pakistan and facilitated political parties to effectively communicate their agenda to the masses. As Ali (2016) found that The party chairman, Imran khan has its own Facebook account as
―(www.facebook.com/ImranKhan.Official)‖..
Mahmood, Iqbal, Amin, Lohanna & Mustafa (2013) found that, other political parties such as Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP), Pakistan Muslim League (Nawaz ) (PML-N), and
Muttahida Quami Movement (MQM) later brought changes in their communication strategy and used social media to promote their political ideologies. It shows a strong influence of social media on political behavior of political parties in Pakistan. The use of social media for political purposes has also diverted people‘s attention towards social media for fulfillment of other related needs which range from information to entertainment.
1.8 Types of Social Media
Social media is not a new phenomenon but its acceptance in mainstream culture and the business world is just a recent breakthrough. In this study following social networking sites are selected.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 18
1.8.1 Facebook
Facebook was launched in 2007 by a student at Harvard (Mark Zuckerberg), to foster communication among school students. Qazi (2011) found that Facebook was ranked as the most extensively used social network worldwide in 2009. By July 2010, more than
500 million people were active users of Facebook. Also, Facebook was declared the most visited website in the world. Alhabash (2017) explained that Facebook offers multiple functions to users creating a personal profile, adding other users as friends, and exchanging messages, including automatic notifications, photos and comments etc.
Further, users with common interests and hobbies can build and join groups. To register at Facebook, minimum age limit is 13 years.
Kemp (2015) explored that gradually the Facebook usage is increasing and it has become the top most social network site in Philippines, Australia, Indonesia, Malaysia,
Singapore, New Zealand, Hong Kong and Vietnam.
Facebook audience insight tool (2016) indicates that there are more than 25 million users in Pakistan in which majority are under the age of 25, 15-20 million are men and almost 5-6 million are women. Eijaz (2013) explored that it is a quick and effective medium to stay connected with people and to convey social and political messages.
Main Political parties like PML (N), PTI and PPP etc have created their Facebook accounts to better communicate with the party activists. Pakistan Telecommunication
Authority (2013) investigated that Pakistan is making effective use of Facebook in every sphere of life including education fashion, entertainment, politics and sports.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 19
1.8.2 Twitter
MacArthur (2013) discussed that Twitter was launched by the co-founder of Jack
Dorsery in 2006. Initially the idea was based on the SMS communication platform. In it start twitter was called as "Tweets". Jack send it first message on Twitter on March 21,
2006, 9:50pm.Cohen and Duchan (2012) discussed about twitter that it is the web tool used to share messages and users can share their posts direct and indirect. Personal messages called direct post in which user update specific person, however indirect post are public messages.
Jasra (2010) explored that Twitter gained rapid popularity because of its different options, including micro blogging. Above all, it was widely used by celebrities.
Researcher also found that due to various options and diversified services, particularly celebrities utilized it for their interest, Twitter gained popularity. Gross (2010) also found that the joint creation of links among Google, Facebook and Twitter allowed users to access each one with same account, resulted in extensive Twitter usage.
Saeed (2013) explored that in Pakistan, there are almost 2.5 million users of Twitter. Its popularity can be judged by the fact that Inter Services Public Relations (ISPR) uses their Twitter account to update people about the different operations conducted by
Pakistan Army and the role of Army in National and International matters. Similarly the researcher also explained that Because of the comfort of use and user friendly interface, the number of Twitter users is expected to increase in coming years
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 20
1.8.3 LinkedIn
Murphy (2013) discussed that 2003 was the year of LinkedIn which was completely specified for business men and professionals. In fact, LinkedIn facilitates users to post their professional profile, including resume and interact with the same professional cadre through messaging.
Jabeur 2013) discussed that gradual updating of LinkedIn and incorporating features like group discussion, forums and real-time up-dates made LinkedIn a widely used social networking site. In 2003 LinkedIn was created as first mainstream social networking site for business purposes. Initially users posted their resume as their profile and interacted through privates messages with similar profile. With the passage of time, to meet other social networking sites additional features were introduced to grab the user‘s attention and to maximize its usage.
Iqbal (2013) found out that LinkedIn is helping young students and entrepreneurs to get connected with industry. A larger number of people credit LinkedIn for finding great job opportunities. Currently, there are two million LinkedIn users in Pakistan and this number is growing with the number of new people getting in academic and job industry.
1.8.4 YouTube
Cheng and Liu (2008) found that YouTube, the most popular video community website was created in 2005, which facilitated millions of users across world to watch and share videos of their interest and utilized it for educational purposes as well. YouTube (2006) explored that within a short period of time became a hub for video posting, uploading
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 21 and sharing; it was not only used by common people but also latter advertisers took the advantage of this visual treasurer.
In Pakistan, all the major news channels like Geo News, Express News, and Samaa TV post videos on YouTube where one can access all the recent or past videos.
It is apt to mention that YouTube has revolutionized the media in a way that now no one needs cassettes, CDs, VCR‘s anymore. Now access to all videos is just a click away.
1.8.5 Patterns of Social Media Users in Pakistan
Ameen and Rafiq (2009) analyzed that Pakistani community particularly relating to education sector has always felt the extraordinary benefits of digital information.
Globally, the importance of digital information is increasing; likewise, it is arising in
Pakistan as well. Ullah (2007) surveyed that Medical Postgraduate Trainees in Pakistan were very much familiar with the use of internet. They extensively used information resources available on net and frequently used electronic databases to fulfill their information needs.
Malik & Mahmood (2009) researched that students from university of the Punjab
Lahore willingly started using internet resources to acquire information and knowledge.
Informational data and resources from internet are widely used by the students to accomplish their educational tasks. Rafiq & Ameen (2009) found that it was acknowledged by academic faculty from universities, that digital information and data was a preferable option.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 22
JICA (2013) studied Social Media usage pattern in Pakistan compared with the other developing countries. The report identified almost similar usage patterns in which differences were very few. The Facebook usage is most common like other countries.
The report further indicated that after Facebook, the most commonly used SNS is
Twitter, followed by LinkedIn.
Facebook 12 Million
Twitter 3 Million
LinkedIn 1.2 Million
YouTube 1.4 Million
Source: Pakistan Annual Social Media Report, 2015
Finding of another study by JICA was to show social media usage on basis of gender difference.
Male Female
69% 31%
Usage of social network sites is greatly affected by financial firmness. JICA(2013) reported that, from Facebook consumers, 53% earns more than 70,000Rs monthly, 60% were amongst who earns 25,000Rs monthly, the difference (13%) shows there is slight change in the accuracy of information by the respondent.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 23
Age is another significant variable. The study showed that most of the consumers belonged to young age groups i.e. 18 to 24 years. Only 34% consumers of Facebook were between 25 to 54 years of age.
Daily Facebook users 72%
Via smart phones Facebook users 33%
Uses of Facebook on multiple platforms 43%
Users having accounts on multiple SNS, like Twitter, Google+, LinkedIn etc. 28%
Source: Japan International Cooperation Agency report (2013)
Users who use social network sites consume a lot of their active time online in Pakistan.
About 80% people use Facebook on daily basis are and stay online more than an hour a day. The average time spent by a Pakistani on a SNS is 40 minutes a day.
The findings of the report show that how social network sites, especially Facebook, is becoming an important part of everyday life of people in Pakistan. It has become a tool of easy access for attaining information and gaining exposure to the world.
1.9 Traditional Media in Pakistan
The traditional Media commonly known as Old media are the orthodox modes of communication which has been in practice before the dawn of Internet. Traditional media includes Newspaper, Magazine, Radio and TV.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 24
1.9.1 Newspaper
Print media, most importantly the newspaper has been significant means of providing news to masses in Pakistan, despite the fact that during the last few years, newspaper circulation has considerably decreased.
Gallup Pakistan (2011) reported that, 60 percent of urban populations and 36 percent of rural population read newspapers. Powell, ―Pakistan: Media and Telecoms Landscape
Guide.‖ (2013) quoted, some main publications have shifted online, because of which, though without any significant monetary gains, they have gathered, a fresh, potentially wider audience. Pakistan Bureau of Statistics (2011) reported, 749 newspapers and periodicals were published in total, out of which 594 were in Urdu language, 67 in
English, and the remaining were published in regional languages.
Jang Group Advertisement Tariff (2012) reported that Print medium circulation figures are known to be less reliable as to entice advertisers increased numbers of cited publications are shown mostly and there‘s lack of trusted independent assessments as well. The circulation numbers given by the publishers are mostly less than the actual numbers, although there is a state controlled organization available, the Audit Bureau of
Circulation. An Urdu newspaper Daily Jang leading newspaper in Pakistan is a publication of Jang group (2012). The Jang media group claims that daily Jang circulation is more than 800,000 copies per day in Pakistan. Daily Express and Nawa-i-
Waqt are two other chief Urdu newspapers which target middle-market. According to the Jang Group Advertisement Tariff (2012) that Urdu newspapers are known to publish reports that are mostly biased as compare to English newspaper. English newspaper that target at higher side of the market like Dawn comes under the umbrella
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 25
of Dawn Media Group, having circulation of more than 130,000 per day. Jang Group
claims that‘ The News‘ has a circulation of 140,000 copies per day. Most of the media
groups are also running their own radio and television stations.
stan
Balochi
Total
Sindh
-
Pakhtunkhwa
-
Kashmir
Balochistan
Newspapers
Azad Jammu and Jammu Azad
Gilgit
Kyber
Punjab Islamabad and
Daily 623 298 133 145 21 13 1233
Weeklies 341 129 38 72 5 22 607
Fortnightlies 50 14 5 20 - - 89
Monthlies 286 164 19 137 3 - 609
Quarterlies 26 19 2 1 - - 48
Annual - 1 - - - - 1
Total 1326 625 197 375 29 35 2587
Source: Ministry of Information of National Assembly (2015)
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 26
1.9.2 Magazine:
Khan (2013) said A number of magazines are published from different cities in
Pakistan, both in Urdu and English languages. Some of the famous Urdu magazines of
Pakistan are: Family Magazine,‗ Akhbar- e-jehan‘,‗ Nida e Millat‘, ‗ Aanchal‘,
‗Spider‘, ‗Herald‘, ‗ The Cricketer‘ ,‗ Humsay‘ English , ‗Fashion Central‘ magazine are a few famous English magazines in Pakistan.
1.9.3 Radio
The National Institute of Population Studies (2006-2007) stated that 32% houses possessed a radio set in Pakistan. PEMRA (2010) declared however, as radio in mobile sets and automobiles are not counted, so the actual access to radio is much higher.
Presently, Pakistan has 115 FM Radio stations on air, which were only 18 in 2005.
Audience Scapes (2009) reported that in a survey by BBC the percentage of people listening to radio on mobile sets are 30% male and 20% female.
Baig(2017) stated that FM radio has been growing both in urban and rural areas of
Pakistan, which is also evident from an increase of 22% in the number of radio, ads in one year (2010-2011). Researcher also explored that the increase has been 9 percent in year 2011-2012. BBC News (2012) further explored that in spite of the fact, the market of FM radio has been thriving and its usage in people has been improving day by day, despite the fact that consumption of the radio most importantly news and its content has been under control of governmental organizations like PBC and PEMRA. BBC Urdu and Voice of America (VoA) are only two alternatives to Radio Pakistan, both of which have short and medium wave transmitters and offer transmissions in local languages.
Powell (2012) stated the types of programs on FM channels are mostly knowledge cum
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 27 entertainment based. The programming content of the FM channels includes 70% music programs 10%, talk shows 10%, advertising and 10% promotional content and 5% news. Private channels have gained themselves popularity. As a result, they are attracting more and more income through advertisements/commercials. However,
PEMRA has restricted broadcast of the private FM channels to 50-kms, which has limited the access of private channels in urban areas.
1.9.4 Pakistan Television as State Channel
Tahir (1996) stated that The pioneer television channel of Pakistan i.e. (PTV) broadcast its first transmission from Lahore on 26th November, 1964. At present, Pakistan
Television has two stations PTV and PTV-2.The inspiration behind launching television in Pakistan was supported by Ex-President Ayub Khan‘s Government in 1958 based on a report of the Commission on National Education. Similarly the research also discussed that the Commission was based on idea that for the progress of education, financial stability and social progress in the country, there was a dire need of television in Pakistan. As a matter of fact, television in Pakistan was launched in the name of education because one of the interesting and chief interests of the above referred
Commission was its emphasis on the importance of education. In the beginning,
UNESCO, Colombo Plan and Japanese government helped to launch television in
Pakistan. In 1962, a report by Japanese Government laid emphasis on establishment of the television not only as a general public service but also as fulfillment of the educational requirements of the country. Zia (2007) also discussed that Pakistan was an underdeveloped country and establishment of a television and centre was an enormously expensive project for Pakistan at that time, heavy funds were needed for the
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 28 running of transmissions successfully. So, the broadcasting of the commercials was allowed. This was the first step towards attainments of self-sufficiency in transmission.
In 1962, the Federal Cabinet decided that an education based state-owned television would be launched in Pakistan. In October 1963, the President of Pakistan gave his approval on the promise that ―television in not a luxury, it is a necessity‖. The government of Pakistan and the government of Japan (through the Nippon Electric
Company) reached an agreement to set up two pilot channels at Lahore and Dacca in
1964 and 1965 respectively. In the beginning, three hours‘ transmission used to be telecasted daily on both the stations. In the later years, more channels came into being.
At present, 5 centers of the PTV at Islamabad, Karachi, Quetta, Peshawar and Lahore are running successfully. To meet the educational needs of Pakistan, PTV-2 was established in 1993 in Islamabad. There were 16 re-broadcast booster stations in start of
1993 for the broadcasting of programs on PTV-2. The broadcast network was intended to be expanded with time.
In 1967, the television promoter company that started the transmission in Pakistan in
1964, transformed into a public limited corporation. The Government of Pakistan chose the Managing Director of the Pakistan Television, as executive head of the Corporation.
Chairman PTV was supposed to control the operation of the Corporation. A board of directors was assigned to look into important legal matters and policies of the
Corporation. The plans for the motivation and development of the Corporation were designed, and goals were set for betterment of the television. The talent hunted from across the country was hunted for the television and provided opportunities to nurture and to develop themselves with better attitude for the Corporation, which was in dire need of a large number of trained and skilled directors, producers and assistants. PTV
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 29 started as a small network but with time it became reputable, established and well known as a leading TV channel in South Asia.
In 1976, PTV achieved another milestone by starting color transmission, which enabled the corporation to compete the television networks internationally.
1.9.5 Cable Television in Pakistan
Zia (2003) explored that the cable television system in Pakistan was established in
Karachi in the start of 80‘s at a small scale without making much hype about it. There was no regulatory system associated with it at that time. The viewers were fascinated mostly through English and Indian Films. Cable Television was available at meager payment per month to every household.
Pakistan Telecommunication Authority (1982) report stated that due to accessibility of satellite stations, the whole scenario of the cable network operations in Pakistan got changed. Video cassettes were mainly in use till recent times, but installation of dish antennas became essential for the reception of satellite stations to offer wide range of channels like CNN, Star TV and numerous Indian channels to their viewers.
Consequently, the already established cable network gave birth to a vast cable system.
The expansion of cable system was possible by mere threading of cable lines from one roof to another.
Thus, in the early of 1990‘s, cable network became immensely popular in Pakistan, particularly in Punjab. In January 2000, Pakistan Telecommunication Authority (PTA) started issuing licenses to cable operators. A report released by Gallup Pakistan indicates an increase in TV viewership in Pakistan from 55% to 64% in year 2010.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 30
Gallup Media (2013) surveyed that audiences of cable network in urban areas outnumber their counterparts in the rural areas. In the year 2013, percentage of viewership in urban areas was 85%, as compared to 50% in the rural areas. But interestingly, the main reason for the progress of viewership of cable network in
Pakistan has been the increase in number of audiences of cable channels in the rural area. In 2010, viewership in the rural areas was 34%, so an increase of 16% has been noted, i.e. a total of 50% in 2013. On the other hand for the last two years, viewership of the urban side seems almost to be static.
(N= 10,000 men and women in Urban and Rural areas of four provinces)
Year Area Viewership
2010 Urban 87%
Rural 34%
2013 Urban 85%
Rural 50%
Source: Gallup Media Survey 2013
Gallup (2013) report shows an interesting fact, that people who use cable channels, mostly, don‘t have an access to cable service in their houses. To watch cable TV, they have to go to a friend‘s house or any place having access to cable, like food points, local cafes etc. In Pakistan, the percentage of houses having cable connections is 51% overall, which means about 13 million connections of Cable TV in total, it means that about 16% audience watch cable channels outside their houses.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 31
The percentage of access of cable TV connections shows substantial differences between urban and rural areas. For example, 86% of the houses can have access to TV cable connections, which means total connections in rural areas are about 5.4 million, and total cable TV connections in urban areas are almost 7.74 million.
Due to financial and logistic constrains in the rural areas, only 30% of the houses have access to a cable TV connection. During the last 2 years, increase in domestic TV cable connection as compared to urban is very prominent. It increased 11%, which is from
19% to 30 %.
1.9.6 Private Media in Pakistan
Ricchiardi (2012) explored that the Government has control over Broadcast media in
Pakistan but during the last 10 years, there have been a lot of changes in media rules and regulations. Ultimately, it opened up to private sector. To pace with international drifts in broadcasting, media in Pakistan exploited the most a lot of modern technologies which resulted in the immense development of broadcast media in
Pakistan.
Siraj (2009) found that an alternative channel named Shalimar Television Network
(STN), a semi official channel was established in 1989. In 1996, the Government gave permission to launch private TV channels and radio stations. Examples are FM-100 and
Shaheen TV, which actually determined the future contours of media in Pakistan. In reality, to access information, knowledge, education and most importantly entertainment, it started a whole new range of new and private broadcast channels. Till
August 1990, Pakistan Television Corporation (PTV) was the only state-owned channel. Though, during that time, another Television station named People‘s
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 32
Television Network was formed, because of which Cable News Network (CNN) came to Pakistan and it was also a semi government channel. Presently, number of functioning satellite television channels with Pakistani content is above 100, which also includes some international band channels.
During the last 10 years, television has played a pivotal role as a source for news. Shape of the media has been changed by more than 20 private news channels working in a competitive environment. Mostly, these are 24-hour news channels broadcasting breaking news, headlines, current affairs shows, documentaries, special reports, and political talk shows. Because of this competition, news channel came up with morning shows in their daily transmissions. The themes of these shows are mainly based on social, cultural and cuisine instead of news and shows having mockery of politicians.
Crime reports are a recent trend broadcasted by local news channels. These reports are basically drama-like productions of the registered reports of assassinations and violence, mostly domestic. Likewise, during the holy month of Ramadan, religious transmissions are aired by almost all news channels. Leading viewership is retained by
PTV home and PTV news.
Gallup (2012) reported that PTV‘s sublunary news broadcasts still have the biggest following with PTV Home, PTV News, and previously ATV, ranked amongst the five leading television channels in Pakistan. Medialogic (2011) explored that Cable and subsidiary status showed that the commercial Geo News Network was ranked as the highest and it is the most watched television network in Pakistan, whereas in private sector, the news channels Express News, Samaa TV, Dunya TV, Aaj TV, and Dawn
News all have high ratings and they are easily accessible to all kind of people. In the
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 33 start of 2011, Geo News had the highest business in the market of news and the highest following of 31 percent. Samaa News has 13 percent ratings, Dunya News 13 percent, and Express News 12 percent.
1.9.7 Television Consumption Trends in Pakistan:
The annual report of PEMRA(2010) shows that only 12 million televisions sets are found in Pakistan, which makes one television set for every 14 people; but according to private surveys number of television set are almost 18 million. The Gallup (2009) reported 86 million television viewers in Pakistan; this reinforce the collective television watching is common in Pakistan. State-owned TV channel is accessible to more than half of these viewers and 38 million people are cables subscriber.
PEMRA (2010) started a payment system and instructions procedure, which led to digital cable television transmission and complete shifting to digital cable, took place in
2015. However, because of expensive procedure and laggard behavior of Cable
Corporation for the set up of the system, digital cable television still has limited reach.
Murthy (2009) found that due to expansion in media industry in Pakistan in last 10 years or so, the state‘s proprietorship over broadcasting has faced decline. The emergence of private television channels, FM radio stations, Newspapers, magazines and easy accessibility of internet. More than 100 TV channels along with foreign channels have been given broadcast rights in Pakistan by PEMRA. This shows a rapid expansion of the media market that has significantly over shadowed the popularity of
PTV. BBC survey reported, people are no more watching PTV news network, and the gentry have diverted their attentions toward private news channels rather than PTV.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 34
According to Gallup Yearly Cumulative Reach – 2014
Period: Jan 01 - Dec 31, 2014 Target: All Age 4+ National Viewers
Channel Name Yearly Monthly Average
Cumulative Reach % Cumulative Reach %
TOTAL 99.89 99.81
A Plus 18.27 9.53
AAJ News 24.55 11.05
Al Jazeera English 8.69 2.84
Apna Channel 8.97 2.39
ARY Digital 41.58 22.20
ARY News 35.06 16.67
BBC World 17.56 4.00
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 35
Dunya News 15.90 4.02
Express News 23.13 11.27
GEO News 46.24 23.61
Khyber News 2.26 0.27
KTN News 8.82 3.64
News One 6.09 1.64
PTV News 52.91 30.98
Samaa TV 21.28 10.02
Sindh News 6.79 2.81
Gallup Yearly Cumulative Reach – 2014
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 36
CHAPTER 02
LITERATURE REVIEW
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 37
2. Literature Review
Keeping in view the tremendous importance associated with literature review in a research dissertation, to construct the study on scientific bases, extensive work was done on relevant and available literature. The researcher explored the libraries, went through relevant research journals and searched online data for a logical and systematic literature review of this study. In this chapter all the relevant studies incorporated to explore the previous result in different countries and observed that not any similar research have been conducted in this area in Pakistan. In the current study, all the latest researchers were included related to credibility of media, credibility to social and traditional media in both international and Pakistani context.
2.1 Credibility of Social Media in Pakistan:
UN Information Unit (2015) examined that Pakistan, with 191 million populations is the sixth most heavily populated country in the world. Haq (2015) further explored that two thirds of the population of Pakistan is below the age of 30 years, which makes it a country having reasonably young and spirited people with a lot of potential and capacity. Recently usage of mobile devices, internet and social media has increased to exceptional extent in Pakistan, social media websites are used to have communication with friends to share information, and most importantly in Pakistan and around the world social network sites are used to pass time by young people. Pakistan Advertiser
Society Report (2016) explored that the number of people using Facebook in Pakistan is around 12 million and half of these are from the ages between 18 and 24 years.
