• J
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION I N N E P A L -----A REVIEW OF STUDIES-----
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:-.EPAL NATIO"
NATIO!'i.\L CONSERVATION STRATEGY lMPLElllF.NTATJON PROGRAMM£ NATIONAL PLAN!\ING COM.MISSION, UMG NEl'Al., IN COL1.ABORA110N WlTll JUCN • TJIB WORLD CONSERVATION UNION This Review, prepared as part or the Nntlonal Coaserwllon S1roaegy lmplcmem.auon Prosromme, wns wriuen by Jeremy Can:w-Retd, Ajay Pradhan and Christina Moore with technical advice.from Ram B. Khudk.a, Jny Smith and Jooordao Pandey and 8Sl;l5liJnce rrom Mndhur Sbrestlta, Nablnu Shr•Slh• andAngellneAckermons. Tt WM edited and produced by Premeew Jomsons-Sannon, SooJJ Shr~thrl, Nabln Shrcstba, Su be ma Moktnn, Lo~ ng Chomjoog Sherpa and Reklul Raf or the NPC/IUCN NCS Programme.
Voluble cooperation W& n:eelvcd during the Uu:rnture survey rrom A.R. Joshi ortbe NatlOnal Planning Commission, T .M. Pmdbanangn or RONAST,Purusbourun Shrcs1ha and T.P. Tunsina of 1bc !!nvaronmemnJ Coosetvatiort Group, Batu Uprcty or the Dcpanment or Soil Conservation and Watet5bcd Management and Rmlwl Shrestba and Amarcsb Karmactiaa;oa oLENPHO/DISVL
The paper used for the cover or this publication is a product or Bhaktapur Qafi Printers, Nepal, and Is haodmade from tbe ba.rkof the LokJa (Ouphne) shrub. Paper for prlnalng of the text is manufactured bY Bhrlkuti Paper Mills, Nepal, from sabai grass. rice and when• straws.
Pnnters: Jecwan Prin1ing Suppon Pre..., 'Kathmandu, Nepal
Published by: NPCJIUCN NCS Implementation Progromme an August 1991
Tcchmcal assistance provided by IUCN to the Nllll0tl31 Con.servauon Strategy Tmplemcntauon Programme is supported by tbc Swiss Development Cooperation.
For more detailed lnformatklll regarding IUCN or activitlcS under lhe National Cooserv.uion Strategy Implementation l'rogrammc, coo1oct:
I UCN Senior Advisor Chief NCS rmplcmenrntion Programme Environment & Resource Conscrvntlon DMSion P.O. Box3923 NetloMI PL1nning Commission Kathmandu, Nepal P.O. Box 1284 TelepbOne: (977 I) 521506, 526391 Kathmandu, Nepal l'ax: (977 1) 521506, 226820 Telephone: (9771) 228200 E!.ICI. 252 Telcx:2566HOHILNP Fiu; (9TI l) 226500 CONTENTS
Page I UST OF SELECTED ACRONYMS NATIONAL CONSERVATION STRATEGY v IMPLEMENTATION PROGRAMME
SUMMARY Ix
MAP I: SITES OF POLLUTION STUDIES xiv MAP II: KATHMANDU ANO ITS ENVIRONS xv
WATER POLLUTION 1 Drinking Water Pollution 1 Kathmandu 2 Bacterial Composition 2 Chemical Composition 5 Pokhara 7 Biratnagar 7 Rural Areas B Groundwater Pollution 9 Kathmandu 10 Teral Areas 10 Surface Water Pollution 11 Bagmati River 11 Ph
AIR POLLUTION 19 Industrial Emissions 20 ' Cement Industry 21 Leather Tanning Industry 22 Brick Factories 22 Pulp and Paper Industry 23 Sugar Miiis and Distilleries 23 Textile Mills 24 Cement Industry 24 Steel Industry 24 Automotive Vehicles 24 Indoor Biomass Combustion 26 Outdoor Biomass Combustion 29
LANO POLLUTION 31 Urben Solid Wastes 31 Rural Solid Wastes 33 Soll Pollution 34 Pesticides 34 Fertilisers and Irrigation Water 36
NOISE POLLUTION 37 Transport Noise 36 Industrial Noise 39 Community Noise 39
CONCLUSIONS 43
ANNEXES 47 Annex I: WHO International Standards for Drinking Water 47 Annex II: Tolerance Limits for Inland Surface Waters Receiving 48 Industrial Effluents In Nepal Annex Ill: Ambient Air Quality Standards In the USA 49 Annex IV: Maximum Permissible Noise Levels In the United Kingdom 50 Annex V: Noise Limits and Dally Exposure In the United Kingdom 51
REFERENCES 53 TABLES
Table I. Colrtorm Contamlnahon ln Kathmandu Onnking Watet 4
Table II: Chemical Parameters ol Taps and Groundwater in Kathmandu 6
Table Ill: Bactenologlcal Oua111y ol Onnkeng Water 111 lllam 9
Table N: Total Coliform Contamination cl Village Water Source 9
Table V: Water Oualrty of the Bagmah Rrver System 12
Table VI: Road Traffic and Load In Kathmandu 26
Table VII: Air Panlculates In Kathmandu, Pokhara and Biratnagar 27
Table VUl:.Road Traffic Noise Level In Kathmandu 38
