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A Critical Review of Carbon Quantum Dots

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A Critical Review of Carbon Quantum Dots materials Review A Critical Review of Carbon Quantum Dots: From Synthesis toward Applications in Electrochemical Biosensors for the Determination of a Depression-Related Neurotransmitter Jingying Xu 1, Jiangang Tao 1, Lili Su 2, Jidong Wang 3,* and Tifeng Jiao 3,4,* 1 Mental Health Service Center and College of Marxism, Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao 066004, China; [email protected] (J.X.); [email protected] (J.T.) 2 Li Ren College, Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao 066004, China; [email protected] 3 Hebei Key Laboratory of Applied Chemistry, School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao 066004, China 4 State Key Laboratory of Metastable Materials Science and Technology, Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao 066004, China * Correspondence: [email protected] (J.W.); [email protected] (T.J.); Tel.: +86-335-805-6854 (T.J.) Abstract: Depression has become the leading cause of disability worldwide and is a global health burden. Quantitative assessment of depression-related neurotransmitter concentrations in human fluids is highly desirable for diagnosis, monitoring disease, and therapeutic interventions of de- pression. In this review, we focused on the latest strategies of CD-based electrochemical biosensors for detecting a depression-related neurotransmitter. We began this review with an overview of the microstructure, optical properties and cytotoxicity of CDs. Next, we introduced the development of synthetic methods of CDs, including the “Top-down” route and “Bottom-up” route. Finally, we Citation: Xu, J.; Tao, J.; Su, L.; Wang, highlighted detecting an application of CD-based electrochemical sensors in a depression-related J.; Jiao, T. A Critical Review of Carbon neurotransmitter. Moreover, challenges and future perspectives on the recent progress of CD-based Quantum Dots: From Synthesis toward electrochemical sensors in depression-related neurotransmitter detection were discussed. Applications in Electrochemical Biosensors for the Determination of a Keywords: carbon quantum dots; electrochemical biosensors; depression-related neurotransmitter; Depression-Related Neurotransmitter. synthesis; determination Materials 2021, 14, 3987. https:// doi.org/10.3390/ma14143987 Academic Editor: Fabien Delpech 1. Introduction Neurotransmitters (NTs), as the endogenous chemical substances, are produced in Received: 15 June 2021 different glands and transmit specific signals via chemical synapses between neurons and Accepted: 14 July 2021 Published: 16 July 2021 other cells, which help to communicate information between the brain and body [1,2]. Since the first neurotransmitter was discovered in 1921, lots of chemical messengers were Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral found in synaptic transmission. Neurotransmitters play an important role in the mediation with regard to jurisdictional claims in of behavior and cognition, such as the adjustment of muscle tone and heart rate, regula- published maps and institutional affil- tion learning, sleeping, memory, consciousness and so on. Alterations in concentration iations. of neurotransmitters in the central nervous system are usually associated with various physical and mental changes, which would lead to many diseases, such as Huntington’s, Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, anxiety and depression [3,4]. Depression is a psychiatric disorder that is usually accompanied by low mood and interferes with people’s lives which can change a person’s thoughts, interests, behaviors Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. and feelings. It is frightening that untreated depression may lead to a sustained state or This article is an open access article suicide attempts. During diagnosis and treatment, depression-related neurotransmitters, distributed under the terms and such as the hypoactivity of monamines, especially serotonin (5-HT), noradrenaline (NA) conditions of the Creative Commons and dopamine (DA), are found in midbrain [5]. Other neurotransmitters, for example, Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamate, also participate in the pathogenesis creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ of major depression [6–8]. Usually, the concentration of neurotransmitters is very low; −13 −3 4.0/). for example, normal levels of DA and 5-HT in serum are less than 8.9 × 10 mol m Materials 2021, 14, 3987. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14143987 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 17 gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamate, also participate in the pathogenesis of major depression [6–8]. Usually, the concentration of neurotransmitters is very low; Materials 2021, 14, 3987 for example, normal levels of DA and 5-HT in serum are less than 8.9 × 10−13 mol m−23 ofand 16 4.5 − 12 × 10−10 mol m−3, respectively [9,10]. However, the lack and imbalance of neuro- transmitters would bring a significant risk of depression. Accordingly, for diagnosis, monitoring and therapeutic interventions for depression, it is highly desirable to detect and 4.5 − 12 × 10−10 mol m−3, respectively [9,10]. However, the lack and imbalance of NT concentrations in human fluids. To date there are many techniques using for detect- neurotransmitters would bring a significant risk of depression. Accordingly, for diagnosis, ing NTs, including nanopore, chemiluminescence, capillary electrophoresis, mass spec- monitoring and therapeutic interventions for depression, it is highly desirable to detect trometry, chromatography and electrophoresis [11–18]. However, laborious, expensive NT concentrations in human fluids. To date there are many techniques using for detecting and complicated pretreatments are the troubles that almost all methods must be able to NTs, including nanopore, chemiluminescence, capillary electrophoresis, mass spectrom- solve. etry, chromatography and electrophoresis [11–18]. However, laborious, expensive and An electrochemical biosensor, due to its cheap, simple, highly selective, sensitive, complicated pretreatments are the troubles that almost all methods must be able to solve. and easy to miniaturize nature, is thought to be the most applicable detecting method An electrochemical biosensor, due to its cheap, simple, highly selective, sensitive, for NTs in clinical treatment and diagnosis [19–22]. Especially since the appearance of and easy to miniaturize nature, is thought to be the most applicable detecting method for novel carbon materials, significant progress has been obtained in detective research on NTs in clinical treatment and diagnosis [19–22]. Especially since the appearance of novel selectivity,carbon materials, sensitivity significant and on progress-site detection has been. obtainedAmong inthem, detective carbon research quantum on selectivity, dots (or carbonsensitivity dots, and CDs, on-site CQDs), detection. due to Among their them,solubility carbon, biocompatibility quantum dots(or and carbon lower dots, toxicity, CDs, haveCQDs), been due thought to their more solubility, efficient biocompatibility functional materials and lower in toxicity,the construction have been of thought a biosensor, more sinceefficient it was functional recognized materials by Sun inthe et al., construction at first [23 of–33]. a biosensor, As semiconductor since it was quantum recognized dots, by CDsSun etare al., quasizero at first [23 dimensional–33]. As semiconductor materials with quantum spherical dots, CDsshape, are and quasizero their size dimensional in three dimensionsmaterials with is sphericalless than shape,10 nm, and which their limited size in threeinternal dimensions electrons is to less move than in 10 this nm, space. which Thelimited unique internal properties electrons in the to move structure in this made space. CDs The exhibit unique excellent properties features in the in structurephysico- chemicalmade CDss exhibitand photoelectric excellent featuress, which in physicochemicalsprovide the possibility and photoelectrics, for the preparation which provide of a highthe possibility-quantity electrochemical for the preparation sensor of afor high-quantity use in detecting electrochemical a depression sensor-related for neuro- use in transmitter.detecting a depression-related neurotransmitter. As shown in Scheme 11,, inin thisthis review,review, wewe summarizedsummarized thethe progressprogress mademade inin thethe past yearsyears inin thethe field field of of CDs, CDs based, based electrochemical electrochemical biosensors biosensors for for detecting detecting depression- depres- sionrelated-related neurotransmitters. neurotransmitter Wes introduced. We introduced the significant the significant role of role the microstructure,of the microstructure, optical opticalproperties properties and cytotoxicity and cytotoxicity of CDs. of The CDs. next The main next section main section covered covered the development the develop- of mentsynthetic of synthetic methods ofmethods CDs; that of is,CDs the; that “Top-down” is, the “Top route-down” and “Bottom-up” route and “Bottom route. In-up” the route.concluding In the section, concluding we discussed section, detectingwe discussed the application detecting the of CD-based application electrochemical of CD-based electrochemicalsensors in depression-related sensors in depression neurotransmitters-related neurotransmitter including dopamine,s including epinephrine dopamine, and epinephrineserotonin. Future and perspectivesserotonin. Future and current perspectives challenges and oncurrent the recent challenges progress on of the CD-based recent progresselectrochemical
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