Evidently, social media is going to be a most powerful further media in Pakistan.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 38
Knoll (2011) explored that because of social media, trend of getting connected in youth is changing and current trends are entirely different since its beginning. Now the trends of socializations have altered, friends get together have been replaced by social media which keep them connected all the time. Strategic Foresight Initiative (2011) reported that the social media particularly Twitter and Facebook are free and constant meeting platforms Social media sites like Facebook and Twitter give full opportunity to its users to be expressive about their opinion about anything, and they have the option to request anonymity. It is because of social media that people are no more dependent on limited information given by the state.
Social media is the platform where young generation can even talk about things which our society has declared a taboo since long. There are many blogs and discussion forums which keep on posting updates about critical subjects in Pakistan such as state policies, military operation, and socio-economic issues.
Haq (2012) said that moreover social media is becoming quite revolutionary in
Pakistan, and it won‘t be wrong to say that it is dominating the traditional media. It is evident in many incidents such as Arslan Ifikhar‘s (son of then chief justice of Pakistan) case and Malik Riaz‘s(Pakistani businessperson, billionaire and philanthropist) allegedly fake interview with Mubasshar Lucamn on Dunya TV got leaked on YouTube first.
Khan (2012) also quotes the views of several Pakistani Journalists who mocked the contribution of social media after they got exposed through it. Many renowned journalists like Ansar Abbasi and Talat Hussain agreed on the positive role of social media for freedom of expression, Talat Hussain in one of his tweet clearly quoted that
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 39 the freedom of expression had been cooped up by TV channels owners who were merely dependent on demands of cable operators. Whether we like it or not, social media is the new media in Pakistan and clearly it is going to dominate the traditional media in future.
Akhtar & Akhtar (2000) more explored that Media in Pakistan is extremely diversified.
More than 1,500 newspapers are allied with different groups and sometimes represent those. Nadadur (2007) quoted that the print media is actually dominated by an oligopolistic structure in which mainstream networks are in control. Barraclough (2001) further researched that there is tension between channels because of privatization and
Pakistan‘s traditionally upheld national ideologies of a Muslim nation and the western influence of new social media. Hashmi (2012) quoted that the movements in different provincial areas of Pakistan affect the media‘s routine. The new media has also challenged the status quo, elite and bureaucracies and their political influences. It has also permitted political and social discourse and allowed people to be free and participate in state‘s affairs. Barraclough (2001) found that new media pattern appeals to the young, educated middle class and women. While conservatives usually prefer traditional media outlets as they question the credibility of media. Considering all these points, the credibility of media gets highly questioned and there is a need to its transition should be measured from its for the most part of state regulated system to a mix system that is functioned by religious, local and state players.
Shaheen (2008) found that Facebook has been very popular amongst youth in Pakistan, because of the conservative attitudes towards male and female communication.
Although its impact and admiration is not just confined in Pakistan.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 40
Druffel & Perry (2013) quoted that Facebook is a platform which provides an opportunity to the youngsters to communicate to people around the world. It has been rightly said: ―If Facebook were a country, it would be the third most populated country in the world.‖ similarly research also discussed that in March 2007, Facebook and
Twitter played a vital role in the lawyers‘ movement against General Musharraf. The social media contributed to gain attention of the world community, while Facebook was the meeting point for digital activism, Twitter was useful in dissemination of the whole story to the world. Many people contributed to this civil battle by commenting on online blogs and social networks.
Mushtaq (2012) explored that growth and expansion of private television networks has influenced public opinion too. Maya Khan was fired from Samaa TV after a belittler‘s media campaign against her as she raided public parks in the morning with her colleagues. She exposed couples and questioned them openly which wasn‘t considered morally right and the episode resulted in an endless media campaign. The results of this campaign explained the power of social media. For instance, the social media tools and online campaigns were used to build the political party of Imran Khan.
Weekly Technology Times (2015) reported that in Pakistan, Digital media has grabbed the online users including smart phone users. This platform has permitted the people to interact with each other, discuss politics and run campaigns. However, credibility is still questionable as one cannot identify the sources of such information. Journalists, organizations and pressure groups spread knowledge of their own choice through these sites. A most worrisome fact is that people get influenced with the opinions of others.
As a result, there are so many perceptions about everything on social media now and nobody can tell what opinion is justified according to the facts. As a result diversified
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 41 public opinions are not of any good nor are they rendering serves to government or the people in any way. Social media should be used as it is the fast medium and most interactive one, but it must be controlled by some checks and balances. The concerned people have devised a system or a framework to monitor the content that social media should contain.
Digital media has tremendously changed lives of people private as well as public. The impact of media in the field of marketing is quite noticeable. One thing that makes the digital media marketing effective is consumers‘ trust in the people. Marketers tap into that trust and it use productively. Metzger, Andrew and Flanagin (2013) studied that people trust those who they know the most and trust the received information from more than others. However, blog posts are trusted completely by people and users but the trust drops off if we talk about Twitter. Postings by brands are not trusted much no matter where they are posted. Baig (2012) further explored that online community websites do not gain the same trust as Facebook or blogs. Of all the websites and online communities, Twitter is trusted the least.
Kapadia (2012) researched about a list of 19 Pakistani journalists which has been published after the leakage of scenes of some journalists taking fake interview of Malik
Riaz on one of the Pakistani news Channel i.e Dunya TV. These journalists allegedly took bribe from Malik Riaz. This led to insecure image of social media in the minds of people. Researcher also explained that broadcast medium keeps on insulting social media. It has been called a form of media which is just a gutter, totally unethical that has no integrity and no authorization.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 42
Even today if journalists think that if a press card permits to them have any type of control over opinion, then their stance is not justified because nowadays even a child is a reporter, who can report anything on his Twitter account. No one needs permission or license to post anything on social media. One of the significant examples is of
WikiLeaks which has proved how extensively a news item can circulate which the conventional media cannot even imagine. Social media has almost eclipsed the conventional media and has now become almost indispensable in Pakistan. When someone uses any tool of social network, he or she becomes part of huge web woven by social media. Those who do not make fun of social media are the active users of social media.
2.2 Credibility of Social Media in World
Number of studies were on the topic, among which only few studies relevant that have investigated the part of validity in social networking settings about Pakistan, the focus of attention is mostly for the believability of the medium, stages, and channels like internet sites and online news, or the establishments that possess them for example,
MSNBC and The Huffington Post. Johnson and Kaye (1998, 2000) found that apparent believability of a customary media source (i.e., MSNBC) emphatically anticipated validity evaluations of the medium in an online connection, recommending that the settled conventional media sources conveyed their validity into new environment of media.
Johnson, Kaye, Bichard & Wong (2007) in a latest research on site validity has found that among the politically intrigued, web journals are for the most part thought to be more solid than standard media sources. Sweetser et al. (2008), likewise, find that high
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 43 clients of online journals will probably see websites as trustworthy wellsprings of data.
Lee and Ahn (2013) shown that individuals will probably have more information from
Facebook posts and pages when they see Facebook as authentic medium. In one of the main studies looking at political source (instead of medium or stage) believability,
Powell et al. (2011) found that the individuals who associated with an applicant on online networking, additionally reported higher validity evaluations. Researcher also explained that before looking at the procedure through which views regarding source believability were cultivated inside the online networking situations. Similarly researcher also discussed that how the people assess and form opinion about political applicants' believability on internet sources or the circumstances where their socially intervened crusade messages are accredited and considered trustworthy data. Petty &
Cacioppo (1986) and Pornpitakpan (2004) however studied; customary influence writing has over and over exhibited the role that the medium plays in encouraging asserting and impacting the message.
2.3 Credibility of Traditional Media in Pakistan:
As in report published by IMS (2009) stated that, it has been seen in Pakistan that some anchors and journalists are considered more trustworthy than the others and people value their opinion more than the others. Similarly Syed (2008) stated that Media in
Pakistan is multi-lingual because of diversity of cultures and ethnicities. Memon (2011) studied Sindhi journalists and credibility of media in Sindh, 61.0% people are of the view that print media is more credible while 39% believed that they trusted electronic media more. Kiousis (2001) established that, as compared to many other outlets, newspapers are trusted by people more than electronic or social media.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 44
Tasfati (2003) stated that these days television is mostly used and watched by people of
Pakistan and it‘s the biggest source of information. There are so many private channels in Pakistan, that Pakistani nowadays are more conscious of their rights and well aware of the events and happenings around worldwide. Similarly Mezzera (2010) said that
Slowly, the media has become a strong channel to challenge or question the authorities of Pakistan and their actions. The open debates allow people to part across their views.
However, there is not a significant research held to support this statement and disbelief in media also affects the opinion making and perceptions of the people.
Rahman (2014) described that electronic media was given liberty to counter the impact that channels in India were having on people of Pakistan those days. DeFleur and Ball
Rokeach (1976) put forward a Media Systems Dependency theory, which explained effects or influence of media on people who cannot be study in isolation as media and people are strongly linked with social systems.
The association between social systems, media and audience are connected to each other. Theory explains that social environment is largely responsible for people‘s media use and their cognitive behavior. The basic preposition of the theory elaborates that more people rely on media to fulfill their need to get information and know what is happening around the world and thus its influence increases (1975). This theory, however, focuses more on the information need of individuals.
The relationship between audience and society determines their relation with media and channels. The research states that since the relationship between them plays an essential role in forming opinion, the opinion of audience about a particular source or trust also plays a role in making opinions.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 45
Islamabad Policy Research Report (2014) explains that print media is more effective because of its urban-centric nature. However, the most important and credible source of media is TV, as happenings and events are backed or supported by visuals and different journalists.
Štular (2010) further explored that media credibility greatly relies on traditional media and journalist‘s reputation. As for a journalist, reputation matters a lot for he or she has to be honest and neutral. In the study, the respondents stressed the work of the journalists and most of them said that a key measure of the authenticity of the news was source selection. They revealed that it was essential for a news story to cover all the important aspects and different sides. There should also be signs to show that the news and the information are verified.
Johnson and Kaye (1998) studied that e-newspapers and political websites are also rated as reliable to some degree by the audience. The study also established that there is always a connection between reliance on medium and how much that person trusts the source.
Rahman (2014) carried a study on University of Punjab‘s students of age 18 to 22, regarding conditional influence of media and its credibility and concluded that there is a powerful connection between credibility of media, and shaping political judgment. He further confirmed that the trust in traditional media, society and social circle play an important part in opinion making of the audience. The study found out that the opinion making of the respondents have nothing to do with the projected opinion making by TV channels, explaining thereby that the people who heavily watch TV do not essentially
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 46 perceive media as a credible source. Moreover audiences also get influenced by the source or the channel they trust the most
Freedom and objectivity of the traditional news media play a vital role in development of any society. Gallup (2013) recorded the response on the subject by the respondents on numerous occasions in Pakistan. The results help to measure the trust of people on media and their opinions about the regulation and control of the media. A survey conducted in November 2005 revealed very interesting results, fifty two percent believed that objectivity of the media was not enough, 49% felt that Journalists were not trust worthy, 53% of the people trusted more on the small media organizations, 56% stated that making money was the main concern of the media organizations and 34% admitted that they did not trust the international media chains. Finally 57% stated that their opinions were affected by the news from rest of the world.
On October 8, 2005, the earthquake incident was the main story covered by the
Pakistani media. Public opinion on this incident after news coverage shows the public faith on. About 92% of people came to know about this incident thought television, 4% got information from their friends, 3% from print media and only 1% informed from radio. People mostly prefer their local television channels instead of international. This finding was observed after a study asking questions about earthquake that how they had heard the news of earthquake. Sixty nine percent of respondents pointed out PTV, 73% said GEO, 50% indicated ARY, 27% named Indus TV and 25% said Aaj TV. Only 15% named CNN and 19% identified BBC. 17% had got news from radio whereas 83% suggested that radio was not a very effective communication medium to while delivering breaking news. As compared to the international channels, local channels
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 47 have high preference level on the authenticity of the news. Media was providing timely and authentic news during the incident of earthquake and its aftereffects. Seventy five percent identified GEO, 59% said PTV, 43% named ARY, 38% pointed out Indus TV and 29% gave response in favor of Aaj TV, when asked about the name of authentic news channel, similarly 32% named BBC and 26% CNN.
Gallup (2013) results, showed that media lacks independence due to interference of government which weakens people‘s faith on media. In 2007 a poll carried out to get the contrast between dependence and independence of media, showed that 70% of respondent highly considered that media should completely independent however 19% felt that media should work under the regulations and government policies. 11% of respondents were uncertain, 15% said that Pakistani media had too much freedom, 35% considered that media lacked its necessary independence and 50% responded that current level of freedom was sufficient for media.
People also thought that media function was affected by the tendency of government interference. Questioned about the GEO TV attack by the Punjab Police during the lawyers movement, was raised by the respondents, out of 88% who were aware of the incident, 73 % felt that this was the government responsibility. However 26% opined government was not responsible for this incident. Gallup (2013) Pakistan expressed these results as outcome of different polls and surveys conducted by Gallup Pakistan affiliated with the International Gallup.
Journalists and political talk show hosts who maneuver to build up the controversy between the guests to enhance the rating and media channel‘s profit are rewarded heavily by the owner and the professionals who follow the rules and regulation of
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 48 journalism, like credibility, objectivity and honesty are sidelined in the journalistic field. There is no remedy for corruption which is spreading like cancer and if not tackle timely, it could prove fatal for media industry. Journalists of Pakistan seem to be losing their credibility. An off-air conversational video of two well-know TV anchors
Mubashir Luqman and Mehr Bokhari on Dunya TV was uploaded on YouTube. In this video both the anchors interviewed and leaked all the questions and appropriate answers behind the camera to the guest Malik Riaz, a real estate tycoon. The video also showed the off-air pre-planned discussion, questions to be asked and how to construct the whole debate by talking on phone to government officials during the show. The video sparked a massive debate on credibility of anchors via social and print media. The perception of traditional media amongst Pakistani masses is that it is becoming corrupt to the core.
Corruption in media is not a new phenomenon. It has developed over the year‘s right after the independence and no serious parameters have been taken to tackle this dilemma. Instead of fighting the problem, many editors and reporters have made excuses. Condition of journalists in the line of duty and meager salary packages made the situation worse.
2.4 Credibility of Traditional Media in World
Stockwell (2002) researched that with time, in a democratic society, news media and organizations have shaped people‘s opinions about government. Media has become so important in our lives and people have started relying on it to get information and form an opinion. People form opinions about governments, leaders, societies and nations on the basis of information they gather from traditional media. Boomgarden &
Vilegenthart (2007) showed that opinion making largely depends on the quality of content of the news, and it also shapes politics and political opinion. Entman (2003)
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 49 quoted that there are many studies that have indicated that media coverage has a strong influence and effect on people‘s opinions. McQuail (2010) stated as a result, media is expected to have substantial influence on the opinions of people, which it can do by providing information on the right issues. Hoffman (2007) and Avery (2009) showed however, there are so many experimental studies that show that media, doesn‘t not have the power to change the attitude or behavior of people. Baran & Davis (2000) stated that the agenda setting theory and spiral of silence theory explain and support that media does change the perception of people about things and issues. Garrett (2009) explained that most of the times audience use media to get information but not to form an opinion. David (2009) depicted that the influence of media in forming people‘s opinion depends on a person‘s past political orientations. De Vreese & Boomgaarden
(2006) stated that it can also be seen that people usually trust or give preference to one channel over another which is because they trust that channel more than others. The effects of media are also affected by the discussions and communication between individuals who have a high level of political understanding of matters. Eveland &
Thomson (2006) further explored that the political discussions people have within their circle formulate their behavior and their opinion.
Berlo, Lemert & Mertz (1970) stated that scholars and researchers have identified the process of knowing about media credibility as a hard and complex one. Chan et al.
(2006) stated most researches are typically focused on two basic dimensions of media credibility, source and medium credibility. Most people who take a keen interest in politics and issues of country, they generally have a negative attitude towards the new political players in the field as they are typically concerned with source credibility, reliability of information and other related things.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 50
The State of the News Media (2006) is a study of online journalism concluded that ―the more people use the Web, the less they trust it. The most trusted sites of all increasingly are those from the old-legacy media‖
Annual audience trends 2015 vs 2014
Newspapers daily circulation 7%
combined average viewership Cable TV 8% for prime-time news
1% evening news viewership
Network TV 2% morning news viewership
5% late night news viewership
morning and early Local TV 2% evening viewership
PE W Research Centre, State of the News Media 2016
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 51
Above mentioned table shows the changing trends of the usage of the different medium in US. It illustrates the change in usage, credibility of the medium and perception of readers/viewers towards different means of communication.
Stockwell (2006) elaborated that opinion forming process is a complex phenomenon and dynamic too. The process of information includes so many factors along with perceptions of community. Many factors affect the chances of the influences that media may have such as credibility of the source and perceived authority. Garrett (2009) found that interpersonal discussions play a major part and influence people to form opinion.
Bralley (2010) stated that there are many researches that show that news media is losing its credibility as a trustworthy source of information. There are more than 20 private news channels in Pakistan, with Geo and ARY news on top ranking of viewership. The influence of media on opinion making also depends on the number of variables like source, content, receivers, channel and destination.
Stockwell (2006) in his research explains that the information that we receive from an authentic news source is relatively more effective than those sources that are more close to individuals. Want & Hu (1994) found in a study that media information affects those who perceive media to be credible and depend on media for information. Kiousis
(2001) quoted although the confidence of public has decreased over the last decade. The credibility of news channels was improved when they were used constantly. Rimmer &
Weaver (1987) researched and concluded that the credibility of media has less to do with the exposure and more with the choice measures which are actually related to higher media credibility ratings.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 52
Mathew (1996) explored that a most challenging question has been as to the subject of which of the two presses or electronic media enjoys more believability. The different validity contemplates directed by Roper Institute in 1961 saw the daily paper as more dependable than different types of broad communication. Also, Wesley and Severin
(1964), utilizing demography and psychographics as parameters, contend that educated individuals favor daily papers while TV speaks to the individuals who read less and radio is for individuals in farmlands. Newhagen and Nass (1989) stated that however utilizing the review research technique as a part of their study reason that groups of onlookers rate TV news higher on the size of validity than daily papers. They construct their contention in light of the way that respondents in the study evaluate news believability on TV higher in the light of the fact that the news moderators on TV are natural and could be recognized while daily papers are a faceless, perpetual structure that does not allow singular variety. Carter and Greenberg (1966) hypothesized that, although TV was more conceivable with regard to flashing news yet daily papers were more trustworthy. Gaziano and McGrath (1986) presume that individuals' stands on daily paper and TV validity are identified with their states of mind toward press.
Schweiger (2000) affirms that both web and non-web clients evaluate the validity of daily paper news and the news on the web to be similar. So we there are mixed sentiments and blended responses from individuals and it is difficult to frame a supposition as everybody has their own viewpoint and criteria about the believability of the media.
2.5 Factors Influencing Media Credibility
The concept of social media is multidimensional and multifaceted; the triangle of media i.e source, message and receiver, interact together in order to assess the media
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 53 credibility. It is evident that evaluation of source by the information provider ensures that users consider information credible and useful. Further the medium itself to a large extent play integral part to ensure credibility. In this media triangle, the distinctiveness of each individual receiver or audience also determined the level of message credibility.
This study focused on medium and medium use.
2.6 Media Reliance in Pakistan
Johnson and Kaye (2010) have shown that credibility of the media is influenced greatly by media reliance. Greer (2003) stated that although this research tradition has been inconsistent, media credibility does get affected from media reliance, as more exposure to media increases the understanding of the media amongst users. Johnson and
Fahmy (2009) explored that this notion has been reinforced by many researches as it has been found that users consider Al Jazeera more credible followed by CNN and BBC as compared to local media.
Same is the case in Pakistan, where, media reliance correlates with many factors such as access to the technology, infrastructure of the media, education, finance, and urbanization. Therefore, media reliance might be a key indicator in determining people‘s media routines. Furthermore, credibility perceptions might be affected by media reliance, which may be a product of available media.
2.7 Media Use
Cobbey (1980) stated that there are numerous studies that have been conducted to comprehend components that affirm media believability. The early work on channel believability maintained that expansions in media use were typically joined by improved validity appraisals for whatever channel was being investigated. Rather than
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 54 these past concentrates, in any case, Rimmer and Weaver (1987) guessed that media use was not firmly associated with media validity, commenting that the sort of inquiry utilized to gauge media use might distort results. In particular, they held that emotional inquiries of utilization (e.g., "Which medium do you lean toward?") were regularly being accounted for and that real recurrence of media use measures were not as a matter of course associated with news validity appraisals. Wanta and Hu (1994), in an examination of plan setting, found no noteworthy linkages between presentation
(frequency of utilization) and validity, yet they found a connection between dependence
(how subordinate respondents said they were on a specific medium for data) and believability/ credibility.
Flanagin and Metzger (2000) found that it is broadly recognized that dependence on a medium is emphatically identified with impression of its believability. Yet, with increasing dependence on the Internet; issues regarding validity of this medium have multiplied. Flanagin and Metzger (2001) studied that internet use in the contemporary media environment recommends that Internet clients are enjoying content check practices and are turning out to be more cautious and particular.
LaRose, Mastro and Eastin (2001) reveals that Internet use is emphatically connected with self-viability, that is, the more one depends on the Internet medium, the more one is prone to be positive about selecting, controlling, and acquiring satisfactions looked for.
Kaye and Johnson (2003) proposed that the general absence of restrictions on the
Internet drives an overwhelmingly large number of clients. In view of the above, it can be predicted that it is the dependence and utilization of customary media, for example,
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 55 print and TV, more than dependence on the Internet medium that determines Internet validity. Lee and Leung (2004) further explored that since the Internet frequently works as a supplement to as opposed to substitute for conventional media use, a huge number of clients of customary media come to rate the Internet in a positive vein.
2.8 Source Credibility of the Internet
Typically, another medium presents new innovation, and the new innovation has components and elements that upgrade source believability. Slater and Rounder (1996) suggest that the rising of TV validity appraisals reflect the upgrades in the innovation of transmitting news over this medium. The visual property of TV is said to give TV news an impression of exactness and predominance over the composed expression of daily papers. American Society of Newspaper Editors (1998), Newhagen and Nass (1989) supported the idea.
These discoveries suggest that the general population sees the Internet as a trustworthy hotspot for news. Its believability might be connected with its own particular trademarks that are its hyperlink property. We expect that these two qualities (measure of accessible data and inventiveness in offering determined and customized data) will assume a significant role in determining arrangement of Internet validity.
