Perchlorate Treatment Technology Update FEDERAL FACILITIES FORUM ISSUE PAPER
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Perchlorate Treatment Technology Update FEDERAL FACILITIES FORUM ISSUE PAPER that can detect this compound in soil and Section Page groundwater. Perchlorate contamination is of particular concern because of the persistent and 1.0 Introduction ...................................................1 toxic nature of this chemical and because its 1.1 Overview of Perchlorate Contamination physical and chemical properties make it and Environmental Occurrence ..............4 challenging to treat. In addition to its use as an 1.2 Overview of Human Health and oxidizer in propellants and explosives, perchlorate Environmental Concerns for Perchlorate..............................................7 has a wide variety of uses in areas ranging from 1.3 National Academy of Science Review electronics manufacturing to pharmaceuticals. of Perchlorate Toxicity...........................7 1.4 Overview of Regulatory Status of A number of issues associated with perchlorate Perchlorate............................................10 contamination are being discussed by government, 2.0 Physical and Chemical Properties and private, and other organizations and interested Analytical Methods......................................11 parties. These issues include health effects and 2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties of risks, regulatory standards and cleanup levels, Perchlorate............................................11 2.2 Selected Analytical Methods for degradation processes, and treatment technologies. Perchlorate............................................11 The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s 3.0 Treatment Technologies ..............................16 (EPA) Federal Facilities Forum 3.1 Ion Exchange........................................16 (http://www.epa.gov/tio/tsp/fedforum.htm – see 3.2 Bioreactor.............................................26 box) has prepared this issue paper to provide 3.3 Liquid Phase Carbon Adsorption .........36 information about technologies available for 3.4 Composting ..........................................41 treatment of perchlorate contamination in 3.5 In Situ Bioremediation .........................45 environmental media, including technologies that 3.6 Permeable Reactive Barrier..................55 have been used to date and others that show 3.7 Phytotechnology...................................59 3.8 Membrane Technologies ......................62 potential for treating such contamination. A brief 3.8.1 Electrodialysis ..........................62 overview of key perchlorate issues is provided to 3.8.2 Reverse Osmosis........................64 give the reader context; however, these issues are 3.9 Recent or Planned Treatment not addressed in depth in this paper. Technology Research ...........................67 4.0 References ...................................................69 Federal Facilities Forum Appendix A Selected Perchlorate Web Sites The Federal Facilities Forum supports the federal Appendix B Federal Facilities Forum Members facilities programs in each of the ten EPA regional offices. The group was organized in 1996 to exchange up-to-date information related to federal 1.0 INTRODUCTION facility remediation issues at Superfund and RCRA sites. The Forum promotes communication between the regions and Headquarters and works primarily to Perchlorate contamination is becoming a more communicate the current policy issues to each widespread concern in the United States as sources regional office as it is developed through the Federal of such contamination continue to be identified and Facilities Restoration and Reuse Office (FFRRO) at as more sensitive analytical methods are developed EPA Headquarters (http://www.epa.gov/fedfac/). Disclaimer: Use or mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use. Standards of Ethical Conduct do not permit EPA to endorse any private sector product or service. Solid Waste and Emergency EPA 542-R-05-015 Response (5102G) May 2005 www.epa.gov/tio/tsp Perchlorate Treatment Technology Update Acronyms and Symbols GAC Granular activated carbon GAC/IX Granular activated carbon/ion exchange AFB Air Force Base GEDIT Gaseous Electron Donor Injection AFCEE Air Force Center for Environmental Technology Excellence gpd Gallons per day AWWARF American Water Works Association gpm Gallons per minute Research Foundation GWRTAC Ground-Water Remediation bgs Below ground surface Technologies Analysis Center BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand HDPE High-density polyethylene Cal EPA California Environmental Protection HFMBfR Hollow-Fiber Membrane Biofilm Agency Reactor CERCLA Comprehensive Environmental HFTW Horizontal flow treatment well Response, Compensation, and Liability HMX