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Analytical Comparison Between Laser Beam and Electron Beam Welding

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Analytical Comparison Between Laser Beam and Electron Beam Welding ANALYTICAL COMPARISON BETWEEN LASER BEAM AND ELECTRON BEAM WELDING A Thesis Submitted to the College of Engineering of Nahrain University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Laser and Optoelectronics Engineering by Rasha Khaled Mohammed Al-Dabbagh (B.Sc. 2004) Muharram 1428 February 2007 Abstract Laser and electron beams are presently widely applied to many fields of material processing. Laser and electron beams produce the highest heat sources intensities used in welding process. This work investigates analytical comparison which discusses the differences and similarities between laser and electron beam welding. These comparisons have been made in three aspects. The first explains the main physical characteristics of laser and electron beams as heat sources used for welding process, and shows the most important points of differences between the laser and electron beam in the generation and manipulation of the beams. The second aspect is the technological comparison that presents the performance of the two beams in the fields of welding, and shows the power capability and efficiency, technical performances of beams, mathematical models applied and application fields. The third aspect is the economical comparison which shows the process economics such as; cost of machines, tooling, maintenance, infrastructure and preparation of workpieces. The results obtained from these comparisons have been presented in two methods. The first method includes explanations supported by graphical illustrations, while the second one includes comparison tables. The results show that the electron beam have power efficiency and depth of penetration higher than that of laser, but electron beam needs vacuum environment and protection against x-ray production in most cases. Laser beam is excellent in welding magnetic and non metallic materials (plastics) while electron beam welding is impossible to be used for these materials. These beams have fundamentally different physical natures so that laser beam has special characteristics which is important for welding like the possibility of beam splitting, beam mobility, controllability and low beam distortion. The results also show that nearly similar capital cost is incurred for both laser and electron beam welding up to 5kW, while laser capital cost increases rapidly above the 5kW level. I Contents Abstract I Contents II List of Symbols and Abbreviations VII Chapter One INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Welding 1 1.3 Advantages and Limitations of Welding 5 1.4 Fusion Welding Processes 6 1.5 High Energy Density Beam Welding 8 1.6 Literature Review 9 1.7 The Aim of the Project 11 1.8 Thesis Layout 11 Chapter Two LASER BEAM WELDING 2.1 Introduction 12 2.2 Laser Beam Welding Mechanisms 14 2.3 Laser Beam Material Interaction 16 II 2.4 Laser Beam Profile 19 2.5 Factors Affecting Laser Beam Welding Processes 20 2.5.1 Laser Beam Related Parameters 21 2.5.2 Transport Parameters 22 2.5.3 Assistant Gas and Method of Delivery 26 2.5.4 Effect of Plasma 26 2.5.5 Effect of Material Parameters 28 2.6 Basic Regimes of the Heating of Metal Targets by 30 Laser Irradiation 2.6.1 Heat Transfer Equation 30 2.6.2 Analytical Models 31 2.6.2.1 Uniform Heating Over the Surface Bounding (a 31 Semi-Infinite Half-Space) 2.6.2.2 Gaussian Surface Source on Semi-Infinite Half- 33 Space 2.6.2.3 Circular Surface Source on Semi-Infinite Half- 34 Space (Uniform Source, Constant in Time) 2.6.2.4 Moving Heat Sources 36 2.7 Laser Welding Applications 37 2.7.1 Aerospace Applications 39 2.7.2 Automotive Applications 39 2.7.3 Micro Technology Applications 40 2.7.4 Laser Beam Welding of Metals 41 2.7.5 Welding Plastics 44 III 2.8 Duel Beam Laser Welding 46 Chapter Three ELECTRON BEAM WELDING 3.1 Introduction 48 3.2 Electron Beam Welding Mechanisms 49 3.3 Electron Beam Material Interaction 53 3.3.1 X-Ray Production 56 3.3.2 Neutron Production 57 3.4 Physical Characteristics of Electron Beam 58 3.5 Factors Affecting Electron Beam Welding Processes 59 3.5.1 Effect of Beam Voltage on the Penetration Depth 61 3.5.2 Optimal Location of the EB Focus Below the 61 Target Surface 3.5.3 Effect of Vacuum Pumping System 61 3.6 Electron Beam Power Capability and Efficiency 63 3.7 Basic Regimes of the Heating of Metal Targets by 64 Electron Beam 3.7.1 Estimation of a Source in a Two-Dimensional 64 Heat Transfer Problem 3.7.2 Three-Dimensional Models. Stationary Heat 66 Source 3.7.3 Moving Heat Sources 66 IV 3.8 Electron Beam Welding Application 68 3.8.1 Electron Beam Welding in Aerospace Industry 69 3.8.2 Aneroid Capsules 70 3.8.3 Automotive Applications 71 3.8.4 Electron Beam Welding of Metals 71 Chapter Four COMPARISON RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Criteria for the Comparative Study 74 4.2 Technological Comparisons 74 4.2.1 Power Capability and Efficiency 74 4.2.2 Generation and Manipulation of Beams 78 4.2.2.1 Beam Generators 79 4.2.2.2 Beam Transportation to the Workpiece 80 4.2.2.3 Beam Concentration 81 4.2.2.4 Variation of the Focus Distance 81 4.2.3 Technical Performance of Laser Beam and 83 Electron Beam 4.2.4 Comparative Welding Heat Input 86 4.2.5 Analytical Models 87 4.2.5.1 Laser Beam Analysis 87 4.2.5.2 Electron Beam Analysis 94 V 4.2.5.3 Results and Discussion 100 4.2.6 Application Fields 101 4.2.6.1 Mass Production 104 4.2.6.2 Aeronautics and Space 104 4.2.6.3 Welding of Plastics 105 4.2.7 Process Environment 106 4.2.8 Safety Implications 107 4.2.9 Reliability and Reproducibility of the Machining 107 Results 4.3 Economical Comparisons 108 4.3.1 Investment Costs for the Welding Machine and 108 Tooling 4.3.2 Investment Costs for the infrastructure and 109 Maintenance 4.3.3 Automation and Costs for Preparation of 110 Workpieces 4.4 Tables of Final Comparison Results 111 Chapter Five CONCLUSUIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK 5.1 Conclusions 116 5.2 Recommendations for Future Work 119 References 120 VI List of Symbols and Abbreviations A Radius of the laser beam, (m2). a Thermal diffusivity of the material, (m2/s). B Magnetic field, (Webers/m2). 0 cp Specific heat of the material, (J/kg. C). d Beam diameter, (m). E The beam energy, (J). Ef Electric field, (V/m). e Charge of the electron, (C). f0 Focal length, (m). fe Electric force, (Newton). fm Magnetic or Lorentz force, (Newton). h Penetration depth of heat, (m). I Electron beam current, (A). 2 I0 Incident laser beam intensity, (W/cm ). J0 Bessel function of the first kind and zero order. J1 Bessel function of the first kind and one order. j Cathode emission current density, (A/cm2). tp Pulse duration of the laser, (s). K Thermal conductivity of the material, (W/m.0C). Ќ Point overlap ratio for pulsed electron beam. K0 Modified Bessel function of an imaginary argument of second kind of order zero. k Boltzmann's constant, (J/K). 2 k0 Concentration coefficient, (cm ). m Atomic mass, (kg). P Power of the laser beam, (W). Q Power density of electron beam, (W/cm2). R Reflectivity of the surface. VII s Constant of the electron optical system. 0 Tm Melting temperature of the material, ( C). 0 Tv Vaporization temperature of the material, ( C). V Accelerating voltage, (V). Z Atomic number of an element. α Absorption coefficient, (cm-1). γ Density of the material, (kg/m3). ε Absorptivity of the surface. η Efficiency coefficient. ξ Integration variable. τp Pulse length of electron beam, (s). τw Pulse space width of electron beam (s). υ Welding speed, (m/s). CNC Computer numerical control. EBW Electron beam welding. HAZ Heat affected zone. HEDB High energy density beam. LBW Laser beam welding. VIII AimAim ofof thethe ProjectProject TheThe mainmain goalgoal isis toto makemake aa technicaltechnical andand economicaleconomical comparisoncomparison betweenbetween LaserLaser beambeam andand ElectronElectron beambeam weldingwelding This is achieved through: Presenting the characteristics of these heat sources. Analyzing the application of the process and the design of the laser and electron beam sources. Discussing the differences between laser and electron beam welding. LaserLaser andand electronelectron beambeam produceproduce thethe highesthighest heatheat sourcesource intensityintensity usedused inin weldingwelding processprocess Laser & EB TheThe advantagesadvantages ofof increasingincreasing thethe powerpower densitydensity ofof thethe heatheat sourcesource are:are: DeeperDeeper weldweld penetrationpenetration HigherHigher weldingwelding speedsspeeds BetterBetter weldweld qualityquality withwith lessless damagedamage toto thethe workpieceworkpiece CriteriaCriteria forfor thethe ComparativeComparative StudyStudy PhysicalPhysical ComparisonComparison TechnologicalTechnological ComparisonComparison EconomicalEconomical ComparisonComparison The results obtained have been presented in two methods Explanations supported by graphical illustrations Comparison tables COMPARISONCOMPARISON RESULTSRESULTS PhysicalPhysical ComparisonComparison ¾ Generation and Manipulation of Beams The following parts have been discussed: Beam generators Beam transportation to the workpiece Beam concentration Variation of the focus distance PhysicalPhysical ComparisonComparison Laser Welding Machine REFLECTIVE MIRROR** (BEAM TRANSPORT SYSTEM) ACTIVE LASER MEDIUM COHERENT LIGHT BEAM VIEWING SYSTEM FOCUS LENS POWER EXHAUST SUPPLY SYSTEM RADIATION ENCLOSURE CONTROL SYSTEM FOCUSED LASER BEAM COOLING WORK DRIVE SYSTEM SYSTEM FOCUS POINT* WORK STATION PhysicalPhysical ComparisonComparison Electron Beam Welding Machine ELECTRON BEAM GUN** H.V. POWER SUPPLY VIEWING SYSTEM GUN VACUUM PUMP
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