2.9 Credibility of TV versus Newspaper:
Gaziano and McGrath (1986) stated the media credibility was indicated by studies comparing TV and Newspaper and studies confirmed TV more credible than newspapers. Westley and Severin (1964) the people tend to believe more credible what they watch on TV screen.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 56
Major and Atwood (1997) stated although the false forecast news during natural catastrophes on Television did not affect the credibility. Instead it emphasized TV as source of news was found more credible than print media. Flanagin and Metzger (2000) showed that newspapers may have brought the credibility gap to the end although their specimens are troublesome and awkward.
Newhagen and Nass (1989) found that due to unconventional standards of people to rank TV news in comparison with newspapers brought difference in credibility. The reporter on the TV channel might get the appreciation or liking of people but users evaluate whole organization when credibility question was posed.
Slater and Rouner (1996) explained that in short, Newhagen and Nass declared that television news integrity is most authoritative; leading to the point that TV use might best be sequenced by course with both local and national viewing patterns. It may be assumed that technological revolution made Television superior over print media.
Carter and Greenberg (1965) related Television integrity with its visual representation.
2.10 Online versus offline news credibility
McQuail (1992) stated that for a long time the standard news media have told a huge level of open trust. Objectivity has spoken to a center rule in expert journalistic practice.
While political partisanship has seasoned the points of view of print media, news supporters have been further compelled by the need to watch strict states of parity and lack of bias in their news arrangement. Among the general administration of telecasters at the international level, for example, in the United Kingdom, the necessity to guarantee a news item is the absence of bias which cherished by viewers.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 57
Finberg et al. (2002) showed that in correlations between news media, TV has often developed as more trusted than the other news media, particularly print media. and
Gunter et al. (1994) explored that the medium to which individuals turn first for scope of significant national and global news.
Lee (1975) and Rubin (1983) in studies showed that medium individuals would trust most if confronted with clashing reports in TV and daily papers. Gunter (2005) found that basic occurrences can raise doubts about the dependability of even the most trusted news foundations, as the BBC found in 2003 after one of its head radio news bulletin contained a report scrutinizing the veracity of the UK government's case for the Iraq war that ended up being founded on off base subtle elements. An ensuing open enquiry censured the BBC publication techniques on this event; furthermore, it called for major changes in BBC journalistic controls the administration of the Corporation. Studies generally concluded that trust in the BBC had been shaken.
Crupi (2006) researched that in some news markets; in any case, trust even in the otherwise renowned telecasters has weakened. Research directed by the Pew Research
Center for the People and the Press in 2006 reported that lone minorities of the US
Open said they trusted all or the majority of what they saw on NBC News, ABC News or CBS.
With time print news media have likewise encountered a fall in blind trust. Pew
Research Center(2006) reveals a sharp decline in the rates of individuals who said they accepted what they read in daily papers .The development of the web as a news source following the mid-1990s has adjusted the news scene and acquainted individuals with
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 58 an option news gathering stage, albeit one that is not completely separated from news media.
Weaver et al. (2003) found that a few investigations of believability recognitions have additionally been done among media experts who have been welcome to give their own particular sentiments and to appraise the way of popular supposition.
Flanagin and Metzger (2000) and Kiousis (2001) depicted that with the advent of the new millennium, web news was discovered still to linger behind daily papers, TV and radio in believability terms.
Choi et al. (2006) found the validity of real news media have more or less concentrated on their scope of particular occasions. In this case, the prior introductions of news customers can speak to go between of judgments about news media execution. One online overview of the reactions of US subjects to scope of the 2003 Iraq war found that the relative validity of the web and other media as news sources shifted with whether respondents upheld or criticized the war. Among supporters of the war, TV was viewed as the most trustworthy war news source. Rivals to the war, interestingly, appraised the web as the most valid medium, trailed by daily papers. TV was judged as the strongest source of war news. In consequence, war supporters viewed it as a fundamentally more solid source than the other sources. The web was seen as conveying both against government and star government material in connection to the war, and offered war adversaries more substance strong of their viewpoint.
Choi et al. (2006) discussed the perception about examining the news sources is concerned, it is internally flawed, when researching the validity of online news exactly how valuable cover correlations between the "web" and different broad
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 59 communications. Similarly, examinations between the "web" as a general news source and particular TV news channels or daily papers might be inane. Such correlations may have all the more significance in exceptional cases, for example, the nature of reporting in various media of major events, like wars. Online News Association (2002) described that what is of critical significance, in any case, is to decide the apparent believability of particular news suppliers distinguished by brand name, whether they work in the disconnected or online world. Last but not last, examination with news experts has uncovered that numerous columnists believe that online news locales do not meet the same journalistic models as those found in standard print and communicate news.
Cassidy (2007) explained that the writers who work for online news suppliers place more noteworthy trust in electronic news sources than customary sources regarding source exactness, trustworthiness, decency and general believability.
Pew Research Center (2000) described that as a news source, the notoriety of the web stays liquid. Eventually, the believability of news, whether inferred online or disconnected, is interceded by the notoriety of the supplier "brand" and the relative lack of bias or partisanship of news customers in connection to particular news issues. It might be less smart to consider the web as a solitary news "medium" and consider it a storehouse of news substance. In this regard, the center, as far as believability is concerned, ought to be set on particular news suppliers. This perspective has been strengthened by observational confirmation from news gatherings of people. Web clients have been found to trust online news delivered by some news agency more than that created by free online news sources.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 60
2.11 Types of News:
As the previous studies indicated that local news, national news, international news, disaster & relief activities news and entertainment news are the most discussable news dimensions in the society therefore in this study the researcher chose these significant new dimensions.
2.11.1 Local News
Local news is the news coverage within a region or a locality. It is basically for the people who live within that locality. Local news coverage contains coverage of events that don‘t usually interest the international communities. Credibility is an important thing to be successful in journalism. Competition has increased in journalism as it has been divided into two major groups - traditional media and social media. Online news websites are becoming more famous these days.
Chan et al, (2006) shows traditional media and journalists tend to have a negative attitude towards social media or the online media. Garrison (2000) explained their main concern is reliability and authenticity of the online news as they are generally not authentic.
In this era of technology, according to a report, people still rely on traditional media for local news. Another research by Pew Research Center reveals that 9 in 10 citizens follow local news and rely on newspapers or TV for the authentic news. For the people who are students of media and observe the changing trends in journalism, it‘s important to understand or recognize the domination of TV which is the major source of news in every city. Citizens of Macon and Denver prefer TV news to newspapers. Sixty eight percent people of Sioux city prefer getting news from local TV, 58 % in Denver and 66
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 61
% in Macon. The survey also found out that the local newspapers mostly cover civic issues and the reported stories. The coverage of events is rare.
People who read local news like to share the content on the sites they use. Advance
Digital Media Group study reveals that 53 % readers of local news go on to post stories on social media. The group studied the 2,300 local news readers. The research reveals that the readers (53) % are most likely to share, comment and follow links as compared to 47% national news followers.
News organization‘s story gets picked up and shared on popular news sites .Local audience is the regular visitor and that is what where media agencies need to focus.
Local media agencies have started using the digital media tools to expand the local reach. Briggs shows that social media will stay and those companies which thought that it‘d quickly fade away were wrong, social media is here to stay and the companies will have to accept its presence.
2.11.2 National News:
McLeod and Becker (1981) study on social media mostly focused on the political information users to fulfill their needs. After the basic studies, the studies started to find out the general and media use in entertainment media. Lichter and Noyes (1996) showed this happened at the time when disbelief on politicians and politics have increased and when traditional media was blamed has been increasing or adding up to this discontent.
Bimber (1998), Johnson and Kaye (1998, 2000) conducted researches to find out what urges people to use internet for political information, though the internet has been
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 62 considered largely as a tool to revive the democratic process by forming new electronic square that permits people to directly connect with each other, with politicians and other government officials. The internet and social sites have largely raised the access to political information and news sharing with communities, and helped create a better informed society.
Newhagen and Rafaeli (1996), Palmgreen (1984), Williams, Philips, and Lum (1985) have used the gratification approach for mass media; scholars have argued the approach to be engaged to examine the newest communication technologies. This approach is perfect to study the internet and social media.
Lin and Jeffres (1998) described that people fulfill the television and traditional media needs through switching on it and clicking through remote control whereas the online technologies require people to engage with each other and be active users. On web the sites people actively search for information by clicking the links or following them by using search engines. Eighmey (1997) and Kaye (1998) quoted that web use is rather goal directed and users search according to their choice and the needs they want to fulfill, because of vast information that internet has about varying topics, allows the users to fulfill their needs.
Perse and Courtright (1993), Perse and Dunn (1998) found that opinions about media‘s ability to satisfy needs are largely influenced by the characteristic and nature of the media, the content they have, the quality of transmission and mode.
Atkin, Jeffres and Neuendorf (1998) stated that Traditional media types each other depending upon the changing needs of the audiences/readers. If the new technology is better than the previous one and has an advantage over the earlier one, it can be
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 63 replaced. Lin (1993) explained this by example like VCRs allow watchers to watch movies at their home and save the time spent on going out to watch a movie.
TV and internet both satisfy the same needs in this regard because they are structurally alike. Kaye and Med Off (2001) have explained the internet as a cross between computer and TV. Papacharisi and Rubin (2000) explained that internet provides opportunities to satisfy needs regarding entertainment and social interaction needs. Nie and Ebring (2000) showed however, TV and internet are not identical and just structurally alike. Many functions that internet has, cannot be compared with television such as connecting, interacting to people, chat rooms, emails etc. Major uses of internet researching for information or work, downloading software etc. can‘t compete with watching TV. Thus, TV and Web do not satisfy similar needs.
Garramone, Harris and Anderson (1986), James, Wotring and Forest (1995) argued that internet fulfills the diverse needs of users, particularly; email and e-newspapers satisfy information needs. Papacharissi and Rubin‘s (2000) reveals of that different function of the internet and online media serve different purposes. Nie and Ebring (2000) studied that emailing provides you entertainment and information needs. Information seeking encourages web browsing and convenience encourages newsgroups. When respondents were asked to give their answers they listed information searching rather than entertainment. Most of the people suggested internet for information seeking. Because online newspapers fulfill surveillance needs and people list information needs when asked, people who are interested in politics use web to search and get information rather than fulfill entertainment needs.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 64
2.11.3 International News
Bentivegna (2002), Hill and Hughes (1998) found that the usage of online media for political communication recognized that online tools were being used to carry out political purposes. Since then the usage of these applications have changed, transformed and stretched further. Stieglitz and Dang-Xuan (2012) showed that more studies are conducted on the usage of digital media to engage on political subject and debates. It also studies the increase of the content produced by the users, online engagements and connectivity, expanded use of mobile apps and the evolution of digital media and how it is affecting or revolutionizing the day to day life.
Harfoush (2009) and Woolley et al. (2010) explained that digital tools are playing a vital role in shaping opinion of people and setting political motives. Wallsten (2007) and Westling (2007) depicted that journalists, famous people, politicians and citizens increasingly have made their accounts on the social sites like Twitter, Facebook and
YouTube to engage and support their agendas. Habermas (2006) and McChesny (1996,
2006) found that social sites have different tools to market their motives, by engaging citizens and stakeholders in the political sphere, campaigns or propagating the information, while the effect of this media engagement in the life of people is still discussed in academic forums or among scholars. De Sola Pool (1984) and Markle
Foundation (1997) showed that it is clear that the newest technologies are largely used these days for political engagements. It becomes important to build up a strong or more understanding of the way in which media‘s role in debates is described through better publishing platforms in traditional media. If we look into the way social media is conceptualized into or linked with traditional media in Australian politics, it can tell or
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 65 provide insight into how they involve in debates with one another, what they expect of each other and how they utilize online tools effectively to achieve their goals.
Cardoso (2011) said that a new model of communication also known as Fourth Model of communication is rising and might replace the current information model. Lots of information and data on social media suggest a solid argument. According to a report, every second minute after is spent online on Facebook or other social networking sites.
Social networking has become an important part of people‘s life; it‘s the number one activity in Chile and second most important in Argentina. Score (2011) explained that
Europe witnessed the highest use of social networking sites with Facebook being on the top. Bell (2007) explained that the viral response and coverage of Burma‘s protests and
London‘s bombings, the only job was not just to cover the incidents but to offer help and find best stories and people who can tell them what is the best place for the story, a journalist of YouTube, a blogger, flicker Google or a newspaper agency.
Reifman (2009) apprehends that local news sites would be of no use and will be consumed by Twitter, if new approaches are not adopted. Boston.com‘s new application
―Your Boston‖ and Rockville Central has moved to Facebook. The application won‘t be able to host its own advertisements but the founder and publisher of Rockville Central.
It was considered as a good step. Rourke (2011) explained that the app is a place where all the things come together and they‘re trying to make it a community hub. It app is not a news source but it contains news. Because of all this, association with Facebook is a good thing.
Alves (2010) wrote that the modern era is a different one from the previous ones, and as everything is changing, journalism will also have to survive in a different way.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 66
Facebook and social media should also be seen and considered as a multitasking platform, not only this but also as rapidly changing, synchronizing tool for joined actions, innovations and initiatives and newest political agendas and movements. It is also necessary to consider the symbolic character of a digital community, that is recently born and continuously developing. Shirky (2011) said that social media has increased awareness and participation of citizens in the developments and movements of political parties. However, there is also an uncertainty towards social media and its effects particularly political effects, according to many scholars they are a form of a couch potato democracy. Critics describe the online engagements and discussions as a much easier and low cost way to virtually participate in protests without actually going out and contribute. Social media‘s effectiveness is still debatable, however it can be said, that its effectiveness cannot change the world but can play a part in doing so. The part digital media plays to improve the movements cannot be denied. There‘s a need to measure and understand to what extend our presence on the social media is needed for the development and to play a part or to be socially present in the digital world and how important is to participate and act on social issues and incidents.
Other than that, especially when it comes to politics, the scientific community suggests to take social sites and digital media as supportive tools to enhance the campaigns or promote it but not as a cure for every political problem or up rise. The history showed that it is also evident that media also have played an important role in social changes and issues along with other forces or factors that led to change. Habermas (2011) explained that how press helped n Europe‘s democratization process, by playing a part and putting forth free space for discussions and political interactions among citizens.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 67
2.11.4 Disaster and Relief Activities News:
Researchers founding Twitter is getting popularity. However, the type of information present on Twitter in the time of crisis is different from the normal day‘s information.
In a network analysis of more than 300 million tweets in the weeks before and after the
2011 Japan earthquake, Toriumi et al (2011) witnessed transducer increase in degree the significance of Twitter as a source of information especially in the time of crisis or disasters. Heverin and Zach (2010) studied that during the police shooting incident
(2009, Washington, US), a large amount of tweets were based on the third party information (Links or retweets). Many researchers have looked and checked specially the third party information and the authenticity of the information or the sources during disasters, as it links to the reliability of information on Twitter. Starbirdet al. (2010) looked at the information shared during Red River Valley flooding in Canada and US put tweets into three broad categories: Original tweets, derivatives and synthesis tweets.
Derivative are the ones in which the third party information is passed on whereas original are those which contain third party information as well as twee‘s thoughts on it.
They have realized that people rely and trust on information coming from important sources largely and official information remains important. However, we can‘t say that
Twitter is invalid or unhelpful for information. Acar and Muraki (2011) managed a survey and finished by 26 residents of Miyagi prefecture, who used the Twitter in the days when 2011 Japan earthquake occurred, the users and residents of Miyagi pointed out that any tweets (re-distributed ones) were containing rumors and made the differentiation between of helpful and useless content hard. The study suggested implementing an official hash-tag system to differentiate between helpful information and false one. Barker & Ota (2011) discussed several factors that affect credibility of
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 68 source, including cultural and psychological ones. In the current study was conducted in Japan. Takahashi (2010) said that characteristic of social media in Japan is ambiguous. Online media is known well in cross-cultural studies to be characterized by ambiguity.
Davis (2002) discussed that the ambiguity in computer-mediated communication results in different types of behavioral outcomes, and as this factor has increased openness in people it has decreased the sense of responsibility in people which could lead them to anti-social behavior. Postmes, Spears and Lea (1999) described that the central focus of the discussion is the perception of de individualization. Barker and Ota (2011) and
Katayama (2007) explained that the effect on the Japan community or online users of anonymity is not definite and the cases are different, such as increased stress on the importance of diary writing in Mixi Leading social network site, Japan, a note regarding the issue of credibility of news was issued to the Japan‘s leading bulletin board site The evolution of the credibility of the sources requires the evaluator to enter into a form of convincing communication. Petty and Cacioppo (1986) elaborated that the likelihood
Model of Persuasion suggests, an actor is influenced by one or two ways, a central or a peripheral. Yamagishi‘s (1998) thesis on the structure of trust explains this further, whereby trust is described as a person‘s opinion towards an actor‘s ability and intentions.
Online media and networking sites like Facebook, Twitter and Google can play a part by helping people during natural disasters. During severe disasters, all the other types of communication services usually stop working and at that time only social media stays active. Engagement of people through online media based on area can help overcome
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 69 the problems others face during disasters. The studies found out that how individuals and organizations work together by collaborating through digital media to get mutual benefits especially in times of crisis, emergency management etc. The study also found out that the use of mobile phones and emails also increased during the time of earthquake and also the use of social media drastically increased and even surpassed the other methods of communications like fixed phones. Many companies also confirmed the safety of their and their workers lives through online media during disasters.
However, it is also important to find out and recognize the limitations of the technology. It is not possible to know that the users are the ones who they are claiming to be, and the information they share is correct or not. Even though the false or wrong information is corrected by other users quickly but it gets hard to distinguish between truth and falsehood. There is need to address the issues of privacy and give the answer to the questions like who should monitor date from social media. Special monitoring techniques are needed. In the time of natural disasters, Twitter starts acting as a news provider. It is important to get updated with what is happening especially in the times of need. Natural disasters often cause the shutting down of the TV stations and other news sources and during those times, the power and usage of social media multiplies. People need guidance and help during disasters and they also need to get prepared for the aftershocks or the possible future outcomes of the disasters. Social media can help greatly in such situations. Disasters produce the mainstream conversations because people get concerned about their loved ones and others who are being a victim of this disaster. During the disasters people tend to share information about the happening, preparedness tips and how to help others tips. Social media is widely used because it is easy to share and connects people worldwide. Emergency service agencies are using
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 70 this power of social media and SMS services to immediately publish and employ emergency warnings to the public. The multi-channel communication is trying to integrate the traditional media. They monitor localized information and provide their services to emergency workers on the scene or at the disaster spot. Public now days receive localized emergency warning SMS alerts, via emails and through social networks as well as the traditional media. Companies also give direct access to the links that provide online information through many platforms including Smartphone apps, video sharing sites and digital media sites. They actively forward messages to amplify the warning and to make most of people familiar with the event.
Although, the role of digital media is still not so clear during the time o natural disasters. The only clear statement would be that Facebook, Twitter and YouTube become very active and valuable in the time of crisis.
2.11.5 Entertainment News:
The entertainment news is about celebrities, showbiz, movies, music and other fun related activities. People keep themselves aware of lives of their favorite celebrities.
This makes newspapers dedicate a section for entertainment news as well. Online networks are ideal sites in terms of entertainment news. Users of Twitter and Facebook can be seen in getting involved in the news related to entertainment and showbiz.
Online social sites are ideal for studying entertainment impacts. When we inquire the social activists, financiers and other users about the impact, they ask what metrics matter to reveal the impact. More data means more complexity which leads to much confusion and more research. The function of newspapers has changed with the time, and now they are not used for knowing the breaking news because the pre-dominance
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 71 of the internet and digital media. Allen (2005) explained that celebrities and human interest in reporting then has made things better in terms of connectivity, and tried to remove the disconnection and isolation that people tend to feel, by introducing familiarity, relativity and unity. The expansion of capitalism and consumerism has promoted objectives that reveal greater and much better possibilities for people to understand how the celebrity coverage started. It helps people to reconnect, transcending the class, racial and gender issues. Holmes and Redmond (2006) discussed that many students of cultural studies have tried to find ways to deconstruct the celebrity phenomenon, how it takes part in identification of one‘s self and self- actualization and how and why celebrities have such influence over people.
Franklin (1997) studied the influence of ―tabloidization‖ on news in the field of journalism. Langer (1998) and Winston (2002) evaluated the TV coverage as well as popular way of journalism and the effects on TV news. Brants (1998) and Winston
(2002)discussed the change has not confirmed though and criticized for not understanding and knowing the developments that are seen in formats and content as well as in styles. McNair (2000) and Temple (2006) that the change permits more engagements and participation with social and political happenings and issues.
Cashmore (2006) found that the empowerment that individuals has gained due to the changes in social media and lifestyles haven‘t studied too.
Bernstein (1992) and Allan (2004) explained that there are basically two opinions on celebrity culture: The first holds the opinion and discusses the phenomenon as a strengthening force for democratization, representing freedoms, authority of an individual, his freedom, aspiration and opportunity and access and engagement with
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 72 political and social issues and debates through the reality shows or with the help of life stories of celebrities. The second opinion is more about cultural refusal, where media is so obsessed with constructing fictitious celebrities or personalities, through the shows like ‗X Factor‘ to the politicians, where all the debate tends to create controversies.
Through these shows, the media is creating a dumb culture that plays to the denominator between the readers and watchers to get profits while undermining and not encouraging the democratic process. This view was supported by an American journalist Carl Bernstein who accused media of lacking self-reflection in its roles of contributing to encourage dumb culture
Braudy (1997) argued the challenger of this approach that throughout the history, people have been taking interest in the famous personalities and nobody became famous on the basis of their principled or respectable achievements alone. Cultural historian
Braudy says that fame has always been given to celebrities through media management to some degree. Rojek (2001) explained that media constructs the celebrities and makes or breaks them. Evans and Hesmondhalgh (2005) said that it is essential to keep track of continuities between past and present and events and the representations of today‘s celebrities had their precedent in the previous century. Turner et al (2000), Corner and
Pels (2003) and Marshall (1997) explained the Critics of the celebrity culture that increased prominence can be seen in the diffusion of the coverage of celebrity. Here the question arises which periods are they comparing it to? Evans (2005) explains, in the previous centuries, it was so apparent that the commentators like Henry James in 1880, felt so overwhelmed by celebrity media. Conboy (2006) is of the view that celebrity is the redefinition of the ―taxonomy of news values for the twenty-first century‖. In
British Media it becomes an essential part of current affairs and news with the celebrity
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 73 agenda being accepted by news channels and broadcasters as well as newspapers, like a
BBC flagship program ―News Night‖ suggested running a competition like ―X-Factor‖ for would-be politicians, the suggestion was given by Simon Cowell. When Charity fundraiser Sir Jimmy Savile died, the BBC ran the death program as a top story on
29thOctober, 2011, in which they showed his famous catchphrases. He died at the age of
84, and the death can‘t be termed as premature or unexpected. However, by October
2012, Savile again managed to make headlines with the exposure about his sexual exploitation with a young woman, ironically. On the same day, he died. Two bombers attacked 11 US soldiers and Afghans in Kabul. Marshall (1997) and Drake & Higgins
(2006) focused that this issue was given the secondary importance as compared to the death of Savile. Another trend in media about celebrities needs to be noticed in the celebritization of political leaders as merchandise to be sold to the watchers.