Table IX: lndusulal Noise Level 1n Nepal 40
Table X: Maximum Limits for Community Noise Level in Japan 41 LIST OF SELECTED ACRONYMS
INSTITUTIONS
ACAP Annapurna Conservation Area Project ADB Asian Development Bank BID Balaju Industrial District CBS Central Bureau of Statistics GEDA Centre for Economic DevelopmenLand Administration DISVI Dlsarmo e Sviluppo (Italian International Cooperation) EEC European Economic Community EISP Environmental Impact Study Project EN PHO Environment and Pupfjc Health Organisation FAO Food and Agricultural Organisation ' GTZ Deutsche Gesseflschaft !Or Technlsche Zusammenarbelt (German Technical Cooperation) HMG His Majesty's Government ICiMOD International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development ISC Industrial Services Centre (now, Economic.Services Centre·, ESEG) IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (now, IUCN - The World Conservation Union) NBSM Nepal Bureau of Standards and Metrology NPC National Planning Commission PID Patan Industrial District RO NAST Royal Nepal Academy of Science and Technology SWMRMC Solid Waste Management and Resource Mobilisation Centre UNCRD United Nations Centre for Regianal Development UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund WHO World Health Organisation WRJ World Resources Institute
TECHNICAL TERMS
ARI Acute Respiratory Infection BHC Benzene Hexa-Chlorlde BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand CFCs Chlorofluorocarbons COD Chemical Oxygen Demand DDT Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloro Ethane DO Dissolved Oxygen EBI Extended Biotic Index ESP Electrostatic Preclpitator GNP Gross National Product pH Poten1ial of Hydrogen (expressed In terms of hydrogen ion concentration) PAN Peroxyacetyl Nitrate SPM Suspended Particulate Matter TOS Total Dissolved Solids TSP Total Suspended Particulates
CHEMICAL FORMULAE
Ag silver As arsenic Ca calcium CaC03 calcium carbonate Cd cadmium CH4 methane Ci chlroide Ciz chlorine co carbon monoxide
H C02 carbon dioxide Cr chromium Cu copper Fe iron Fl lluoride Hg mercury
HN03 n~ric acid H2S hydrogen sulphide H2S03 sulphurous acid H2S04 sulphuric acid K potassium Mg magnesium Mn manganese N nitrogen N2 nitrogen gas Na sodium NH3 ammonia NH3-N ammonia nitrogen NO nitric oxide N02 nitrite or nttrogen dioxide N02-N nitrite nitrogen NOJ nitrate or nitrogen trioxide N03-N nitrate nitrogen NO• nitrogen oxides N2') ni11ous oxide 02 oxygen gas 03 ozone p phosphorus Pb lead P04 phosphate Si02 slllcon dioxide S02 sulphur dioxide S03 sulphur trioxide
Ill SOx sulphur oxides Zn zinc
UNITS AND SYMBOLS cm centimetre dBA decibel ('A' - weighted) rt foot/feet g gram h hour kg kilogram kl kilolitre km kilometre litre m melre m3 cubic metre ms/, cubic metre per second mg milligram mg/I milligram per litre mg/(m2.h) mllllgrarm per cubic metre i;ier hour mgN/I milligram of nitrogen p.er litce mg P/1 milligram of phosptiorus per litre min minute ml mlllllilra mm millimetre mph miles per hour ppb parts per billlon ppm parts per mfllion s second t metric-tonnes g/I microgram per litre > greater than < less than
Iv NATIONAL CONSERVATION STRATEGY IMPLEMENTATION PROGRAMME
The National Co·nservation Strategy (NCS) for Nepal was completed In 1987 and endorsed as policy In 1988. Nepal's NCS Is being Implemented through a seri!!S ot programmes in the key areas of enVlronmental planning and assessment, education and public infarmation. Coordinated by the National Planning Commission (NPC). the implementation pro9ramme involves representatives of all the major ministries and government departments concerned with envlronmental Issues, as well as an increasing number of local non-governmental organisations (NGOs),
The NCS was prepared and is being implemented with technical assistance from iUCN - The World Conservation Union. Nepal IS one of over 700 memb1lrs of llJCN, and is among mate. than 40 governments that have been assisted by IUCN in developing Nalional Conserva.tion Strategies.