Cyclotetramethylene Trinitramine Act HRC Hydrogen release compound - ClO4 Perchlorate IC/MS Ion Chromatography/Mass - ClO3 Chlorate Spectrometry - ClO2 Chlorite IHD Indian Head Division Cl- Chloride IRIS Integrated Risk Information System Cr6+ Hexavalent chromium IRZ In situ reactive zone CRREL Cold Regions Research and ISB In situ bioremediation Engineering Laboratory ITRC Interstate Technology Regulatory CTAC Cetyl Trimethyl Ammonium Chloride Council °C degrees Celsius LANL Los Alamos National Laboratory DCE Dichloroethene lb Pound DO Dissolved oxygen LHAAP Longhorn Army Ammunition Plant DoD United States Department of Defense LOQ Limit of quantification DOE United States Department of Energy MBR Membrane bioreactor DVB Divinyl benzene MCL Maximum contaminant level DWEL Drinking water equivalent level mg/kg Milligrams per kilogram EDR Electrodialysis reversal mg/L Milligrams per liter EOS Edible oil substrate MMR Massachusetts Military Reservation EPA United States Environmental Protection MNA Monitored natural attenuation Agency MRL Minimum reporting level ERDC United States Army Engineer Research MTBE Methyl Tertiary-Butyl Ether and Development Center NAS National Academy of Sciences ESI-MS Electrospray ionization mass NAVFAC Naval Facilities Engineering Command spectrometry NaCl Sodium chloride ESTCP Environmental Security Technology NaOH Sodium hydroxide Certification Program NCEA National Center for Environmental FBR Fluidized bed reactor Assessment FDA United States Food and Drug NDMA Nitrosodimethylamine Administration NGWA National Ground Water Association FeCl3-HCl Ferric chloride-hydrochloric acid NH4OH Ammonium hydroxide FFRRO Federal Facilities Restoration and NIROP Naval Industrial Reserve Ordnance Reuse Office Plant FRTR Federal Remediation Technologies nm Nanometers Roundtable NRC National Research Council ft Foot NSWC Naval Surface Warfare Center FY Fiscal year NWIRP Naval Weapons Industrial Reserve °F degrees Fahrenheit Plant Federal Facilities Forum Issue Paper 2 May 2005 Perchlorate Treatment Technology Update ORNL Oak Ridge National Laboratory SAMNA Surface Application and Mobilization ORP Oxidation reduction potential of Nutrient Amendments OSRTI Office of Superfund Remediation and SBA Strong-base anion Technology Innovation SDWA Safe Drinking Water Act OSWER Office of Solid Waste and Emergency SERDP Strategic Environmental Research and Response Development Program O2 Oxygen TCA Trichloroethane PBR Packed bed reactors TCE Trichloroethene PCE Tetrachloroethene TDS Total dissolved solids PCL Protective cleanup level TNT Trinitrotoluene PHG Public health goal TSS Total suspended solids ppb Parts per billion UCMR Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring ppm Parts per million Regulation PQL Practical quantification limits USACE United States Army Corps of Engineers PRB Permeable reactive barrier USAF United States Air Force psi Pounds per square inch USGS United States Geological Survey PWS Public water supply UV Ultraviolet QC Quality control VOC Volatile organic compounds RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery WQCB Water Quality Control Board Act W/cm2 Watts per square centimeter RDX Royal Demolition Explosives µg/kg Micrograms per kilogram RfD Reference dose µg/L Micrograms per liter RO Reverse osmosis ZVI Zero-valent iron Federal Facilities Forum Issue Paper 3 May 2005 Perchlorate Treatment Technology Update Appendix A to this paper provides a list of web by the aerospace industry. Other perchlorate- sites and resources pertaining to perchlorate, and containing salts were more common before 1953. Appendix B identifies the members of the Federal Over the years, the number of perchlorate Facilities Forum. manufacturers has varied. Before the mid-1970s, there were at least five perchlorate manufacturing 1.1 Overview of Perchlorate Contamination plants in the U.S., but from 1975 through 1998, and Environmental Occurrence only two plants manufactured the compound (American Pacific in Henderson, Nevada, and then Perchlorate is both a naturally occurring and in Cedar City, Utah, and Kerr-McGee in manmade anion that is typically found in the form Henderson, Nevada). Currently there is only one of perchloric acid and salts such as ammonium U.S. manufacturer of ammonium perchlorate, perchlorate, potassium perchlorate, and sodium American Pacific’s Western Electro Chemical perchlorate. Ammonium perchlorate, an oxidizer, Company (WECCO) Plant in Cedar City, Utah is the most prevalent form of this compound; has (http://www.american-pacific- been widely used in solid propellants, fireworks, corp.com/utah/index.html) (EPA FFRRO, 2005). and flares; and is a constituent of many munition components. Perchlorate compounds are also used Perchlorate continues to be used in a variety of in a number of other manufacturing operations, operations. As shown in Figure 1-1,