Moreover, the press sneak into their lives and reports about their lives and press coverage of celebrities, while they hold their noses on red tops‘ news agendas. They also help them brand themselves as giving their stories a place in the ―current affairs‖ section. In the past, the documentary programs were only focused on the serious issues but now focus of attention has been shifted mainly to celebrities. Gerbner & Gross
(1976) explained the Cultivation theory of mass communication more exposure to media make users perceives the media reality as social reality. It‘s evident that media usage is undoubtedly the most fundamental factor in the cultivation theory, and its means and technological development is evolving in a rapid pace. Most people would agree to the fact that the press has several roles, a part from informing the world and holding the leaders in power accountable. It also finds ways to do these things to engage most of people possible. Harcup (2009) explained that if we want to teach people, we
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 74 can‘t do anything if the material we provide is boring and nobody reads it. He suggests making the stories not dull and putting some factors in stories so people could read it.
Without an audience, there would be no journalism, and we won‘t gather much people to listen to us if we don‘t entertain them. But engagement and entertainment doesn‘t mean celebrity based news shows, or the coverage of the lives of weather girls, or some celebrity. Franklin (1997) and Turner (2004) addressed the difference in how media covers the famous and the infamous, and volume of the coverage has increased.
Winston (2002) also studied TV coverage, which conforms to severe regulations than newspapers.
2.12 Theoretical Framework:
The theoretical framework of the current study was grounded in two mass communication theories; one was credibility and second was Uses and Gratification theory.
Credibility studies in mass communication have remained an integral part of the field's body of knowledge, and current study included audience' perception of credibility about traditional and social media credibility and media preference.
Flanagin and Metzger (2007) investigated the credibility through numerous earlier studies underlying proposition and definition of credibility.
Rieh and Danielson (2007) explained that credibility was relevant judgmental criterion which helped in decision making process either to reject the information or medium or accept it. Metzger, Flanagin, Eyal, Lemus, and McCann(2003) investigated that Mass
Communication field credibility was researched as source credibility i-e who provided
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 75 the information, message credibility i-e content and medium credibility i-e channel of information.
Petty and Cacioppo (1986) elaborated the role of persuasion and Likelihood Model
(ELM) was explored. This model explained how people were persuaded and their perception of information credibility. This model highlighted two routes of information,
(1) Central Route and (2) peripheral route. The central route demanded logical information and reasoning for the acceptance whereas peripheral route could assess irrelevant information as well. Media audience use central route to evaluate the information credibility. Further credibility was classified into medium credibility, source credibility and message credibility. In few cases source can be medium or vice versa. Sundar and Nass(2001) defined the Medium credibility as the perceived level of credibility that individual users have of a specific medium. On the other side message credibility was referred to the perceived credibility of the communicated message itself, such as informational quality, accuracy, or currency. To measure the usage and need of participants, study adopted Uses and Gratification approach of mass communication.
Uses & Gratification (Katz, 1973) defined the uses of media and categorized the needs which were gratified by media. Generally gratification was linked to individual needs such as Information, Entertainment, Socialization and Tension Release. The current study investigated credibility of social and traditional media in the domain of News and its believability. News was information which was processed by the users and then medium credibility was established. This came under cognitive needs of users‘ i-e seeking information and enhancing knowledge. People tend to know and wanted to acquire information and which medium they opted to get information was part and parcel of the study.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 76
The present study assessed the credibility of traditional and social media on the basis of usage and gender which resulted in media preference. The major hypothetical assumption of this study was that medium was the integral factor for the determination of information credibility. Users perceived medium credible first then considered provided information reliable. The relationship of medium credibility and media preference was researched by two factors; one was gender and second was usage.
Gerbner and Gross (1976) studied the cultivation theory to record their usage and time spent on social media. To explore their usage habits and their frequency of usage correlate with credibility. The more the usage the more medium is considered credible.
2.13 Hypothesis
H1: Social Media Credibility has a positive relationship with Individual
Perception.
H2: Traditional Media Credibility has a positive relationship with Individual
Perception.
H3: Social Media Credibility has a positive relationship with Social Media
Preference.
H4: Traditional Media Credibility has a positive relationship with Traditional
Media Preference.
H5: Individual Perception mediates the relationship between Social Media
Credibility and Social Media Preference.
H6: Individual Perception mediates the relationship between Traditional Media
Credibility and Traditional Media Preference.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 77
H7: Social Media Usage moderates the relationship between Social Media
Credibility and Individual Perception.
H8: Traditional Media Usage moderates the relationship between Traditional
Media Credibility and Individual Perception.
H9: Gender moderates the relationship between Social Media Credibility and
Individual Perception.
H10: Gender moderates the relationship between Traditional Media Credibility
and Individual Perception.
H11: Gender moderates the relationship between Individual Perception and
Social Media Preference.
H12: Gender moderates the relationship between Individual Perception and
Traditional Media Preference.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 78
Chapter 3
Research Methodology
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 79
3. Research Methodology
This chapter presented the whole map of the study and highlighted the opted designed for study, sample and measurement procedure and in detailed described each stage of the presented work. This chapter outlined the complete structure of the research.
3.1 Research Design
The overall selected strategy was named research design which shed light on integrate but different chosen components of the study. As the research aimed at finding a solution to a research question; individual perception about the credibility of social and traditional media in Pakistan, therefore a coherent and logical way was selected to ensure that the research problem was address effectively. In other words, the research design represented the blueprint for the date collection techniques, measurement and scales, and interpretation of results. Therefore, survey method by using close ended adapted questionnaire to access student‘s perception about the credibility of media in
Pakistan was applied. The identified research problem determined the research design.
The quantitative and qualitative research designs were used in social sciences to obtain information according to posed research question or problem which verified theory and specified the relation, evaluated a program, or described and assessed accurately an observable phenomenon. The qualitative design was adopted to create understanding from data as the analysis proceeds.
The qualitative research is purposive to collect information and get understanding of human behavior and document those motives which govern human behavior. These methods inquire why and how any phenomena take place and where it happens,
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 80 therefore small focused sample is selected. As gradually human behavior and communication pattern are changing, similarly the qualitative methods are gradually evolving.
Generally the qualitative research was always based on open-ended question regardless to location and time of study. Ai aimed at finding and probing responses of the participants to get insight behind the stimulus and record these responses in real time.
Typical qualitative methods include: Participant observation, In-depth interviews, Focus group. Quantitative research method utilized different methods of data collection such as polls, questionnaires, and surveys but emphasized objective measurements and analysis.
The quantitative research aims at generalizing collected data across groups of people or to explain a particular phenomenon. By keeping in view the limitation of qualitative research methods, quantitative methods are adopted to ensure credibility and accuracy of research. Quantitative research is more objective and unbiased where responses are recorded numerically and researcher cannot influence the findings. Statistical tests are applied to find the significant level of the results and study. Quantitative design help to record responses of huge number of participants and it is less time consuming.
Quantitative examination was employed to direct this research investigation due to significant amount of participants. The goal of utilizing quantitative approach as a part of this research was to test the theories and primary data collected. This examination was intended to describe the relationship between social and traditional media, impact of credibility on media preferences and vice versa. Along these lines, this research
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 81 outline had been utilized as a part of this research which looked to recognize cause and affect relationships on media and non-users of any media of Pakistan.
3.2 Method
In applied social research Survey is one of the most important and widely used methods. Mainly survey research includes procedure of asking questions from the selected respondent. For the current study, a survey method was designed and 1500 university students were asked regarding their media use and perceptions of credibility.
The traditional and social media credibility was measured by using 5 dimensions credibility scale (Bucy, 2003) and used 5-point Likert scale. Participants were given questions based on believability, accuracy, fairness, informative, comprehensive and in- depth and then they were asked to indicate their responses about the medium.
To get better and in-depth insight survey methods was opted as it is an ideal option to record and explain perceptions of credibility that young people in Pakistan have toward traditional media and social media and further discover the factors that may influence these perceptions.
The questionnaire for survey was divided into four section including media use, media credibility, media preference, and demographic sections. All the questions were close- ended and mostly questions were based on 5-point Likert scale (see Appendix C for list of questions), and it took 2 months to get theses questionnaires filled.
Flanagin and Metzger (2000) focused the seven factors for credibility i-e accuracy, bias, and believability, depth of information, trustworthiness, fairness, and timeliness.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 82
3.2.1 Population
King and Stansfield (2002) researched about the definition of population which varies from statistics and context of the study. For a genetics study, a population can be "a local group, sharing a common gene pool", Jobling et al (2004) quoted while an anthropologist may define a population as a group of people who share a common language and can communicate with each other.
Research population includes complete set of participants including persons or object which possess characteristics as defined by the researcher. Population is of two types; one is target population and second is accessible population.
Polit and Hungler (1999) defined population as an aggregate or totality of all the objects, subjects or members that complete the study requirement and criterion.
Target population or Universe is entire group of people or objects to which the researcher wishes to generalize the study findings but condition of matching criterion is applicable. For instance, all enrolled university students, all newspaper journalist etc.
On the other side accessible population comprised of segment of the population to which the researcher has reasonable access; may be a subset of the target population.
Such as Media Studies students enrolled at Islamabad universities, journalists of only
English newspapers etc.
In this study the population was enrolled University students. The respondent age was measured by age group categories starting with 15 to 36 years and above. The population of the current study was students and with valid account on social media and must had access to traditional media.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 83
If the population or sample size is big enough then survey method help to cope up with sampling issues. When the selected sample is educated and can fill the questionnaire or answer the questions. The population understands the objective and can spare time for the data collection.
3.2.2 Sample
Wood and Haber (2013) define that the selection of the largest possible sample is suggested to ensure representation and generalization of the study
Nworgu (1991) said population is not large enough therefore whole population is included as participants but few studies may involve a large population which cannot all be studied. Therefore a segment or a portion of the population is studied and called a sample of the population.
Brink (1996) stated that sample is the sub-part and actual participants of research. For this study 1500 respondents were selected who represented the characteristics of actual population to obtain maximum accurate results and validate findings. Though survey method actual participants were easily approached and data collection was done conveniently.
Polit and Hungler (1999) explained that sampling helps because
Economical to choose and access the population
Representation of actual population according to research field and objectives
To make rationale choices for data collection
To increase reliability and validity of the research
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 84
3.2.3 Unit of Analysis
Trochim, (2006) described that the ―unit of analysis‖ as ―the entity‖ that is being analyzed by the researcher in a scientific research. The units of analysis help to decide how researcher would analyze the data Who and what that is being analyzed by the researcher is known as unit of analysis and it can be an individual student, a group, or even an entire program. For this study, the unit of analysis is student (elite) who is a user of social, traditional or any of both media.
3.2.4 Questions
The questions were constructed as per research problem but relevant to sample understanding and knowledge level as well. To minimize errors, language barriers were diminished and simple questions were formulated. The data was collected through survey method from the participants and questionnaire was distributed among them.
The population of the current study was 1500 which is too large to be interviewed and randomly sample was selected. 1500 participants cannot be interview during the given time therefore questionnaire was formulated and their responses were recorded.
3.3 Type of Study
For descriptive, exploratory, or explanatory research, survey method can be used. A descriptive study aims to collect information without changing the environment and doesn‘t manipulate anything. This type of study provides information about the naturally occurring phenomena such as health status, behavior, attitudes or other characteristics of a particular group. Descriptive studies are also conducted to demonstrate associations or relationships between things in the world.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 85
The purposes of descriptive research are to observe, describe and document and it involves interview, questionnaire and observation techniques. It only facilitates to record quantifiable data which may help in future statistical analysis and data. As the descriptive studies don‘t explore any research question therefore exploratory research is employed.
Opposite to exploratory research is descriptive research which explored clearly constructed research questions and problems.
In Exploratory research all type of questions can be addressed as it is flexible and provides an opportunity to define new terms and clarify existing concepts. It helps to generate formal hypotheses and develop more precise research problems.
To investigate a problem or situation which provides insights to the researcher, exploratory survey method is adopted. The explanatory research revolves around detail information and adopts methods such as trial studies, interviews, group discussions, experiments, or other tactics for the purpose of gaining information.
By keeping in view the objectives of the current study, this was an exploratory study as the objective was to find out the relationship about the individual‘s perceptions about credibility of the medium and its impact on their preferences of medium selection. A survey was utilized in seeking quantitative data about usage and motivations of Social and traditional media among students. The survey included closed ended questions to investigate usage, frequent activities and motives. The questionnaire was constructed using adaptations of measurements from earlier studies reviewed in the Literature
Review chapter.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 86
3.4 Time Horizon
In research time horizon is referred as estimated time length of time to complete the study and divide time according to research plan. Saunders et al (2009) explained that the selected methodology determined the time for the completion of study.
There are two possible options:
- Cross Sectional Studies
- Longitudinal Studies
Bryman, (2007) explained that the Cross-sectional studies are opted when information about different variable in different context is investigated at the same time. In these studies, at the same time data is collected on more than one case Statistical tests are conducted to find out if any correlation exists between variables or not.
In comparison of Cross-sectional studies, the Longitudinal Studies are conducted over time to investigate the same situation or people several times or continuously, over the period in which the problem runs its course. It facilitates researcher to examine change processes and explain pattern which emerge with passage of time.
For this study, the Cross-sectional data has been collected from the students. The features make Cross-sectional reach design distinguished over other designs, such no time dimension, a reliance on existing differences rather than change following intervention; and, groups are selected based on existing differences rather than random allocation. It only found out and measured differences among variety of people, subjects, or phenomena rather than change.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 87
3.5 Sample Selected
Province-wise randomly selected universities of Pakistan are as under:
Randomly selected universities of Pakistan Province Public Private Total
Federal Capital 13 03 16
Punjab 22 21 43
Sindh 15 24 39
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa 16 10 26
Baluchistan 05 01 06
Azad Jammu & 02 02 04 Kashmir
Gilgit Baltistan 01 Nil 01
Overall 74 61 135
(The data regarding the number of universities is obtained from the HEC (2015), which may differ slightly)
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 88
Male and Female university students, age between15 to 36 & above years were selected through Multi-Stage sampling.
Sample size was determined once sampling frame was obtained from the universities.
However, the researcher aimed at having at least 1500 respondents as part of sample.
The sample size of the current study was 1500 (one thousand and five hundred) to ensure maximum reliability of the findings.
Male and Female university students, age between 16 to 36 & above years. Social and traditional media users and students of universities based on the capital city of all provinces including Federal capital. (Islamabad, Lahore, Karachi, Quetta, Peshawar,
Muzaffarabad, Gilgit Baltistan).
3.6 Procedures and Sampling
The study employed Multi-Stage Random Sampling technique.
At first stage, the list of all universities in Pakistan has been taken from the HEC website (2015) and then derived the list of the registered universities based on the capital city of all provinces including Federal capital. (Islamabad, Lahore, Karachi,
Quetta, Peshawar, Muzaffarabad, Gilgit Baltistan).
HEC website (2015) stated the number of universities in Federal Capital was sixteen, out of which 13 were working in public sector, while three were working in private sector. Out of these sixteen universities, five universities in which three public and two private universities were selected by applying simple random technique of
RANDBETWEEN for questionnaire distribution.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 89
The number of universities in Lahore (Punjab) is 23 out of which 14 public and 09 private universities are working. From this by applying the same formula five universities were selected in which three private and two universities were working in public sector.
The number of universities in Karachi (Sindh) is eighteen, out of which 06 are working in public sector, while 12 are working in private sector. Five universities were selected; two public and three private.
The number of universities in Quetta (Baluchistan) is five, out of which 05 are working in public sector, while no one is working in private sector. Three public sector universities were selected.
The number of universities in Peshawar (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, KPK) is 08, out of which 07 are working in public sector, while 01 is working in private sector. Three selected two public and one private.
The selected number of universities in Muzaffarabad (Azad Jammu &Kashmir) is one.
The selected number of universities in Gilgit Baltistan is one, which is working in public sector.
Name of Selected Universities of Pakistan Province Based on Federal and Provincial Capitals Public Private Riphah International Air University, Islamabad University, Islamabad Allama Iqbal Open Foundation University, Islamabad University, Islamabad Islamabad International Islamic University, Islamabad Lahore College for Women University of Management University, Lahore & Technology, Lahore Lahore University of the Punjab, Forman Christian College, Lahore Lahore
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 90
Beaconhouse National University, Lahore University of Karachi, Aga Khan University Karachi Institute of Business Shaheed Zulfikar Ali Karachi Administration, Karachi Bhutto Institute of Sc. & Technology (SZABIST) Hamdard University
University of Peshawar, Sarhad University of Peshawar Science and Information Peshawar Technology Frontier Women University, Peshawar University of Balochistan, Al-Hamd Islamic Quetta University, Quetta Sardar Bahadur Khan Women University, Quetta Quetta Balochistan University of Information Technology & Management Sciences, Quetta University of Azad Jammu Nil Muzaffarabad & Kashmir, Muzaffarabad, Azad Kashmir Karakurum International Nil Gilgit Baltistan University, Gilgit Baltistan
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 91
Questionnaire Distribution
Questionnaire Useable Questionnaire Distributed Received
Islamabad 300 288
Lahore 300 281
Karachi 300 285
Peshawar 200 184
Quetta 200 181
Muzaffarabad 100 87
Gilgit Balatistan 100 77
Total 1500 1383
Due to the large number of universities in compared to the other provincial capital, quota sampling techniques used for the distribution of the questionnaires. Therefore 900 questionnaires were distributed in three provincial capitals i.e. 300 questionnaires for each capital. Similarly 200 questionnaires were distributed in each provincial capital i.e. Peshawar and Quetta. For Muzaffarbabd and Gilgit Baltistan, 100 questionnaires each were distributed
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 92
3.7 Variables
S.No Variable Conceptual Definition Operational Definition
1 Time spent Amount of time they spend on Measured in hours and social and traditional media minutes per day
2 Duration Period of usage When they use/watch social and traditional media, measured in years
3 Frequency Access and regularity in usage Measured in per day
4 Traditional Conventional means of Usage of TV, Newspaper, Media communication, before the Magazines and Radio by the invention of internet such as university students and level of Newspapers, Magazines, Radio credibility on these means of and TV. communication.
Usage was measured in time spent on traditional media, frequency of access to traditional media and how long they had been using. Further level of credibility was measured by 5 items i-e believable, accurate, fair, informative, and in-depth.
5 Social Social Networking Sites and Five widely used social Media computer mediated networking sites were selected communication to share, ie- Facebook, Twitter, generate and distribute content, LinkedIn, YouTube and feedback is immediate and Google+. Usage was measured multiple communication options in time spent on social media, are provided to users and can frequency of access to social
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 93
share through visually as well. media and how long they had been using. Further level of credibility was measured by 5 items i-e believable, accurate, fair, informative, and in-depth (credibility dimension by Bucy, 2003).
6 Type of Two major type of news are For the study Local News, News Hard news and Soft News. Hard National News, International news is news of the hour and News and Disaster News were deals with serious topics and given as Hard News and on the events. other side Entertainment News
Soft news deals with light and either about sports or showbiz human interest related topics was mentioned as Soft News. which are not serious.
7 Media The media credibility has For the current study, medium Credibility various definitions based on credibility was investigated i-e different earlier conducted mass traditional media or social media researches. It has been media. Five credibility defined as ―believability, trust, dimension of Bucy (2003) perceived reliability,‖ and scores were adapted to measure and combinations of other credibility of media, i-e concepts (Self, 1996). Further it believable, accurate, fair, is divided into three categories informative, and in-depth. such as Message credibility, Source Credibility and medium credibility.
8 Media McQuail (1987) indicated that In this study media preference Preference the selection of any medium by was measured by usage and audience is based various reason gratification.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 94
as described in Uses & Gratification Theory (Katz et al, 1974). Audience actively participates and opt medium of communication as per their needs and interests.
8 Individual A process by which Perception individuals organize& interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. Why is it Important? Because people's behavior is based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself. The world that is perceived is the world that is behaviorally important. . Perceptions vary from person to person. Different people perceive different things about the same situation. But more than that, we assign different meanings to what we perceive. And the meanings might change for a certain person. One might change one's perspective or simply make things mean something else. These are some factors that influence perception;
· The Perceiver – attitudes,
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 95
motives, interests, experiences, expectations
· The Situation – time, work setting, social situation
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 96
3.8 Theoretical Framework Usage of media Social Media SMU/TMU Preference Social Media (SMP) Credibility (SMC)
Individual Perception
(IP)
Traditional Media Traditional Media Credibility Preference (TMC) (TMP)
Demographics/
Gender
96
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 97
3.9 Research Instrument
The closed-ended questionnaire was structured to collect data for the current study. This study was adapted as many researches related to credibility of media were already in use in different parts of the world. The questionnaire used five point Likert scale from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). In the questionnaire, research started with the demographics that included gender, age, educational level and area of belongingness of respondents.
3.9.1 Credibility toward Media.
The traditional and social media credibility was measured by using 5 dimensions credibility scale (Bucy, 2003) and used 5-point Likert scale. Participants were given option i-e accuracy, bias, and depth of information, trustworthiness, fairness, and timeliness and then they were asked to indicate their responses about the medium.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 98
3.10 Demographics
Gender
Male Female
3.10.1 Age
S.No Age in Year
1. 16-20
2. 21-25
3. 26-30
4. 31-35
5. 36 & above
3.10.2 Education Completed (In Years)
S.No Education Completed (in years)
1 12
2 14
3 16
4 18 & above
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 99
3.10.3 University Location
S.No University Location
1 Islamabad
2 Lahore
3 Karachi
4 Quetta
5 Peshawar
6 Muzaffarabad
7 Gilgit Baltistan
3.11 Type of Media
Traditional Media Social Media
Television, Newspaper, Radio, Facebook, Twitter , YouTube, LinkedIn, Google+ Magazine
3.12 Exposure and usage of Media per day
Traditional Media Usage Social Media Usage
Less than 2 hours Less than 2 hours
2-4 hours 2-4 hours
4 or more hours 4 or more hours
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 100
3.13 Short-term and Long-term Media Use.
The short term and long term usage was measured in years of duration. Four duration groups based on years were given to participants. Less than three years of duration usage was taken as short-term usage and more than four years of duration was placed in long-term usage.