Founded ln 1948, IUCN is the largest professional world body wor~rng to con~erve the earth's soil, land, water, air and life systems. IUCN ls active in over 120 countries, and is a unique international agency whose memberstlip includes both gevernments and non-governmental organ·isations, providing them equal opportunity to work ti:>gelher to achieve effeotiv& conservation actiG>n. IUCN's aim is to establlsh a tangible link between development and the envirG>nment that will result in a lasting improvement in the quality of life of people all overtheworld.
EDUCATION Under the NCS tor Nepal, a series of education and training proiects are being designed and implemented within the NCS Environmental Ed ucalloR Programme. These projeclS arm to
v EtMronmontol Pollutlon In Nopal: A R enhance the coverage of existing environmental management and resource conservation subjects in formal and non-formal education programmes in Nepal. A National Environmental Education Conference will provide a forum at which consensus can be reached on Nepal's environmental education needs. Primary school curriculum Is a priority concern orthe programme. The Environmental Education in Primary Schools pilot project includes the preparation of model environmental curricula, revision and expansion of currenttextbooks and the development of associated resource materials. Teachers and students are being involved in a series of trial and evaluation worl The Environmental Education Programme further emphasises pre-service and in-service training of extension workers and government officers. Environment courses have already been introduced on a trial basis within three governmental training centres, and this work will continue to be expanded to produce and test training packages for a number of sectors. PUBLIC INFORMATION The NCS Public Information Programme focusses on two main elements: publications support to other components of S1rategy implement atlon and pubtlc environmental awareness activities. An NCS Newslener provides information and updates on the status of the NCS implementation programme and on agencies and programmes working In environment-related fields. Public awareness activities are Implemented through local NGOs and include a strong training element aimed at orienting members of the media and professionals of various disciplines towards consideration and coverage of environmental issues. Information Is being disseminated at the community level through a wall newspaper, wilh the objective of expanding the currently limited Information on conservation issues available to rural communities. Two weekly radio programmes, invesUgative reports and an interdisciplinary seminar series also form part of the Publlc Information Programme. PLANNING ANO An Environment Core Group has a key role In developing new ASSESSMENT environmental policies and procedures best suited to Nepal. The Group comprises of some forty senior govemmem offlcials from the fifteen ministries and departments and all NPC divisions. Over several years, this Core Group Is partlclpallng In a series of practical, field-oriented pr9fesslonal Interactions, as well as Jn N8.tional Conservation Strotogy lmplo1nontatlon P1ogrammme Intensive policy development workshops and secondments to the NPC and relevant ministries. While the Environment Core Group programme for developing environmental planning policies is continuing at the national level, ihe NPC/IUCN NCS Implementation Programme has initiated local environmental p lanning activities through local NGOs. Communities are being assisted in the preparation of model environmental plans In eight villages and two districts, Lamjung and Arghakhanchi, to test field planning me1hods, including community Involvement processes. This local planning effort will be used by the eo1e Group as a practical model for the formulation of nallonal environmental planning guidelines and procedures. The Environment Core Group Is also engaged in preparing national and sectoral guide! ines for environmental impact assessment (EIA) of development projects. Linkages, through the Core Group, with the NCS Environmental Planning Programme, will ensure that the procedures and methods defined for the appraisal or projects will be appropriate to the land use planning framework and field me\hods tested and developed under that Programme. HERITAGE CONSERVATION Another component of the NCS lmplementiJtion Programme is concerned with conserving cultural and natural heritage. of national significance. Under the NPC's leadership, the NPC/IUCN NCS. Implementation Programme is working closely with the Nepal Heritage Society, other local NGOs and relevant government ministries to compile a register of national heritage sites, their condition and current management. The programme will Involve establishing criteria tor national significance, critical review of existing inventories and comprehensive neld survey, particularly for natural sites of importance outside exisiing protected areas. The pleparation and Implementation of management pl~ins for selected demonstration sites that combine natural and cultural attribut!l.S of outstanding value ls also a key element