The usage duration was mentioned in mutually exhaustive interval in the questionnaire to make valid inferences.
3.13.1 Time Spent
The usage of media either social or traditional was further measured in time spend that is hour per day on media. To distinguish users from each other in terms of media usage,
Light, Moderator and Heavy media users categorize were used from the previous media researches. Time spend on media highlight the usage pattern and indicate the influence of media on the users. Time spent on media was measured in hour per day. Less than two hours were tagged as light users, two to four hours were named as moderator users and more than five hours were called heavy media users.
3.13.2 Frequency
Frequency of usage was measured in access to media per day, how many times they are exposed to media either social or traditional. The access per day exhibits the aptitude and habits of users
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 101
3.14 Face and Content Validity
The media professional and academicians were consulted and the questionnaire was discussed with them for overall formatting, sentence structure and sentence clarity.
Further it was also verified that formatted question items were representing the respective variables and could be used in the related field or some changes were required. Changes suggested by the expert were incorporated in research instrument accordingly.
3.15 Data analysis techniques
To make sure that proper data entry and results come as an output, SPSS 22 was the statistical application used for this research.
3.16 Reliability Analysis:
For the purpose of this research, questionnaire was pilot tested in order to check consistency of response. The pilot test was directed through the individuals those were users and non-users of traditional and/or social media. A total of 150 responses were analyzed using reliability analysis (Cronbach alpha) utilizing SPSS 22.
3.17 Correlation
To identify relationship variable Correlation is applied which indicate strength of relationship between the dependent and independent variables. Taylor (1990) described thatPearson correlation was the most common used correlation techniques, which was used by the researcher in this research. Correlation coefficient, also known as ―r‖ is the result of a correlation. Its defined range is between -1.0 to +1.0 Two variables are found
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 102 to be more closely related to each other when ―r‖ is either closer to -1 or +1. However, if ―r‖ is found anywhere near to the value ―0‖, it means that there is no relationship between the variables.
3.18 Direct and Indirect hypothesis testing
This analysis helped in identifying how much of a dependent variable (Individual perception) changes with variation in any of the independent variable (social media, traditional media,). Moderate variable are usage of media and demographics. This study also helped in understanding that dependent variable was related to which of the independent variables and also the form of relationship among variables was identified through this. Hayes (2009) regression steps were used to check the effect of moderating variables. The MACRO was installed in the SPSS and using model 1, the moderation was analyzed. Filed, (2011) analyzed that this method of moderation is the most sophisticated method available today.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 103 Chapter 04 Results
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 104
4. Results
Table 4.1 Gender
Frequency
Male 833
Female 550
Total 1383
Table 4.1 shows the frequency results of the gender of the respondents. The male was coded as 1, while the female was coded as 2 in the instrument. Out of 1383 respondents,
833 were males while 550 were females. This shows that in the data the male respondents were greater than the female ones.
Chart 4.1 Gender
550
833 Male Female
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 105
Table 4.2 Age
16-20 307 21-25 562 26-30 268 31-35 170 36 and above 76 Total 1383
Table 4.2 shows the age of the respondents. In the age categories the 16-20 years was coded as 1, 21-25 years was coded as 2, 26-30 years was coded as 3, 31-45 years was coded as 4 and 36 and above years was coded as 5. The results of the analysis show that there were 307 respondents that belonged to 16-20 years of age. 562 respondents were between 21- 25 years of age, 268 respondents were from 26 – 30 years of age. 31 – 35 years of age were 170 respondents and above 36 years of age were only 76. The results indicate that most of the respondents were of the age between 26-30 years.
Chart 4.2 Age
76 170 307 16-20 268 21-25 26-30 562 31-35 36 and above
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 106
Table 4.3 Education (Completed in years)
12 years 810 14 years 273 16 years 195 18 and above years 105 Total 1383
The table 4.3 shows the results of education level of the respondents. Total four categories of education question were made ranging from 12 years of education of 18 or above years of education. The 12 years of education was coded as 1, 14 years as 2, 16 years as 3 and 18 or above was coded as 4. It is indicated that most of the respondents were having 12 years of education, i.e. 810 respondents, 273 have 14 years of education, 195 have 16 years of education and 105 respondents indicated their education above 18 years. The results show that most respondents have 12 years of education.
Chart 4.3 Education (Completed in years)
105 195
12 273 810 14 16 18 and above
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 107
Table 4.4 University Location of the respondents
Islamabad 330 Lahore 192 Karachi 356 Peshawar 165 Quetta 150 Gilgit Baltistan 70 Muzaffarabad 120 Total 1383
Table 4.4 shows the results of the different areas from which respondents belong to. The data was collected from total seven areas (the hub of educational institutes in Pakistan). The city Islamabad was coded as 1, Lahore as 2, Karachi was coded as 3, Peshawar was coded as 4, Quetta was coded as 5, Gilgit Baltistan was coded as 6 and Muzaffarabad was coded as 7. Most of the respondents were from Karachi i.e. 356 respondents, while from Islamabad 330 respondents participated in the study. 192 from Lahore and from Peshawar 165 respondents were part of the study. 150 respondents were from Quetta, 120 from Muzaffarabad and only 70 respondents were from Gilgit Baltistan. The results indicate that most respondents were from Karachi and Islamabad respectively.
Chart 4.4 University Location of the respondents Islamabad 70 Lahore 120 330 Karachi 150 Peshawar 165 192 Quetta Gilgit Baltistan
356 Muzaffarabad
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 108
Table 4.5 Which media do you use?
Social 524 Traditional 483 Social and Traditional 376 Total 1383
Table 4.5 shows the media usage trend of the respondents. Out of the sample of 1383, three types of media users were identified, i.e. ―only social media users‖ coded as 1, ―only traditional media users‖ coded as 2 and ―social and traditional media users‖ coded as 3. The analysis shows that 524 respondents were using social media only, while 483 were traditional media users. 376 respondents were user of social and traditional media both. The analysis of the results proves that most respondents were social media users.
Chart 4.5 Which media do you use?
376 524
Social Traditional Social and Traditional 483
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 109
Table 4.6 Social Media Usage (per day)
Per Day Usage Frequency
Less than 2 hours 143
2 - 4 hours 312
4 hours or more 928
Total 1383
Table 4.6 shows the day social media usage of respondents. 1383 of respondent divided according to their usage i.e heavy user, moderate user and light user. Code 1 was given to ―less than 2 hours‖ code 2 was given to ―2-4 hours‖ code 3 was given to respondent who use social media ―4 or more hours‖. The analysis of the results shows that 928 respondents were use social media 4 hours or more.
Chart 4.6 Social Media Usage
10%
23%
Less than 2 hours 67% 2 - 4 hours 4 or more hours
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 110
Table 4.7 Traditional Media Usage (Per day)
Per Day Usage Frequency
Less than 2 hours 715
2 - 4 hours 320
4 hours or more 348
Total 1383
Table 4.7 shows the day traditional media usage of respondents. 1383 of respondent divided according to their usage i.e heavy user, moderate user and light user. Code 1 was given to ―light user‖ code 2 was given to ―moderate user‖ code 3 was given to respondent who use social media ―heavy user‖. The analysis of the results shows that 715 respondents were use traditional media less than 2 hours.
Chart 4.7 Traditional Media Usage
25%
52% Less than 2 hours 23% 2 - 4 hours 4 or more hours
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 111
Table 4.8 Social Media Use (Years)
Cumulative Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent Less than 1 year 37 2.7 2.7 2.7 1-2 years 64 4.6 4.6 7.3 2-3 years 268 19.4 19.4 26.7 3-4 years 622 44.9 44.9 71.6 4 or above years 393 28.4 28.4 100.0 Total 1383 100.0 100.0
Table 4.8 shows the frequency and percentage of social media use in years. The results show that 37 (2.7 %) participants were using social media for less than 1 year. Similarly 64 (4.6%) respondents were using social media for 2 years, whereas 268 (19.4%) were using for 3 years. 622 (44.9%) were using social media for 4 years and it was the highest frequency of usage in years among the respondents. 393 (28.4%) respondents showed that they have been using social media for more than 4 years.
Chart 4.8 Social Media Use Year 700 622 600
500 393 400 Frequency 268 300 Percent 200 64 100 37 44.9 28.4 2.7 4.6 19.4 0 Less than 1-2 years 2-3 years 3-4 years 4 or above 1 year years
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 112
Table 4.9 Traditional Media Use (Years)
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Less than 1 year 47 3.4 3.4 3.4 1-2 years 58 4.2 4.2 7.6 2-3 years 190 13.7 13.7 21.3 3-4 years 833 60.2 60.2 81.5 4 or above years 256 18.5 18.5 100.0 Total 1383 100.0 100.0
Table 4.9 shows that how long participants had been using traditional media. The frequency of usage was measured in years. 47 (3.4%) participants have been using traditional media for less than 1 year and 58 (4.2%) indicated their usage within 2 years. 190 (13.7%) were using traditional media from 2-3 years. The highest number of respondents 833 (60.2%) showed that they have been using traditional media between 3- 4 years. Only 256 (18.5%) of respondents indicated their usage of traditional media in more than 4 years.
Chart 4.9 Traditional Media Use Year 900 833 800 700 600 500 Frequency 400 256 Percent 300 190 200 47 58 60.2 100 3.4 4.2 13.7 18.5 0 Less than 1 1-2 years 2-3 years 3-4 years 4 or above year years
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 113
Table 4.10 I use social media for?
Hard News 195 Soft News 442 Both (Soft and 746 Hard News) Total 1383
Table 4.10 shows the results of the usage of social media for different kind of news. The ―hard news‖ was coded as 1, the ―soft news‖ was coded as 2 and ―both soft and hard news‖ was coded as 3. It is seen that respondent‘s use social media for soft news were 442, for hard news 195 and for both soft and hard news are 746. The results indicate that most of the people use social media for soft news.
Chart 4.10 I use social media for?
14%
54% 32% Hard News Soft News Both Soft and Hard News
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 114
Table 4.11 I use traditional media for? Hard News 582 Soft News 474 Both Soft and Hard 327 News Total 1383
Table 4.11 shows the results of the usage of traditional media for different kind of news. The ―hard news‖ was coded as 1, the ―soft news‖ was coded as 2 and ―both soft and hard news‖ was coded as 3. It is seen that respondent‘s use social media for soft news were 474, for hard news 582 and for both soft and hard news are 327. The results indicate that most of the people use traditional media for hard news.
Chart 4.11 I use traditional media for?
24% 42%
34% Hard News
Soft News
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 115
Table 4.12 I use Social Media for?
News Type Frequency Local News 435 National News 220 International News 29 Disaster & relief Activities News 321 Entertainment News 378 Total 1383
Table 4.12 shows the results of the usage of social media usage of different types of news. The ―Local‖ was coded as 1, the ―National news‖ was coded as 2, ―International News‖ was coded as 3, ―Disaster & relief Activities News‖ was coded as 4, ―Entertainment News‖ was coded as 5 and ―Entertainment News‖ was coded as 6. It is seen that respondents use social media for local news were 435, for National News were 20, for International News were 29, for Disaster & Relief Activities News were 321and for Entertainment News were 378. The results indicate that most of the people use social media for Local News.
Chart 4.12 I use Social Media for?
378 435 Local News
National News
International News 321 220 29 Disaster & relief Activities News Entertainment News
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 116
Table 4.13 I use Traditional Media for?
News Type Frequency Local News 371 National News 365 International News 285 Disaster & relief Activities News 203 Entertainment News 159 Total 1383
Table 4.13 shows the results of the usage of social media usage of different types of news. The ―Local‖ was coded as 1, the ―National news‖ was coded as 2, ―International News‖ was coded as 3, ―Disaster & relief Activities News‖ was coded as 4, ―Entertainment News‖ was coded as 5 and ―Entertainment News‖ was coded as 6. It is seen that respondents use traditional media for local news were 371, for National News were 365, for International News were 285, for Disaster & Relief Activities News were 203 and for Entertainment News were 159. The results indicate that most of the people use traditional media for Local News.
Chart 4.13 I use Social Media for?
159 Local News
203 371 National News
International News 285 Disaster & relief Activities 365 News Entertainment News
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 117
Table 4.14 Which is your primary source of news in social media?
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Facebook 896 64.8 64.8 64.8 Twitter 292 21.1 21.1 85.9 LinkedIn 104 7.5 7.5 93.4 YouTube 21 1.5 1.5 94.9 others 70 5.1 5.1 100.0 Total 1383 100.0 100.0
Table 4.14 shows the primary frequency source of social media of the respondents. Total five categories of online sources were made. Out of 1383 respondents 896 answered Facebook, 292 said Twitter, according to 104 LinkedIn is the main source of news, 21 said YouTube and 70 answered others. According to 64.8 % of respondents the main sources of online news is Facebook.
Chart 4.14 Which is your primary source of news in social media?
21 70 104
Facebook 292 Twitter 896 LinkedIn YouTube Others
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 118
Table 4.15 Which is your primary source of news in traditional media?
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent TV 701 50.7 50.7 50.7 Newspaper 468 33.8 33.8 84.5 Radio 132 9.5 9.5 94.1 Magazine 28 2.0 2.0 96.1 others 54 3.9 3.9 100.0 Total 1383 100.0 100.0
Table 4.15 shows the primary frequency source of Traditional media of the respondents. Total five categories of traditional sources were made. Out of 1383 respondents 701 said TV, 468 answered Newspaper, according to 132 Radio is the main source of news, 28 respond Magazine and 54 said others. 50.7 % of respondents answered that TV is the main sources of news in traditional media.
Chart 4.15 Which is your primary source of news in Traditional media?
28 54 132
TV 701 Newspaper 468 Radio Magazine others
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 119
Table 4.16 Descriptive Statistics
Mean Std. Deviation Skewness Kurtosis
SMC 3.985 .389 -.765 .532 TMC 3.887 .476 -.948 1.698 SMP 4.032 .642 -1.669 3.249 TMP 3.855 .613 -1.312 2.212 IP 4.081 .500 -.739 .542
SMC = Social Media Credibility TMC = Traditional Media Credibility SMP = Social Media Preference TMP = Traditional Media Preference
IP = Individual Perception
Table 4.16 shows the results of descriptive statistics of the variables. For the primary data analysis purpose the mean, standard deviation, kurtosis and skewness were calculated. The values of descriptive for different variables were well within the range i.e. for Social Media Preference (M = 4.0328, SD= .64298, Skewness= -1.669, Kurtosis= 3.249), for Traditional Media Preference (M = 3.8555, SD= .61315, Skewness = -1.312, Kurtosis= 2.212), for Social Media Credibility (M = 3.9853, SD= .38981, Skewness = -.765, Kurtosis= .532), for Traditional Media Credibility (M = 3.8873, SD= .47639, Skewness = -.948, Kurtosis= 1.698) and for Individual Perception (M = 4.0814, SD= .5003, Skewness = -.739, Kurtosis= .542).
Chart 4.16 Descriptive Statistics
5
4
3
Mean Std.
2
Deviation 0.64298
1 0.61315
0.5003 0.47639 0.38981 Std. Deviation 0 SMC TMC SMP TMP IP
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 120
Table 4.17 Correlation Matrix
SMC TMC SMP TMP IP SMC 1
TMC .236** 1
SMP .235** .168** 1
TMP .197** .735** .758** 1
IP .736** .210** .235** .168** 1 **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). SMC = Social Media Credibility TMC = Traditional Media Credibility SMP = Social Media Preference TMP = Traditional Media Preference
IP = Individual Perception
Table 4.17 shows the results of the correlation between different variables of the study. It is indicated that Social Media Credibility has strong and positive correlation (r= 0.736, p= 0.00) with Individual Perception. This indicates that with the increase of Social Media Credibility the Individual Perception will also increase. Traditional Media Credibility has weak but positive correlation (r= 0.210, p= 0.00) with Individual Perception. It shows that with the increase of Traditional Media Credibility the Individual Perception will also increase. Social Media Preference has positive correlation (r= .235, p= 0.00) with Individual Perception. This indicates that with the increase of Social Media Preference the Individual Perception will also increase. Traditional Media Preference has weak but positive (r= 168, p= 0.00) with Individual Perception. This indicates that with the increase of Traditional Media Preference the Individual Perception will also increase.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 121
Table 4.18 Direct Hypothesis Testing (Hypothesis 1 & 2)
Hypothesis IV DV R2 F B T Sig Status
H1 SMC 0.933 38.826 0.000 Supported IP 0.543 820.524 H2 TMC 0.041 2.0650 0.039 Supported
SMC = Social Media Credibility TMC = Traditional Media Credibility
Table 4.18 shows the results Hypothesis 1 and 2. The relationship between Social Media Credibility and Individual Perception is positive and significant (β= 0.933, t = 38.826). The relationship between Traditional Media Credibility and Individual Perception is positive and significant β= 0.041, t = 2.0650. Therefore, based on the statistical results the hypothesis 1 and 2 have been supported, hence accepted.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 122
Table 4.19 Direct Hypothesis Testing (Hypothesis 3 & 4)
Hypothesis IV DV R2 F B T Sig Status
H3 SMC SMP 0.041 59.141 0.203 7.690 0.000 Supported
H4 TMC TMP 0.540 1623.876 0.735 40.297 0.000 Supported
SMC = Social Media Credibility TMC = Traditional Media Credibility
Table 4.19 shows the results Hypothesis 3 and 4. The relationship between Social Media Credibility and Social Media Preference is positive and significant (β= 0.203, t = 7.690). The relationship between Traditional Media Credibility and Traditional Media Preference is positive and significant (β= 0.735, t = 40.297). Therefore, based on the statistical results the hypothesis 3 and 4 have been supported, hence accepted.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 123
Table 4.20 Hypothesis 5: Results SMC on SMP
Effect SE t LLCI ULCI
Total effect of SMC on SMP 0.3343 0.0435 7.6903 0.249 0.4195
Direct effect of SMC on SMP 0.1073 0.0637 1.6853 -0.0176 0.2323
Effect Boot SE LLCI ULCI
Indirect effect of SMC on SMP 0.2269 0.0512 0.1202 0.3202
Effect SE Z P Normal theory tests for the indirect effect (Sobal test) 0.2269 0.0472 4.8041 0.0000
SMC = Social Media Credibility SMP = Social Media Preference
Table 4.20 shows the result of hypothesis 5. The results show the evidence for the full mediation indicating support for the hypothesis. The results show that the total effect of SMC on SMP is β= 0.33, t = 7.66 [.249, .419]. The direct effect of SMC on SMP is β= 0.107, t = 1.68 [-.017, .232] is found to be non-significant. The results indicate that the indirect effect of SMC on SMP is significant β= 0.226 [0120, .320]. Based on the results of mediation analysis, it is evident that there is 66% mediation of IP between the relationship of SMC and SMP. For direct hypothesis regression analysis was used and for the mediation (model 4) and moderation (model 1) analysis bootstrapping method suggested by Hayes (2013) was applied.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 124
Table 4.21 Hypothesis 6: Results TMC on TMP
Effect SE t LLCI ULCI
Total effect of TMC on TMP 0.9462 0.0235 40.2973 0.9001 0.9922
Direct effect of TMC on TMP 0.9425 0.042 39.2368 0.8954 0.9896
Effect Boot SE LLCI ULCI
Indirect effect of TMC on TMP 0.0037 0.0055 -0.0069 0.0153
Normal theory tests for the Effect SE Z P Indirect effect (Sobal test)
0.0037 0.0051 0.7173 0.4732
TMC = Traditional Media Credibility TMP = Traditional Media Preference
Table 4.21 shows the result of hypothesis 6. The results show the evidence for no mediation indicating for the hypothesis. The results show that the total effect of TMC on TMP is β= 0.946, t = 40.29 [.900, .992]. The indirect effect of TCM on TMP is β= 0.942, t = 39.--236 [-.895, .989] is found to be insignificant. The results indicate that the indirect effect of TMC on TMP is significant β= 0.003 [-.0069, .0153]. Based on the results of mediation analysis, it is evident that there is no mediation of IP between the relationship of TMC and TMP.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 125
Table 4.22 Hypothesis 7: Conditional effect of SMU on IP at values of the moderator(s):
SMU Effect Se t p LLCI ULCI
-.6727 .9349 .0390 23.9678 .0000 .8584 1.0114
.0000 .9448 .0252 37.4733 .0000 .8953 .9942
.4324 .9511 .0298 31.8668 .0000 .8926 1.0097
SMU = Social Media Usage IP = Individual Perception
The results of table 4.22, show that social media usage moderates the relationship between Social Media Credibility and Individual Perception. According to the result i.e (.9349, .9448 & .9511) moderation analysis results support the hypothesis that more usage of social media strengthens the relationship between Social Media Credibility and Individual Perception.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 126
Table 4.23 Hypothesis 8: Conditional effect of TMU on IP at values of the moderator(s):
TMU Effect Se t p LLCI ULCI
-.7346 .2133 .0339 6.2861 .0000 .1467 .2799
.0000 .2197 .0245 8.9748 .0000 .1716 .2677
.8359 .2269 .0343 6.6172 .0000 .1596 .2941
TMU = Traditional Media Usage IP = Individual Perception
Hypothesis 8 postulates that traditional media usage moderates the relationship between Traditional Media Credibility and Individual Perception. According to the results i.e (.2133, .2197 & .2269) show the moderation analysis results support the hypothesis that more usage of traditional media strengthens the relationship between Traditional Media Credibility and Individual Perception.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 127
Table 4.24 Hypothesis 9: Conditional effect of SMC on IP at values of the moderator(s)
Gender Effect Se t p LLCI ULCI
1.000 0.9594 0.0303 31.6157 0.0000 0.8999 1.0189
2.000 0.9227 0.0367 25.1277 0.0000 0.8506 0.9947
SMC = Social Media Credibility IP = Individual Perception
Table 4.24 shows the results of the moderating effects of gender as a moderator between Social Media Credibility and Individual Perception. It is seen that male β = .9594, t = 31.6157, [.8999, 1.0189] and female β= .9227, t = 25.1277, [.8506, .9947] media users show positive moderation between the relationship of Social Media Credibility and Individual Perception. The results also depict that in comparison to male media users the female media users have less Individual Perception. Model 1 of the Bootstrapping method for moderation analysis was used to test the level of individual perception among male and female media users. The method is the most sophisticated and modern method for the moderation analysis among available techniques.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 128
Table 4.25 Hypothesis 10: Conditional effect of TMC on IP at values of the moderator(s)
Gender Effect Se t p LLCI ULCI
1.000 .2390 .0352 6.7828 .0000 .1699 .3081
2.000 .1906 .0446 4.272 .0000 .1031 .2781 TMC = Traditional Media Credibility
IP = Individual Perception
Table 4.25 shows the results of the moderating effects of gender as a moderator between Traditional Media Credibility and Individual Perception and male has more strong relationship. It is seen that male β = .2390, t = 6.7828, [0.1699, 0.3081] and female β= .1906, t = 4.272, [0.1031, 0.2781] media users show positive moderation between the relationship of Traditional Media Credibility and Individual Perception. The results also depict that in comparison to male media users the female media users have lower Individual Perception.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 129
Table 4.26 Hypothesis 11: Conditional effect of SMP on IP at values of the moderator(s)
Gender Effect Se t p LLCI ULCI
1.000 0.3152 0.0430 7.3283 0.0000 0.2308 0.3996
2.000 0.2801 0.0540 5.1874 0.0000 0.1742 0.3861 SMP = Social Media Preference
IP = Individual Perception
Table 4.26 shows the results of the moderating effects of gender as a moderator between Social Media Preference and Individual Perception. It is seen that male β = 0.3152, t = 7.3283, [0.2308, 0.3996] and female β= 0.2801, t = 5.1874, [0.1742, 0.3861] media users show positive moderation between the relationship of Social Media Preference and Individual Perception. The results also depict that in comparison to male media users the female media users have lower Individual Perception.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 130
Table 4.27 Hypothesis12: Conditional effect of TMP on IP at values of the moderator(s)
Gender Effect Se t p LLCI ULCI
1.000 0.218 0.042 5.2286 0.0000 0.1359 0.2991
2.000 0.185 0.052 3.5371 0.0000 0.0823 0.2871 TMP = Traditional Media Preference
IP = Individual Perception
Table 4.27 shows the results of the moderating effects of gender as a moderator between Traditional Media Preference and Individual Perception. It is seen that male β = 0.218, t = 5.2286, [0.1359, 0.2991] and female β= .185, t = 3.5371, [0. .0823, 0. 2871] media users show positive moderation between the relationship of Traditional Media Preference and Individual Perception. The results also depict that in comparison to male media users the female media users have lower Individual Perception.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 131
4.1 Testing of Hypothesis:
H1. Social Media Credibility has a positive relationship with Individual
Perception.
Hypothesis 1which assumed positive impact of social credibility on individual
perception. The findings of the study indicate positive and strong correlation (r=
0.736, p= 0.00). The regression results indicate full support for the hypothesis (β=
0.93, t = 38.82, p =.00). Hence the results supported the Hypothesis 1.
H2. Traditional Media Credibility has a positive relationship with Individual
Perception.
The hypothesis predicted that Traditional Media Credibility has a positive impact
on Individual Perception. The results support the Hypothesis 2 (β= 0.041, t=
2.0650) but weak, yet significant correlation (r= 0.210, p= 0.00) between
traditional media and Individual Perception was found.
H3. Social Media Credibility has a positive relationship with Social Media
Preference.
Hypothesis 3 predicted the positive impacts of social credibility on social media
preference. The findings support Hypothesis 3 and significant results are indicated
(β= 0.203, t = 7.690). This indicates that preference toward social media usage is
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 132
increased by considering it more credible. The more media is credible the more
preference is found.
H4. Traditional Media Credibility has a positive relationship with Traditional
Media Preference.
The results of the study support Hypothesis 4 which indicate a positive
relationship between Traditional Media Credibility and Traditional Media
Preference and it is found significant (β= 0.735, t = 40.297). The traditional media
preference is found among those who consider traditional media credible. It
indicates credibility and preference both are correlated.
H5. Individual Perception mediates the relationship between Social Media
Credibility and Social Media Preference.
In Hypothesis 5 it is predicted that individual perception mediates the relationship
between social media credibility and social media preference. The results support
the hypothesis and found a significant relationship (β= 0.203, t = 7.690).
H6. Individual Perception mediates the relationship between Traditional Media
Credibility and Traditional Media Preference.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 133
The Hypothesis 6 predicted that individual perception mediates the relationship
between social media credibility and social media preference. The results support
the hypothesis (β= 0.735, t = 40.297).
H7. Social Media Usage moderates the relationship between Social Media
Credibility and Individual Perception.
Hypothesis 7 postulates that social media usage moderates the relationship
between Social Media Credibility and Individual Perception. The moderation
analysis results support the hypothesis that more usage of social media strengthens
the relationship between Social Media Credibility and Individual Perception.
H8. Traditional Media Usage moderates the relationship between Traditional
Media Credibility and Individual Perception.
Hypothesis 8 postulates that traditional media usage moderates the relationship
between Traditional Media Credibility and Individual Perception. The moderation
analysis results support the hypothesis that more usage of traditional media
strengthens the relationship between Traditional Media Credibility and Individual
Perception.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 134
H9. Gender moderates the relationship between Traditional Media Credibility
and Individual Perception.
The results of the moderating effects of gender as a moderator between
Traditional Media Credibility and Individual Perception are predicted in
Hypothesis 9. The results indicated that in male media users the relationship is
stronger than the female media users. It is seen that male β = .9594, t = 31.6157,
[.8999, 1.0189] and female β= .9227, t = 25.1277, [.8506, .9947] media users.
H10. Gender moderates the relationship between Traditional Media Credibility
and Individual Perception.
Gender as moderator was assumed in Hypothesis 10 which states relationship
between Traditional Media Credibility and Individual Perception and predicted
male has stronger relationship. The results support Hypothesis 10 and it is seen
that male media users (β = .2390, t = 6.7828), [0.1699, 0.3081] have a higher
individual perception than female media users (β= .1906, t = 4.272), [0.1031,
0.2781]. The findings show positive moderation between the relationship of
Traditional Media Credibility and Individual Perception.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 135
H11. Gender moderates the relationship between Individual Perception and
Traditional Media Preference.
Hypothesis 11 predicted that gender is a moderator between individual perception
and traditional media preference. The results found gender as a strong moderator
in the relationship between individual perception and media preference. The
results indicated, male β = 0.3152, t = 7.3283, [0.2308, 0.3996] and female β=
0.2801, t = 5.1874, [0.1742, 0.3861], that in comparison to male media users the
female media users have lower Individual Perception.
H12. Gender moderates the relationship between Individual Perception and
Traditional Media Preference.
Hypothesis 12 predicted that gender is a moderator between individual perception
and traditional media preference. The results found gender as a strong moderator
in the relationship between individual perception and media preference. It is seen
that for male β = 0.218, t = 5.2286, [0.1359, 0.2991] and female β= .185, t =
3.5371, [0. .0823, 0. 2871]. The results found a higher level of individual
perception in male media users than female media users. The results supported the
Hypothesis12.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 136
Summary of Research Objectives, Research Questions and their respective hypothesis Research Objectives Research Questions Research Hypothesis Status
1. To analyze the impact of Social What is the impact of Social H1. Social Media Credibility has a Supported media credibility and Traditional Media Credibility and Traditional positive relationship with Individual Media credibility on Individual Media Credibility on Individual Perception. Perceptions. Perceptions? H2. Traditional Media Credibility has a positive relationship with Individual Perception.
2. To analyze the impact of Social What is the impact of Social H3. Social Media Credibility has a Supported Media credibility on Social Media Media Credibility on Social Media positive relationship with Social Preference. Preference? Media Preference.
3. To analyze the impact of What is the impact of Traditional H4. Traditional Media Credibility has Supported Traditional Media credibility on Media Credibility on Traditional a positive relationship with Traditional Traditional Media Preference. Media Preference? Media Preference.
136
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 137
4. To investigate the mediating role Does an Individual perception H5. Individual Perception mediates the Supported of individual perception between mediate the relationship between relationship between Social Media the relationship of social media Social Media Credibility and Credibility and Social Media
credibility and social media Social Media Preference? Preference. Preference.
5. To investigate the mediating role Does an Individual perception H6. Individual Perception mediates the Not Supported of individual perception between mediate the relationship between relationship between Traditional the relationship of traditional Traditional Media Credibility and Media Credibility and Traditional media credibility and Traditional Traditional Media Preferences? Media Preference.
Media Preference.
6. To investigate the moderating role Does Social Media Usage H7. Social Media Usage moderates the Supported of SMU between the relationship moderate the relationship between relationship between Social Media of social media credibility and Social Media Credibility and Credibility and Individual Perception.
Individual Perceptions. Individual perceptions?
7. To investigate the moderating role Does Traditional Media Usage H8. Traditional Media Usage Supported of TMU between the relationship moderate the relationship between moderates the relationship between of traditional media credibility Traditional Media Credibility and Traditional Media Credibility and and individual perception. Individual perceptions? Individual Perception.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 138
8. To investigate the moderating role Do gender moderates the H9. Gender moderates the relationship Supported of Gender between the relationship relationship between Social Media between Social Media Credibility and of social media credibility and Credibility and Individual Individual Perception. individual Perceptions. Perceptions?
9. To investigate the moderating role Do gender moderates the H10. Gender moderates the Supported of Gender between the relationship between Traditional relationship between Traditional relationship of traditional media Media Credibility and Individual Media Credibility and Individual credibility and individual perceptions? Perception. perception.
10. To investigate the moderating role Do gender moderates the H11. Gender moderates the Supported of Gender between the relationship between Individual relationship between Individual relationship individual perception perceptions and Social Media Perception and Social Media and Social Media Preference. Preference? Preference
11. To investigate the moderating role Do gender moderates the H12. Gender moderates the Supported of Gender between the relationship between Individual relationship between Individual relationship Individual Perceptions and Traditional Media Perception and Traditional Media Perceptions and Traditional Preferences? Preference Media Preference
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 139
Research Question 1: What is the impact of Social Media Credibility and Traditional
Media Credibility on Individual perceptions?
Research Question 1 inquired social media credibility and traditional media credibility on individual perception. Two hypotheses 1 and 2 were developed to answer the research question 1. 1383 responses were collected from the respondents. Hypothesis 1 answered the first part of research questions and supported. The result of Hypothesis 1 show the social media credibility is (r = 0.736, p = 0.00) & (β= 0.933, t = 38.826) shows positive correlation however significant values show the weak correlation between social credibility on individual perception. Similarly Hypothesis 2 answered the second part of the research question and supported which is traditional media credibility on individual perception, the value of significance (r= 0.210, p= 0.00) & (β=
0.041, t = 2.0650) referred weak but positive correlation between traditional media credibility and individual perception.
Research Question 2: What is the impact of Social Media Credibility on Social Media
Preference?
Research Question 2 addressed social media credibility on social media preference.
Hypothesis 3 was build to answer the research question 2. 1383 responses were collected from the respondents. The result of Hypothesis 3 conceived relationship between social media credibility and social media preference. The significant values
(β= 0.203, t = 7.690) indicates positive impacts of social credibility on social media preference and support Hypothesis 3. Preference toward social media usage is increased it more credible by considering it. The more medium is credible the more preference is found.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 140
Research Question 3: What is the impact of Traditional Media Credibility on
Traditional Media Preferences?
The answer of Research Question 3 calculated traditional media credibility on traditional media preference. Hypothesis 4 was created to answer the research question
3. 1383 responses were collected from the respondents. The result of Hypothesis 4 expressed positive impact of traditional media credibility on traditional media preferences and it significance value is (β= 0.735, t = 40.297) which shows credibility and preference both are correlated and traditional media preference is found among those who consider traditional media credible.
Research Question 4: Does Individual perception mediates the relationship between
Social Media Credibility and Social Media Preference?
Research Question 4 inquired individual perception mediates the relationship between social media credibility and social media preferences. Hypothesis 5 addressed the relationship between social media credibility and social media preferences. 1383 responses were collected from the respondents. The results of the indirect effect of individual perception (β = 0.2269**) indicated that the mediating relationship does exist. It explains that social media credibility increases individual perception, which increases the preference of social media.
Research Question 5: Does Individual perception mediates the relationship between
Traditional Media Credibility and Traditional Media Preference?
Research Question 5 inquired individual perception mediates the relationship between traditional media credibility and traditional media preferences. Hypothesis 6 developed to answer the research question 5. 1383 respondents gave the response. The results of
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 141
the indirect effect of individual perception (β =0.0037**) indicated that the mediating relationship does exist. It explains that traditional media credibility increases individual perception, which increases the preference of traditional media.
Research Question 6: Does Social Media Usage moderate the relationship between
Social Media Credibility and Individual perceptions?
In order to answer research question 6, the hypothesis 7 was developed. The results of the data analysis showed that social media usage has a positive moderating effect between the relationship of social media credibility and individual perception. The findings indicate that with the increase in the usage of social media the relationship between the social media credibility and individual perception is enhanced.
Research Question 7: Does Traditional Media Usage moderates the relationship between Traditional Media Credibility and Individual perceptions?
In order to answer research question 7, the hypothesis 8 was developed. The results of the data analysis showed that traditional media usage has a positive moderating effect between the relationship of traditional media credibility and individual perception. The findings indicate that with the increase in the usage of traditional media the relationship between the traditional media credibility and individual perception is enhanced.
Research Question 8: Do gender moderates the relationship between Social Media
Credibility and Individual perceptions?
To answer the Research Question 8, hypothesis 9 was developed. The data analysis from 1383 respondents, predicts that as compared to female students, the male students have a stronger relationship of social media credibility and individual perception.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 142
Therefore, it is evident that when social media credibility is enhanced in male students, it leads to positive individual perception about the social media.
Research Question 9: Do gender moderates the relationship between Traditional
Media Credibility and Individual perceptions?
To answer the Research Question 9, hypothesis 10 was developed. The data analysis from 1383 respondents, predicts that as compared to female students, the male students have a stronger relationship of traditional media credibility and individual perception.
Therefore, it is evident that when traditional media credibility is enhanced in male students, it leads to positive individual perception about the social media.
Research Question 10: Do gender moderates the relationship between Individual perceptions and Social Media Preference?
To answer the Research Question 10, hypothesis 11 was developed. The data analysis from 1383 respondents, predicts that as compared to female students, the male students have a stronger relationship of individual perception and social media preference.
Therefore, it is evident that when individual perception is increased, the male students tend to show more social media preference.
Research Question 11: Do gender moderates the relationship between Individual perceptions and Traditional Media Preference?
To answer the Research Question 11, hypothesis 12 was developed. The data analysis from 1383 respondents, predicts that as compared to female students, the male students have a stronger relationship of individual perception and traditional media preference.
Therefore, it is evident that when individual perception is increased, the male students tend to show more traditional media preference.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 143
Chapter 05 Discussion and Conclusion
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 144
5. Discussion
The present study aims to document the ―Individual‘s perceptions about the credibility of social and traditional media and its impact on media preference in Pakistan‖ and adopted the survey techniques to record the responses of selected sample. Worldwide multiple studies were carried out to measure the credibility of traditional media
(Banning & Sweetser, 2007; Johnson & Kaye, 1998, 2009; Thorson, et al., 2010, Tsfati,
2011) and social media (Sabigan, 2007; Adeyanju, 2015; Kiousis, 2001; Xiao Hu,
2015) as well. The shift of approach found various determinant of credibility.
A major section of mass communication research and literature was dedicated to media credibility and findings of earlier conducted studies identified multiple factor which play their part and determine people‘s perception of media credibility. In perception of media credibility study, it is found that demographic variables determine and play a strong part in perception process. Metzger, Flanagin and McCann (2003) described that channel credibility research by Westley and Severin (1964) paved the way for future research and found age, education, and gender exert influence on media‘s perceived credibility. According to their study educational achievement was related with Media credibility.
Many researches were conducted to measure the credibility of different media channels such as traditional media which include TV, Newspaper and Radio and New media which include Website, Social Media, blogs etc. In the light of previous researches, the current study used the media credibility theory and Uses & Gratification approach to find out that how credibility leads toward gratification or vice versa. The gathered data and analysis uncovered multiple striking relationships between credibility and
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 145
gratification. Sometimes the time spend on media gratify the needs but doesn‘t build media credibility among users.
In this study, conducted in Pakistan, out of the sample of 1383, only social media users are 524 while 483 were traditional media users, whereas users of social and traditional media both are 376. The findings indicate a strong inclination towards social media usage in Pakistan. The trend of using social media in Pakistan is according to international statistics.
According to Pakistan Advertising Society report (2015) social media has transformed the communication patterns across the globe. In Pakistan more than 50% Facebook users fall between 18 years to 34 years of age and remaining majority is below 18 years of age. Karlsson, Clerwal and Nord (2014) explained that while using any social media site or new medium, age is an important variable and factor which shape attitude towards that medium and studies have reaffirm that media gained more credibility in young generation than old.
Young people nowadays in Pakistan use social media for multiple reason and one reason for using social media was to seek information, particularly for educational and proposes. But all the gain information through internet or new media is not credible.
Wathen and Burkell (2002) described that the criterion to filter accurate information and discard false information and believe a piece of information is credibility. The available information on social media spread easily without any check and monitoring mechanism, numerous studies have been conducted to see whether the credibility can influence the perceptions of social media users, and how credible they consider that medium and how its effect their media preferences?
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 146
Credibility ratings are often assigned to mainstream traditional media, have declined among youth as they are keener about new media. Despite the fact, a few studies found negative relationship between age and online media credibility (Johnson & Kaye,
2010), but since past researches found consistent the relationship between age and media credibility assessments, our study also found out those difference age groups in
Pakistan have different types of media credibility.
The results of the study also identify the gender differences in using social media in
Pakistan, 833 users are male and female respondents who use social media are 550.
Japan International Cooperation Agency Report (2012) highlights that 70% male and
30% female users of social media are found in Pakistan. The results of this study state that 60% are male users and 40% are female users of social media. It also indicates that using social media trend is still found higher in male as compare to female. Similarly the age group from 21-25 and 26-30 is found greater users of social media respectively.
With age, another factor which was explored by the mass communication research to determine media credibility was gender and found different media usage patterns in which male consider media less credible than women (Choi, Watt, & Lynch, 2006;
Andsager & Mastin, 2003; Flanagin and Metzger, 2003; Johnson et al. 2004, 2007)).
On apparent biases male perceived media less credible than women (Eveland and
Shah‘s, 2003), for political campaign women rated online campaign more credible than men (Johnson and Kaye, 2010). These gender different are more visible in male dominated or patriarchal societies as media time and space is also dominated by male and women are not given much time and space in mainstream media (Johnson & Kaye,
2004). The findings of the current study support the existing literature in this domain
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 147
and media perceived credibility was higher in male respondent, which indicate the social and family structure of Pakistani society i-e traditionally patriarchal, where women suffer gender discrimination at various situations (Salman, 2010). Therefore, it is speculated that unfavorable social condition of women in Pakistani society is related with media consumption routines and perceptions of media credibility. Male dominated media sphere leaves a less place and time for women and media promote status quo and gender stereotyping which results in adverse situation and negative association between gender and perceived media credibility is inferred.
In other demographic factors i-e education and location, respondent with 14 years of education or Graduate spend more time in using social media and respondents from
Karachi and Islamabad showed inclination toward social media more as compared to other cities.
These demographics indicate that in Pakistan the gradual adoption of social media for multiple purposes is increasing. The respondents from metropolitan cities, as they are blessed with all facilities, use social media more and gender differences in using social media are also diminishing with the progression of media in Pakistan. Since Pakistan is a developing country and new media is providing platform to diverse and remote publics to share and socialize.
The present study found that 582 respondents use social media for Hard News. The
Hard news is defined as current news, which comes under the cognitive needs category.
Cognitive needs are information seeking, gaining knowledge and keep oneself updated with latest happening. The findings of this study are consistent with Miller and
Kurpius, (2010) survey that hard news stories are more explored and credible than soft
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 148
news stories. Recently few incidents in Pakistan proved that traditional media depended on social media for latest news. Such as ISPR tweets many statement which later became headlines on traditional media, similarly political parties and politicians utilized social media (Facebook &Twitter) to announce agenda etc. traditional media now keep eye on social pages of political parties to get clue for news. As the sample of current study comprises on students and youngsters join social media page to get information about next move of their favorite political parties. Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaaf (PTI) used this strategy and gathered a huge crowd during protests and sit in. PTI chairman tweets messages to mobilize youth and this resulted in a big show for political purposes. 474 respondents use social media for soft news. The soft news can be anything like opinion, column, article, feature, etc and can be used for numerous purposes.
In online world, the ongoing interactivity undermine the separation of ―we‖ write and
―you‖ read belief of modern journalism Deuze (2003). Presenting news in enhanced capabilities on the internet but posting incorrect, misleading and false information has assaulted online news credibility (Lascia, 2002). A few studies expressed their concerns about online news quality (Hilligoss & Rieh, 2007) and found that the Internet less credible among youth in US than books and scholarly journals. The college students believe in newspaper than online medium (Metzger et al. 2003). Whereas The Pew
Research Center (2006) reported opposite results to previously few conducted studies and found internet more credible in young web users than the traditional media.
In the same way, the study conducted by Flanagin and Metzger (2000) reported that college students rated online information more credible, although they were less likely to verify the information they find online. Another study found positive attitude toward
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 149
online media (Kang, 2009). Credibility index declined in newspaper and television with the arrival of online media (Pew Research Center, 2009). 75% American web users consider E-papers, E-mag and political sites more credible than traditional media
(Johnson & Kaye, 2008).
The role of social media in dissemination of information is very crucial. The respondents (435) showed that they use social media for local news. They want to acquire information about their surroundings. Among news values ―Proximity‖ also advocates this point that people are more interested to know about their surroundings and area. The Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism (2016) report indicated that
Facebook and other social media platforms was a source of news for more than fifty percent online users. The report warned that embrace of free news has become a challenge for publishers of quality news where social media has emerged as a leading distributor of news among online users who increasingly access it on their smart phones. Although at one side, easy access is given but on the other side various version of same information is posted which affect the credibility of medium. In the digital era, free flow of information and easy availability of gadgets have changed the whole landscape of news circulation. In traditional media, a reporter covers the story and by following the news criterion, news is developed. Name of source or publisher is known to reader but on social media anonymous people post information and fake ID can easily be developed.
The results of the Pew Research Center in association with the John and James Knight
Foundation (2015) described Twitter and Facebook as a notable platform for news and event updates for their 63% users and further reiterated social media to provide that
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 150
information which is out of family or friend realm. This ratio of social media credibility and believability is gradually increasing.
That share has increased substantially from 2013, when about half of users (52% of
Twitter users, 47% of Facebook users) said they got news from the social platforms. It is not only the usage of social media for news but also social media has changed the way users consume the news. Further the social media play a pivotal role during crisis situation and disasters.
The majority of American adults indicated Internet as their preferred and reliable source of information in 2009 (Zogby, 2009). In crisis situation, people are more actively engaged in online activities, particularly inclined towards social media for latest information and news. During Japanese tsunami 2011, 5,500 tweets per second were recorded. The role of social media changed during crisis situation or disaster and people seek current information and expect immediate response from emergency managers or organizations.
The motivation of people for using social media varies with time and situation but medium also has impacts which may lead to its excessive usage or lessen consumption.
The motive to contribute in online community, gain benefits from others opinions, suggestions and comments, get the appreciation and to keep balance in over all life routine may result in media consumption (Goldsmith & Horowitz, 2006; Hennig-
Thurau, Gwinner, Walsh, & Gremler, 2004). The users also reported that they gain sense of fulfillment and convenient to seek information from blogs and social media, it also keep updated with the latest political happenings and help them to extend their political affiliation (Kaye, 2005).Apart from these motives, few incidents such as any
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 151
calamity or disaster directly influence the media consumption, during such crisis situation public need immediate and in-depth information (Bates & Callison, 2008; Pew
Internet & American Life Project, 2006; Sweetser & Metzgar, 2007).The research also had verified this fact that public remained more engaged in social media during disaster.
The current study also advocated and 321 respondents indicated that they use social media for news about Disaster & relief Activities.
As 474 respondents indicated their use of social media for soft news, it is further reinforced by the sample while opting social media for entertainment news.
Entertainment news is about showbiz, entertainment industry; human interest etc. people want to know about lives of showbiz celebrities and find stories according to their likes and aptitude. The social integration needs are socialization with friends, people and family. As youngsters are least interested in serious debate, they more talk about their favorite film, celebrity and TV show, therefore, through social media they get to know and share their own version of opinion. Helen (2011) pointed out this fact that more people are using the Internet as a source of entertainment instead of watching television or movies. The study revealed that in UK people use news media for entertainment than people in USA and further half of the respondent indicated social media is a form of entertainment. Another study conducted in China found between
2009 and 2010 time spent watching television decreased by 42% while time spent on the Internet rose almost 45% (Tan, 2011).
Individual perceptions regarding the credibility of social media and traditional media have been studied using several concepts, including social media gratification and traditional media gratification. It is assumed that the more users are gratified the more
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 152
credibility of the media is build among users or the more credible the media the more it gratify the users. Credibility in media research is defined as a variable attributed to communicators by recipients (Bentele, 1988: 410; Infante et al., 1993: 189). The medium can only consider as more or less credible if it is possible to verify it objectively. For the clarification of an attribute, Berlo et al. (1969) coined the term
‗dimension for evaluating message sources‘. In previous credibility research different reference objects on credibility were used. In a very famous Yale studies, in persuasion research, Hovland and colleagues combined diverse on credibility, such as they outlined media sources as channels, other times as authors of a message.
The findings of the current study exhibited social media credibility has weak but positive correlation (r= .235, p= 0.000) with individual perception. The social media credibility and individual perception are both positively correlated, as the definition of credibility varies from individual to individual. Table 4.6 shows quite interesting findings as the social media gratify more needs than traditional media (r= .736, p=
0.000) therefore social media is considered credibly source of information as well (r=
.235, p= 0.000). The usage of social media in Pakistan is generally high but it is mostly used for communication and socialization needs.
People gratify their social and affection needs and sometime for escapism and get rid of real life problems but hardly used for informational purposes. The current study yielded slightly mixed results for the social media in comparison with traditional media despite mushrooming trends of social media. So far, social media is widely and extensively used by organizations, government and public at large.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 153
The Hypothesis 1 that social media credibility has positive relationship with individual perception is supported as indicated. For Hypothesis 1 it is seen that 5.5 % of the variation (R2= 0.055, F = 80.57) in Individual Perception is being caused by Social
Media Credibility and model is fit for regression. The value of coefficient shows (β=
.183) that with one unit change in Social Media Credibility .183 units positively change in Individual Perception. The results of hypothesis testing are significant (t= 8.977, p =
0.00) that hypothesis is fully supported that social media credibility has positive impact on individual perception. When individuals consider a medium to be more credible than other media, they are also more likely to rely on that medium for information search and sharing than other media (Johnson & Kaye, 2008; Kiousis, 2001).
Therefore, credibility can be suggested as one of the key factors driving the traffic of individuals to organizations. Management of social media credibility can also be considered the priority for enhancing effectiveness of the entire communication management process. This study also advocated the notion of social media credibility among users. On the other side, the Hypothesis 2 is also supported by the findings.
Traditional media credibility and individual perception both are positively correlated.
Research on media credibility typically focuses on either the source or the medium
(Kiousis, 2001) of the media in question. The medium credibility perspective tends to examine perceptions of the medium through which a message is delivered. Research shows little difference between each medium except when reliance was considered a factor (Johnson & Fahmy, 2008). Research in Middle East media credibility also has examined the diversity or credentials of sources used in various traditional media while comparing them to perceptions of their online counterparts. In Egypt, for instance, evaluations of media credibility differ between reliance of online media versus
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 154
traditional media (Hamdy, 2013). Early studies on medium credibility found that broadcast media were rated highly than print media (Carter & Greenberg, 1965;
Gaziano & McGrath, 1986; Major & Atwood, 1997; Newhagen & Nass, 1989; Westley
& Severin, 1964). Subsequent analysis identified a different pattern in medium credibility as newspapers were perceived as more credible than television and the
Internet (Kiousis, 2001). In traditional media credibility research, comparison based research were conducted and while comparing media sources, domestic television media credibility was generally higher than international television media credibility. In fact, domestic television news was seen as the most credible in comparison to Internet credibility and the credibility of other forms of traditional news media (e.g., newspapers and magazines). One possible explanation for this is a general assumption that international news media portray Pakistan negatively in their coverage, creating distrust of those news outlets. Such sentiment has been noted in previous studies (El-Nawawy,
2006), which found that an international news media outlet‘s credibility depends on perceptions about its home country. Another explanation may be that information presented by the domestic television news source is perceived as more relevant to
Pakistani citizens than news from international television stations.
Hypothesis 3 and Hypothesis 4 respectively addressed the media gratification indicates higher gratification is sought by social media. The application of uses and gratifications theory to social media helps explain the many and varied reasons why consumers use and like social media. Commonly media gratify social and cognitive needs of people.
The findings of the current study advocate that the social media has the broadest niche on the gratification opportunities dimension, providing users satisfaction with more needs than any of the traditional media on this dimension.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 155
This study elaborates the effects of usage on individual perception and media credibility and it is seen that the frequency and duration of usage positive relationship with the media credibility and individual perception. The more time is spent on media the more it would be considered credible. The heavy users who spend more than 8 hours on using social media, titled it more credible. The Cultivation theory of mass communication
(Gerbner& Gross, 1976) advocates the notion that a heavy user perceives the media reality as social reality. Media use is undoubtedly the most fundamental factor in the cultivation theory, and it‘s means and technological development is evolving in a rapid pace. In addition, some scholars suggest that the perception of media credibility is also influenced by media use; specifically, people who often use a certain type of media will perceive the media as more credible than those who don‘t use it often (Cobbey, 1980;
Greenberg, 1966; Shaw, 1973). However, Wanta and Hu (1994) did not find a significant correlation between the amount of media use and credibility, but they found that medium dependency is related to credibility.
Another inference can be made that reduction in usage time would result in less credibility of social media. The individual perception of users is directly and positively related with the duration they use social media. Similarly, the gratification is also depending on the duration which is dedicated to social media as the Table indicates that the more time spend on social media the more gratification is obtained.
The finding exhibit the traditional media usage which support the hypothesis even the minimum exposure or usage of traditional media build the credibility among the users.
People perceive traditional media usage as way of assessing its credibility. Heavy users of traditional media have more perception about the credibility of traditional media;
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 156
therefore traditional media usage is positively related with traditional media credibility and individual perception. The majority of respondents judge online media and local news credible, while online candidate literature is perceived as not at all or not very credible. Traditionally-delivered media follow the same trend. This study, then, offers some support to polls that suggest the media are suffering from a crisis in credibility.
Some analysts suggest that "netizens" are generally distrustful and disconnected from the government and other major institutions." Indeed, studies of Internet users suggest that they are alienated from government. Thus, the low credibility scores may result, in part, because Internet users trust major institutions less than do the general public.
Respondents do not judge each media as equally credible. Past studies suggest that a medium's credibility is strongly related to the degree to which people rely on it. Indeed, in this study reliance is linked to credibility, particularly for traditional sources where all correlations are significant at the .001 level. However, correlations for online sources are weaker than for traditionally-delivered ones, even though users indicated they rely more on Internet sources and judge them as more credible than the traditional ones.
A study was conducted to check the factor which determine media reliance and described that credibility and consumption time both were strongly associated in media reliance. This study was consistent with previously traditional media reliance studies which indicated credibility had been strong factor than time spent on media. The reliance measures study (Rimmer & Weaver, 2005) examined the individual attitude toward media credibility and stated media use behavior taps. Media consumption time couldn‘t be linked with media credibility, as new media is at evolutionary stage therefore the judgments regarding the experience couldn‘t yield relationship between
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 157
media usage and credibility. The socioeconomic status of the traditional media male users was found very critical toward media and young population is developing more favorable aptitude for social media (Pew Research Center, 2015). In the same way, social media usage among youth was also found associated with income, education and status.
Results indicate that there is a positive relationship between perceived credibility and amount of time spent on social and traditional media. In the case of traditional media,
Lu and Anderson (2006) didn‘t find a significant relationship between perception of traditional media credibility and usage. The results of this study are also inconsistent with the findings of a study a conducted by Rimmer and Weaver (1987) that didn‘t find a relationship between media use and perception of media credibility. However the findings of this study support this idea that more time people spent on a medium, they gave to it more credibility (Lu & Andrews, 2006). Based on the findings of this study it can be noted that there is a positive relationship between issue salience and perceived credibility of social and traditional media. These findings were consistent with earlier work (Eastin, 2001; Gunther, 1992) on message credibility in both online and offline environment. Findings of another study conducted by Flanagin and Metzger (2007) also revealed that there is a positive relationship between issue salience and perception of message credibility. The results of current study explored that there is a positive relationship between reliance on social media to get news. The results presented here support the Johnson and Kaye (2000) assertion that reliance is an extremely important in credibility judgment of media, such as print media and television. However, the results of this study revealed that in the case of online media it can be also important in credibility judgment. Based on the results of the study, social media was rated more
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 158
credible than traditional media to convey news among students. When audiences perceived traditional media news program as more credible, then perhaps news viewing will increase. Rationally, this has implications for the ever increasing exciting and important international and local news. These results might be helpful to apply to overall information available from media.
The ―computer culture‖ as indicated by early studies was difficult for women to compete women in this culture and cope up the emerging challenges. Valenzuela,
(2008)found visible evidence and discriminating usage pattern and purposes among male and female. The findings reported that male used social media for more socialization and developing new relationship purposes but on the other side, female communicated to existing relations. But female spent more time on social media than male.
In present study gender as a moderator brought very vivid results in media credibility and gratification domain. The gender has the influence on perception and further individual perception of users based on gender affect the gratification and credibility approach. Male consider social media more credible and their usage is higher than female which leads toward more gratification. Although the difference is not too wide but almost the results indicate the same trends in male and female. The results of the moderating effects of gender between Social media credibility and individual perception show that male β= 0.1852, t = 7.79, [.1348, .2355] and female β= 0.1781, t =
5.3158, [.1124, .2438]. The slight difference emphasizes the growing trends of social media in Pakistan where gender difference is diminishing gradually.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 159
The study further reiterate that male perceive social media more as gratification source in comparison with female users. In usage of social networking site usage and preference gender difference is apparent but in both gender Facebook was always observed most popular and widely used (Pempek, 2009).
The opportunity to develop online profile for friendship and relationship resulted in
Facebook excessive use among youth (Mango et al., 2008). It was also reported that girls as compared to boys were actively engaged in social media and spent more time
(Burke, 2010). Difference in social networking sites resulted in segregation of their users, such as male dominated entertainment based social sites in US (Kraut &
Crawford, 2012). But these gender differences shifted over time and in United Kingdom the boys used computer comfortably more than girls (Liu, 2013). But all these studies reiterated the fact that both genders are using new media for information and communication. Chatting through messenger was found most common activity among
American middle and high school students (Gross, 2014).
Gender as a moderator influences the individual perception is indicated, although only
550 female respondents participated in the study but the difference in usage and credibility is not too wide.
The earlier media credibility studies found out multiple issues such as characteristics and behavior of users and their demographics which include age, gender, ethnicity and income (Bucy, 2003); reliance of users on online information, (Johnson & Kaye, 2000,
2002); verification of online users behavior (Flanagin & Metzger, 2000; Rosenthal,
1971); the relationship between users‘ experiences and their perception of online
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 160
information credibility (Flanagin & Metzger, 2000; 2007); and the effects of users‘ motivations toward certain media and types of information (Mulder, 1980).
5.1 Media Preference:
Media preference as a term is often defined as how people discuss and use different forms of media for multiple reasons.
David and Timothy (2015) describes people prefer media on the basis of information which is transmitted and individual differences play an important role in the preferences for any particular media. Their study advocated gender a more significant factor for media preference than age.
With the passage of time, media organization developed and new form of communication channels emerged which transformed the whole process of communication, particularly the arrival of internet and new media revolutionized the concept of communication. Similarly in Pakistan, after the 2000, private channels and later development in information communication system, easy availability of smartphones and acceleration of social media, people shifted their interest from traditional media to social media. Now the time has gone, when only one channel, PTV was sole source of information, but now people have multiple options to verify the information and to access actual information. Gradual inclination towards social media, also established the credibility of social media over traditional media, although the source is sometime anonymous.
This study also looked into the factor that how use of media resulted in media preference among students either social media or traditional media.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 161
Depending largely on the uses and gratification perception, which encompasses the fact that some audience gives preference to a medium of communication among the various media (McQuail, 1987). The reason for this medium preference media usage as (Katz,
1974) indicated social and psychological needs. The media users are not passive but rather active recipient of messages (Blumber, 1979). The approach infers active role of receiver and media users, possessing particular knowledge about their needs and know the process of fulfilling their needs (Reeves, 1979).
The needs and gratification vary from individual to individual and media preference is based on individual perception regarding the medium and level of usage. This study found the media preference among student either they opt social media or traditional media as source of information and what level of credibility is attached to each media.
Goh (2013) conducted a survey and found that youth prefer social media as they perceive social media easy to use and easily accessible media. Wilson, (2012) in the study based on participants of Egypt‘s Tahrir Square protests, revealed social media in general, and Facebook in particular, as new but strong source of information and shaped their decisions about participating in protests and proved it a success. They concluded that use of Facebook was influential and crucial factor in decision making. This indicates the inclination towards social media and shift of preferences among media users. In social media preference, different social networking sites have different level of preference, as indicated by Pew Research Center (2015) more preference is given to
Facebook, as it is easy and most popular among youth. The comparison study between national and international students to seek their social media preference was conducted
(Saw, 2013) and found wide range of similar interest such as building online communities for educational and exchange of information. In both categories, Facebook
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 162
was found choice of most of the students and other social networking sites i-e Twitter and YouTube were considered online libraries to engage national and international students.
The previous studies have confirmed that news consumers are more likely to pay attention to, and become dependent on, media they perceive as credible (Bucy, 2003;
Choi, Watt, & Lynch, 2006). The findings of prior research also found that credibility is essential for users to choose and give preference to source (Choi, Watt, & Lynch,
2006); the results of present study confirm this argument higher credibility perceptions were positively associated with preference for a particular medium. Choi, Watt, and
Lynch (2006) explored that preference for a particular medium often led to an increase in the frequency of exposure to that medium. The respondents of current showed that they spent most of their time on social media, which indicate their preference.
Pakistani students were found to spend most of their time on the online media, which was main source of information for them. Among the online media at their disposal, social media were used for local and national news, in type of news, mostly they tend to use social media for hard news.
The social media were most used and perceived more credible over traditional media, as traditional media are influenced by external factors, young adults tended to rely on online media sources, which were perceived to be less constrained by regulations and allow a free expression of comments and opinion. This freedom of expression on social media attracted youngsters and social media replaced traditional media in their lives.
Gender is another factor which influences the media preference. In social networking sites, Google remained dominated by its male users and female indicated their likeliness
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 163
more for Pinterest and Twitter. Similarly Reddit was found more popular among
American men due to its content. Although both gender spend their much of time on social media and usage is gradually increasing. The reasons of using social media among teenager and youngster was documented by Pew Internet and American Life project (2010) which identified that building online communities, developing and strengthening relationship for personal and business as major reasons.
The rapid interactivity and easy accessibility lead towards unleashed acceptability among youth. This resulted in adoption of social media by serious organizations like educational institutions, hospitals, political parties etc. The application of social media for learning purposes was observed (Virkus, 2008) and found that academic institutions were creating online communities and joining relevant group as social media was considered an innovative and supportive to formal and informal learning environment.
Further the targeting population of these institutions that is youth had shifted their interest from traditional media to social media and the rapid communication channels such as Facebook, Twitter, Whatsapp and mobile SMS were found more convenient to interact with them and generate feedback (Jadhav, Bhutkar, & Mehta, 2013).
The individual choices theory further elaborates and reinforces the individual choices and preference for selection of any medium or commodity. The decision making process is influenced by any factors some intrinsic and some extrinsic.
To measure the order of preference for any media, the current study found more social media preference than traditional media. This correlates with the credibility factor, if the more credible medium is, it would be more preferred.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 164
This study documented some interesting results and found excessive usage of social media among students, according to their perception, social media is more credible than traditional media therefore they prefer using social media for informational and communication purposes. They believe what social media convey to them. The results of this study are synchronized with Raacke & Bonds-Raacke (2008) and Bonds-Raacke and Raacke (2010).
5.2 Conclusion
The purpose of this exploratory study was to examine the individual perception of about credibility of traditional and social media and their preferences for the media. The gender and usage as moderated showed a significant in predicting media credibility and preference. The research concluded those users who were more exposed to media had a higher preference for media credibility and preferences. Male tend to have a higher preference for media than female.
This study explored the perceptions of the people about the credibility of social and traditional media in Pakistan. Since the mushroomed growth of traditional media particularly the speedy expansion of private news channels and the matching penetration of social media mainly Facebook and Twitter in Pakistan, the credibility of both the medium remained debatable. Interestingly as the usage of the media increases same the gradual credibility is increasing. The first moderator of the current study
―gender‖ brought some interesting finding. Although the ratio of usage is not higher but individual perception of male media users was found more significant. Usage was the second moderator which further indicated that higher the usage, more the credibility is established among the users. More the usage more the medium was considered
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 165
credible. In the same way, this credibility leads toward media preference. The study asserted that media credibility is strongly linked to the daily use of it. In the current study, participants advocated social media more credible and more social media preference was found.
The comparison between traditional media credibility and social media credibility strongly show the non-stop growth of social media in Pakistan which further established the preference among users. The preference is based on two factors; one is usage and second is credibility. Easy access of social media to people made it first choice and traditional media users also shifted towards social media. Various incidents have shown that social media took the lead and traditional media followed the social media.
Some news characteristics also resulted in social media credibility and preference, such as every region or city created their pages which keep the users updated with all latest happenings and news. The results of the current study also emphasized on this notion that people are more interested in local news rather than national or international news.
The usage of media increases if like disaster occurs. Another element which contributed in more usage of social media is human interest and curiosity. Showbiz and sports personalities created their profile on social media which bring fans closers to their celebrities. Therefore entertainment news is more explored on social media. The findings showed increasing preference for social media which can be due to numerous reasons such as easy accessibility and 24/7 availability. The notion of freedom of expression reiterated the social media credibility and preference.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 166
5.3 Limitation of the Study
The current study generated very important findings in mass communication research particularly related with media credibility, although much was left and could not be included in the study due to certain limitations and what are the other elements that effect credibility of media and do those factors have any positive influence in the preference of media.
However, the current research has yielded some preliminary findings although research design did not exempt flaws. Few shortcoming and flaws were noted regarding the present study.
The main limitations are expressed as follows: the first limitation selection of sample
that only based on university students and selected cities. To make it more significant
and reliable, a huge number of samples can be selected. As far selected factors and
variables are concerned, Uses and Gratification was limited to usage, further elements
of Uses and Gratification like social and affection, need to escape negative feelings,
recognition and entertainment are not included
It is not within the scope of this paper to provide an extended discussion of the ongoing debates on media credibility. Factors of social media credibility in Pakistan were not according to international trends. Although use of social media is significantly increasing but credibility and false use of social media is found in great use. Future research would have been more convincing if the researchers have related more factors to credibility of social and traditional media in Pakistan to expand variables and constituents of credibility of media.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan 167
Further the study was limited to metropolitan cities and rural areas were not part of study. According to Statista (2017) penetration of social media in rural area is equal to trends found in major cities; therefore future researchers can bring variation in demographics to validate results and findings.
5.4 Future Research
The findings of the study suggests shift of media credibility from traditional to social media as new media research already had documented the various factors which influenced the social media credibility. The future research can expand sample and include rural areas of the country to establish its reliability and validity. The theoretical framework can be stretched to categories of Uses and Gratification theory like accessibility, mobility, relaxation, escape, entertainment, coordination for business, socialization and status seeking instead keeping it limited till usage and hours spend on social or traditional media. The individual preference for media are measured only on the basis of perception but other factors such as how gratification lead towards preferences and what elements of gratification result in preference for particular media.
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan xvi
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Appendixes
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FOR OFFICE USE ONLY
Beaconhouse National University Lahore, Pakistan
Department of Mass Communication, Tarogil Campus, 13-km Raiwind Road, Lahore, Pakistan
Credibility of Social and Traditional Media
We would like your help in this study which deals with Credibility of Social and Traditional Media in Pakistan.
If for any reason you feel that you are unable to answer the asked questions, please feel free to return the unanswered questionnaire. Thank you for your assistance
This study aims to investigate the relationship of credibility between social and traditional Media in Pakistan. This survey consists of a single relatively simple questionnaire which is attached. We estimate it will take 10-15 minutes to complete in most circumstances. We realize that your time is very scarce resource and would like to appreciate your cooperation for the completion of this study. We assure you that neither your name nor the name of your organization will be revealed in reporting the findings of this research. Your responses will remain strictly confidential and will not be used for anywhere other than his study. If you have any question or concerns regarding this matter, please call the undersigned. Thank you for your attention and your cooperation. Yours Sincerely,
Wajid Zulqarnain Prof. Dr. Taimur ul Hassan Doctoral Candidate Coordinator: PhD Program [email protected] 092-333-4302615 1
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Before you begin, please take few moments to read the following terms:
Traditional Media: Traditional means of communication and expression that have existed since before the advent of the new medium of the Internet. Industries that are generally considered part of the old media are broadcast and cable television, radio, movie and music studios, newspapers, magazines, books and most print publications.
Social Media: Social media are computer-mediated tools that allow people to create, share or exchange information, ideas, and pictures/videos in virtual communities and networks. Social media is defined as "a group of Internet-based applications that build on the ideological and technological foundations of Web 2.0, and that allow the creation and exchange of user-generated content such as Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, Instagram, Google Plus, LinkedIn etc.
Credibility: Media credibility is defined as, perceptions of a news channel's believability, as distinct from individual sources, media organizations, or the content of the news itself.
Soft news: News that deals with topics or events that are lighthearted or not serious.
Hard news: News or investigative journalism that deals with serious topics and events.
Medium Gratification: The Medium which makes a person feel self confident, pleasure seeking and empowered by its usage.
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DEMOGRAPHICS /USAGE
Please provide your answer by using the tick () mark.
Male
1. Gender Female
16-20
21-25
2. Age (In Years) 26-30
31-35
36 & above
12 years
3. Education (completed in years) 14 years graduation
16 years
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18 and above years
Islamabad
Lahore
Karachi
4. University Location Quetta
Peshawar
Muzafarabad
Gilgit Baltistan
Social
5. Which Media do you use/watch? Traditional
Social and Traditional
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Soft news
6. I use social media for: Hard news
Both hard and soft news
Soft news
7. I use traditional media for: Hard news
Both hard and soft news
Local News
National News
International News 8. I use social and traditional media for
Disaster & relief Activities News
Entertainment News
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9. Which is your primary source of news in social media? LinkedIn
YouTube
others
TV
Newspaper
10. Which is your primary source of news in traditional media? Radio
Magazine
others
Less than 1 year 11. Social Media Use (Years)
1-2 years
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2-3 years
3-4 years
4 or above years
Less than 1 year
1-2 years
2-3 years 12. Traditional Media Use (Years)
3-4 years
4 or above years
Less than 2 hours
13. Social Media Usage (per day). 2-4 hours
4 or more hours
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To what extent do you agree or disagree with the statements given below. Please answer each question by using the tick () mark between the range of 1 to 5. The given scale represents the following values: . Strongly Disagree (SD) 1 . Disagree (D) 2 . Neutral (N) 3 . Agree (A) 4 . Strongly Agree (SA) 5
16-A: News on social media is believable.
1) Strongly Disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) Strongly Agree
16-B: Social media gives the accurate news.
1) Strongly Disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) 6) Strongly Agree
16-C: Social media play fair in its information flow.
1) Strongly Disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) Strongly Agree
16-D: News on social media is informative.
1) Strongly Disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) Strongly Agree
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16-E: News on social media is comprehensive and in-depth
1) Strongly Disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) Strongly Agree
17-A: News on Traditional media is believable.
1) Strongly Disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) Strongly Agree
17-B: Traditional media gives the accurate news.
1) Strongly Disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) Strongly Agree
17-C: Traditional media play fair in its information flow.
1) Strongly Disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) Strongly Agree
17-D: News on Traditional media is informative.
1) Strongly Disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) Strongly Agree
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17-E: News on Traditional media is comprehensive and in-depth
1) Strongly Disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) Strongly Agree
18-A Media reveal things that are wrong within society 1) Strongly Disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) Strongly Agree
18-B Media are a means of promoting economic interests
1) Strongly Disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) Strongly Agree
18-C Media are a means of promoting political interests
1) Strongly Disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) Strongly Agree
18-D Media help people become better informed and educated
1) Strongly Disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) Strongly Agree
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18-E Media stimulate consumerism
1) Strongly Disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) Strongly Agree
18-F Media contribute to the increase of intolerance in society
1) Strongly Disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) Strongly Agree
18-G Media contribute to the increase of violence in society 1) Strongly Disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) Strongly Agree
19-A: News on social media are trustworthy
1) Strongly Disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) Strongly Agree
19-B:New on social media are shareable
1) Strongly Disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) Strongly Agree
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19-C:I use social media to be recognized by the society
1) Strongly Disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) Strongly Agree
19-D:I use social media to read about famous personality
1) Strongly Disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) Strongly Agree
19-E: I use social media to see the different pictures
1) Strongly Disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) Strongly Agree
19-F: I use social media to see the different videos
1) Strongly Disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) Strongly Agree
19-G: I use social media as it affects my personality
1) Strongly Disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) Strongly Agree
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19-H: I use social media for interactive conversations
1) Strongly Disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) Strongly Agree
20-A: News on traditional media are trustworthy
1) Strongly Disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) Strongly Agree
20-B: New on traditional media are shareable
1) Strongly Disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) Strongly Agree
20-C: I use traditional media to be recognized by the society
1) Strongly Disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) Strongly Agree
20-D: I use traditional media to read about famous personality
1) Strongly Disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) Strongly Agree
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20-E: I use traditional media to see the different pictures
1) Strongly Disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) Strongly Agree
20-F: I use traditional media to see the different videos
1) Strongly Disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) Strongly Agree
20-G: I use traditional media as it affects my personality
1) Strongly Disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) Strongly Agree
20-H: I use traditional media for interactive conversations
1) Strongly Disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) Strongly Agree
THANKS FOR YOUR COOPERATION
List of Channels
S.No Channel Name Genre Language Category
1 8XM Music Urdu National 2 A Plus Entertainment Urdu National 3 Aag TV Youth Urdu National 4 Aaj News News Urdu National 5 Ahlebait TV Religious Urdu National Kashmiri/ 6 AJK TV Entertainment Pothohari Regional 7 AKS TV Entertainment Urdu National 8 ALite Miscellaneous Urdu National 9 Ameen TV Miscellaneous Urdu National International 10 Animax Pakistan Entertainment English Pakistani Channels 11 Apna Channel Entertainment Punjabi Regional 12 APNA News News Urdu National 13 Apna News News Punjabi Regional 14 ARY Digital Entertainment Urdu National 15 ARY Musik Music Urdu National 16 ARY News News Urdu National 17 ARY QTV Religious Urdu National 18 ARY Zauq Food Urdu National Community 19 Asset Plus Television Urdu National 20 ATV Entertainment Urdu National 21 AVT Khyber Entertainment Pashto Regional 22 Awaz News News Urdu National International 23 ZindagiMoviesTV Entertainment English Pakistani Channels 24 Awaz TV Entertainment Sindhi Regional International 25 AXN Pakistan Entertainment English Pakistani Channels
S.No Channel Name Genre Language Category
26 Azan TV Religious Urdu National BBC World News International 27 South Asia News English Pakistani Channels 28 Business Plus Business Urdu National Cartoon Network International 29 Pakistan Children English Pakistani Channels 30 Chalta TV Miscellaneous Urdu National 31 Channel 5 News Urdu National 32 City 42 Metropolitan Urdu National 33 CNBC News News Urdu National International 34 CNBC Pakistan News English Pakistani Channels CNN International International 35 South Asia News English Pakistani Channels Overseas 36 DAM TV Entertainment Urdu Pakistanis 37 Dawn News News Urdu National 38 Dharti TV Network Entertainment Sindhi Regional 39 Dhoom TV Entertainment Urdu National 40 Din News News Urdu National International 41 DM Digital Entertainment English Pakistani Channels 42 Dunya News News Urdu National 43 E Pakistan News News Urdu National International 44 ESPN Pakistan Sports English Pakistani Channels 45 Express 24/7 News English National 46 Express News News Urdu National Express 47 Entertainment Entertainment Urdu National 48 Film World Movies Urdu National 49 Filmax Movies English National 50 Filmazia Movies Urdu National
S.No Channel Name Genre Language Category
Lifestyle and International 51 FTV Pakistan Fashion English Pakistani Channels 52 Fun TV Metropolitan Urdu National 53 Fun TV Miscellaneous Urdu National 54 G Kaboom Music Urdu National 55 Geo News News Urdu National 56 Geo Super Sports Urdu National 57 Geo TV Entertainment Urdu National 58 Good News TV Miscellaneous Urdu National 59 Hadi TV Religious Urdu National HakimjansRahi 60 News News Sindhi Regional 61 HaqTv Religious Urdu National 62 Hazara TV Entertainment Hindko Regional International 63 HBO Pakistan Entertainment English Pakistani Channels 64 Health TV Miscellaneous Urdu National 65 Hidayat TV Religious Urdu National 66 Hum TV Entertainment Urdu National Lifestyle and 67 Index TV Fashion Urdu National 68 Indus Music Music Urdu National 69 Indus News News Urdu National 70 Indus Vision Entertainment Urdu National 71 Info TV Miscellaneous Urdu National International 72 IRA News News English Pakistani Channels International 73 IRA Urdu News English Pakistani Channels 74 Isaac Tv Religious Urdu National 75 Kashish TV Entertainment Sindhi Regional 76 Kashish TV Music Urdu National
S.No Channel Name Genre Language Category
77 Kay2 TV Youth Urdu National 78 Khyber News News Pashto Regional 79 Kohenoor TV Miscellaneous Urdu National 80 Kook TV Miscellaneous Saraiki Regional 81 KTN Entertainment Sindhi Regional 82 KTN News News Sindhi Regional 83 Labbaik TV Religious Urdu National 84 Madani Channel Religious Urdu National Mahboob Television 85 Network (MTN) Miscellaneous Urdu National 86 Masala TV Food Urdu National Overseas 87 Mashriq TV Entertainment Urdu Pakistanis 88 Mehran TV Entertainment Sindhi Regional 89 Metro One Metropolitan Urdu National 90 Metro41 TV Metropolitan Sindhi Regional Minhaj TV Internet 91 Streaming Only Religious Urdu National 92 MTV Pakistan Music Urdu National International 93 MTV Pakistan Music English Pakistani Channels 94 Music Station Miscellaneous Urdu National 95 News One News Urdu National Nickelodeon International 96 Pakistan Children English Pakistani Channels 97 Noor TV Miscellaneous Urdu National 98 Oxygene Music Urdu National 99 Oye TV Music Urdu National 100 Oye TV Youth Urdu National Pakistan Net TV Internet Streaming Overseas 101 Only Entertainment Urdu Pakistanis
S.No Channel Name Genre Language Category
Panjnad Television 102 Network Entertainment Saraiki Regional 103 Play TV Music Urdu National Kashmiri/Pothohar 104 Pothwari TV Entertainment i/Pahari Regional Overseas 105 Prime TV Entertainment Urdu Pakistanis 106 PTV Bolan Entertainment Balochi Regional Overseas 107 PTV Global Entertainment Urdu Pakistanis 108 PTV Home Entertainment Urdu National 109 PTV National Entertainment Urdu National 110 PTV News News Urdu National Overseas 111 Punjab TV Entertainment Punjabi Pakistanis 112 Punjab TV Entertainment Punjabi Regional Punjabi TV (UK Overseas 113 &USA) Entertainment Punjabi Pakistanis 114 Raah TV Miscellaneous Urdu National 115 R World Miscellaneous Urdu National 116 Rohi TV Miscellaneous Saraiki Regional 117 Roshni TV Miscellaneous Urdu National 118 Royal News News Urdu National 119 Rung TV Miscellaneous Urdu National 120 SabzBaat TV Entertainment Balochi Regional 120 SAMAA TV News Urdu National 121 Shamal TV Entertainment Hindko Regional 122 Silver Screen Movies Urdu National 123 Sindh TV Entertainment Sindhi Regional 124 Sindh TV News News Sindhi Regional 125 SohniDharti Agriculture Urdu National 126 Starlite Movies Urdu National
S.No Channel Name Genre Language Category
Lifestyle and 127 Style 360 Fashion Urdu National Lifestyle and International 128 Style 360 Fashion English Pakistani Channels 129 Such TV News Urdu National 130 Sujawal TV Entertainment Sindhi Regional 131 Sun Biz Miscellaneous Urdu National International 132 Ten Sports Sports English Pakistani Channels 133 Today News Miscellaneous Urdu National 134 Tv2day Miscellaneous Urdu National 135 TVOne Global Entertainment Urdu National 136 Ujala TV Education Urdu National 137 Value TV Miscellaneous Urdu National Overseas 138 Venus TV Entertainment Urdu Pakistanis International 139 VH1 Pakistan Music English Pakistani Channels Lifestyle and 140 Vibe TV Fashion Urdu National 141 Virtual Television Education Urdu National 142 VSH News News Balochi Regional 143 Waajh TV Entertainment Balochi Regional 144 Waqt News News Urdu National 145 Waseeb TV Entertainment Saraiki Regional WB Channel International 146 Pakistan Entertainment English Pakistani Channels 147 ZindagiMUSIC Food Urdu National Zindagicinema 148 TV Network Miscellaneous Urdu National ZINDAGI NEWS 149 Television Entertainment Urdu National
Model = 1 Y = IP X = SMC M = SMU
Sample size 1383
********************************************************************** **** Outcome: IP
Model Summary R R-sq MSE F df1 df2 p .2349 .0552 .2370 26.8345 3.0000 1379.0000 .0000
Model coeff se t p LLCI ULCI constant 3.3285 .3270 10.1776 .0000 2.6870 3.9701 SMU .0063 .1235 .0510 .9593 -.2360 .2487 SMC .1889 .0799 2.3632 .0183 .0321 .3458 int_1 -.0024 .0302 -.0806 .9357 -.0617 .0568
Interactions:
int_1 SMC X SMU
R-square increase due to interaction(s): R2-chng F df1 df2 p int_1 .0000 .0065 1.0000 1379.0000 .9357
********************************************************************** ***
Conditional effect of X on Y at values of the moderator(s): SMU Effect se t p LLCI ULCI 1.8949 .1843 .0286 6.4442 .0000 .1282 .2404 2.5676 .1827 .0204 8.9685 .0000 .1427 .2226 3.0000 .1816 .0243 7.4673 .0000 .1339 .2293
Model = 1 Y = IP X = SMG M = SMU
Sample size 1383
********************************************************************** **** Outcome: IP
Model Summary R R-sq MSE F df1 df2 p .7361 .5419 .1149 543.6479 3.0000 1379.0000 .0000
Model coeff se t p LLCI ULCI constant .4660 .3744 1.2447 .2134 -.2684 1.2003 SMU -.0583 .1413 -.4124 .6801 -.3356 .2190 SMG .9071 .0932 9.7364 .0000 .7243 1.0899 int_1 .0147 .0352 .4169 .6768 -.0543 .0837
Interactions:
int_1 SMG X SMU
R-square increase due to interaction(s): R2-chng F df1 df2 p int_1 .0001 .1738 1.0000 1379.0000 .6768
********************************************************************** ***
Conditional effect of X on Y at values of the moderator(s): SMU Effect se t p LLCI ULCI 1.8949 .9349 .0332 28.1847 .0000 .8698 1.0000 2.5676 .9448 .0234 40.3837 .0000 .8989 .9907 3.0000 .9511 .0280 33.9819 .0000 .8962 1.0060
Model = 1 Y = IP X = TMC M = TMU
Sample size 1383
********************************************************************** **** Outcome: IP
Model Summary R R-sq MSE F df1 df2 p .1725 .0298 .2434 14.0974 3.0000 1379.0000 .0000
Model coeff se t p LLCI ULCI constant 3.6990 .2067 17.8947 .0000 3.2935 4.1045 TMU -.0755 .1019 -.7413 .4586 -.2753 .1243 TMC .1098 .0526 2.0863 .0371 .0066 .2130 int_1 .0136 .0261 .5199 .6032 -.0376 .0647
Interactions:
int_1 TMC X TMU
R-square increase due to interaction(s): R2-chng F df1 df2 p int_1 .0002 .2703 1.0000 1379.0000 .6032
********************************************************************** ***
Conditional effect of X on Y at values of the moderator(s): TMU Effect se t p LLCI ULCI 1.0000 .1233 .0308 4.0057 .0001 .0629 .1837 1.7346 .1333 .0219 6.0986 .0000 .0904 .1761 2.5705 .1446 .0289 5.0025 .0000 .0879 .2013
Values for quantitative moderators are the mean and plus/minus one SD from mean. Values for dichotomous moderators are the two values of the moderator.
NOTE: For at least one moderator in the conditional effects table above, one SD below the mean was replaced with the minimum because one SD below the mean
is outside of the range of the data.
******************** ANALYSIS NOTES AND WARNINGS *************************
Level of confidence for all confidence intervals in output: 95.00
------END MATRIX -----
Run MATRIX procedure:
***************** PROCESS Procedure for SPSS Release 2.13 ***************
Written by Andrew F. Hayes, Ph.D. www.afhayes.com Documentation available in Hayes (2013). www.guilford.com/p/hayes3
********************************************************************** **** Model = 1 Y = IP X = TMG M = TMU
Sample size 1383
********************************************************************** **** Outcome: IP
Model Summary R R-sq MSE F df1 df2 p .2157 .0465 .2392 22.4296 3.0000 1379.0000 .0000
Model coeff se t p LLCI ULCI constant 3.3352 .2606 12.7999 .0000 2.8240 3.8463 TMU -.0620 .1301 -.4768 .6336 -.3173 .1932 TMG .2047 .0664 3.0814 .0021 .0744 .3350 int_1 .0086 .0332 .2603 .7947 -.0564 .0737
Interactions:
int_1 TMG X TMU
R-square increase due to interaction(s): R2-chng F df1 df2 p
int_1 .0000 .0677 1.0000 1379.0000 .7947
********************************************************************** ***
Conditional effect of X on Y at values of the moderator(s): TMU Effect se t p LLCI ULCI 1.0000 .2133 .0388 5.4985 .0000 .1372 .2894 1.7346 .2197 .0278 7.9110 .0000 .1652 .2741 2.5705 .2269 .0371 6.1080 .0000 .1540 .2997
Values for quantitative moderators are the mean and plus/minus one SD from mean. Values for dichotomous moderators are the two values of the moderator.
NOTE: For at least one moderator in the conditional effects table above, one SD below the mean was replaced with the minimum because one SD below the mean is outside of the range of the data.
******************** ANALYSIS NOTES AND WARNINGS *************************
Level of confidence for all confidence intervals in output: 95.00
------END MATRIX -----
Run MATRIX procedure:
***************** PROCESS Procedure for SPSS Release 2.13 ***************
Written by Andrew F. Hayes, Ph.D. www.afhayes.com Documentation available in Hayes (2013). www.guilford.com/p/hayes3
********************************************************************** **** Model = 1 Y = IP X = SMC M = Gender
Sample size 1383
********************************************************************** **** Outcome: IP
Model Summary R R-sq MSE F df1 df2 p .2356 .0555 .2369 27.0236 3.0000 1379.0000 .0000
Model coeff se t p LLCI ULCI constant 3.2785 .2501 13.1067 .0000 2.7878 3.7692 Gender .0484 .1724 .2807 .7790 -.2898 .3865 SMC .1922 .0613 3.1377 .0017 .0721 .3124 int_1 -.0071 .0422 -.1679 .8667 -.0898 .0757
Interactions:
int_1 SMC X Gender
R-square increase due to interaction(s): R2-chng F df1 df2 p int_1 .0000 .0282 1.0000 1379.0000 .8667
********************************************************************** ***
Conditional effect of X on Y at values of the moderator(s): Gender Effect se t p LLCI ULCI 1.0000 .1852 .0256 7.2189 .0000 .1348 .2355 2.0000 .1781 .0335 5.3158 .0000 .1124 .2438
Model = 1 Y = IP X = SMG M = Gender
Sample size 1383
********************************************************************** **** Outcome: IP
Model Summary R R-sq MSE F df1 df2 p .7363 .5421 .1149 544.1345 3.0000 1379.0000 .0000
Model coeff se t p LLCI ULCI constant .0984 .2839 .3467 .7289 -.4585 .6554 Gender .1559 .1909 .8165 .4143 -.2186 .5303 SMG .9962 .0709 14.0434 .0000 .8570 1.1353 int_1 -.0368 .0476 -.7716 .4405 -.1302 .0567
Interactions:
int_1 SMG X Gender
R-square increase due to interaction(s): R2-chng F df1 df2 p int_1 .0002 .5954 1.0000 1379.0000 .4405
********************************************************************** ***
Conditional effect of X on Y at values of the moderator(s): Gender Effect se t p LLCI ULCI 1.0000 .9594 .0303 31.6157 .0000 .8999 1.0189 2.0000 .9227 .0367 25.1277 .0000 .8506 .9947
Model = 1 Y = IP X = TMC M = Gender
Sample size 1383
********************************************************************** **** Outcome: IP
Model Summary R R-sq MSE F df1 df2 p .1686 .0284 .2437 13.4547 3.0000 1379.0000 .0000
Model coeff se t p LLCI ULCI constant 3.4640 .2544 13.6187 .0000 2.9651 3.9630 Gender .0666 .1753 .3799 .7041 -.2773 .4104 TMC .1536 .0652 2.3553 .0186 .0257 .2815 int_1 -.0126 .0448 -.2800 .7795 -.1005 .0754
Interactions:
int_1 TMC X Gender
R-square increase due to interaction(s): R2-chng F df1 df2 p int_1 .0001 .0784 1.0000 1379.0000 .7795
********************************************************************** ***
Conditional effect of X on Y at values of the moderator(s): Gender Effect se t p LLCI ULCI 1.0000 .1410 .0273 5.1592 .0000 .0874 .1946 2.0000 .1284 .0355 3.6146 .0003 .0587 .1982
Model = 1 Y = IP X = TMG M = Gender
Sample size 1383
********************************************************************** **** Outcome: IP
Model Summary R R-sq MSE F df1 df2 p .2121 .0450 .2396 21.6501 3.0000 1379.0000 .0000
Model coeff se t p LLCI ULCI constant 2.9413 .3264 9.0121 .0000 2.3011 3.5815 Gender .2048 .2229 .9189 .3583 -.2325 .6422 TMG .2874 .0834 3.4461 .0006 .1238 .4510 int_1 -.0484 .0568 -.8518 .3945 -.1599 .0631
Interactions:
int_1 TMG X Gender
R-square increase due to interaction(s): R2-chng F df1 df2 p int_1 .0005 .7256 1.0000 1379.0000 .3945
********************************************************************** ***
Conditional effect of X on Y at values of the moderator(s): Gender Effect se t p LLCI ULCI 1.0000 .2390 .0352 6.7828 .0000 .1699 .3081 2.0000 .1906 .0446 4.2720 .0000 .1031 .2781 S