of lhe programme. POLLUTION CONTROL The tirst stage of the Pollution Control programme was completed in December 1990 and resulted in a comprehensive inventory of industrial sources of air, water, soil and noise pollution in the country. This national survey, undertaken in collaboration with the Nepal Environmental Conservation Group (NECG), Identified Industrial pollutil)n problems requiring immediate attention. The second stage of the pollution control programme Is a demonstration project for industrial polh,1tion assessment and control In the Balaju Industrial District, Kathmandu. The project commenced in Januarv 1991 and l!!UI result in a pollution control vtl Environmenftll Potlutlon In Napaf: A Review management plan for the district. This stage aiso includes a comprehensive survey of laboratory lacillties in Nepal. Stage three of this programme will extend the implementation or management plans lo industrial complexes which were identified in the national survey as requiring urgent pollution control attention. Management plans will be Implemented In collaboration with relevant ministries and (elated publlc and private sectors. Draft standards will be prepared 10 cover all pollution-prone categories otindustrtes operating In Nepal. The wider ranging objective at this prefect Is a detailed and comprehensive understanding of Nepal's pollution situation, with enough quantified data to establish praotlGal pollution standards and te<:hnical capability to apply them. As a preliminary exercise, the programme undertook a review of pollution studies conducted la date In Nepal, eKamining levels of water, air, land and noise pollution al sample sites in selected districts. This review provided the necessary background lnformallon for the design and implementation of the national survey of industrial pollution sources. viii SUMMARY Reliable pollution studies are very recent lo Nepal and limited in the areas they cover. The quality of drinking water supplied to Kathmandu and a few places outside the valley has received the most attention. The number ot studies is increasing, however, due lo growing public concern about pollution and its impact on human health and the environment. Although the r\;!porting varies in qualiiy, surveys between 19n and 1990 show that pollution is increasing both In terms of area contaminated and In lhe revels or pollution, Already many of the most common contaminants are found at levels that far exceed internationally acceptable standards. These contaminants pose a serious threat to human health and the environment. Pollution Is causing a deterioration of Nepal's environment. even though the industrial development of Nepal is occurring at a relatively slow rate and the average consumption of energy is very low when compared with usage pattern~ or most otl]er countries in Asia. Pollution regulation and managemenris non-existent in Nepal, for example, there is no reliable treatment of sewerage; no controls on vehic.ular ei WATER POLLUTION The quallty of drinking water in the urban centres or Kathmandu, Pokhara and Biratnagar 11as been studied. Almost all the samples taken showed revels ot coliform b.acterla that exceeded the World Health Organisation (WHO) safe drinking water standard of less th;m 1 coliform bacteria cell per 1 oo ml ol water Virtually all ix Environman~al Pollution In Nopal: A Rovlow drinking water In Nepal was found to be unsafe throughout the year, especially during the. rainy season when contamination levels reached 4,800 colifor.m per 100 ml. The drinking water supply is chlorinated befor13 it enters the water delivery system, y13t some researchers found that the drinking water system was being contaminated by sewage lines that run parallel to the water pipes in many places. Water deliveiy pipes were cracked and penorated, and the supply of water was not constant, so that outside matter was being sucked Into the water pipes during the frequent periods of low water prll,ssure. In contrast with the bacteriological contamination levels, the chemical composition of retieulated drinking water was found to be within acceptable lnternalfonal standards. Higher bacteriploglcal and chemical contamination was found in water from wells, tubeweUs and stone spouts; almost all the chemical parameters teste.d from these sources e~ceeded internation.al standards, Industrial discharge. sewage seepage and poor hygiene practices around the wells were the major factors founcj to be contributing to the poor state of Kathmandu's groundwater. This is a particularly disturbing phenomenon, as groundwater pollution tends to persist and concentrate over time and clean-up measures are difficult and expensive. Thus, Kathmandu's groundwater cannot be relied upon as an alternate source ot water for the increasing population of the Valley. The condition or the Bagmati rive(a nd two ottts tributaries, Dobhl Kl1ola anc;J Tu~uc h a, has been studied. The capacity of these rivers to sustain aquatic life approached zero at points cadjacent 10 and downstream ot urban Kathmandu. Al times, the adverse effects.of direct discharge of sewage and untreated Industrial effluents to the Bagmati river could be seen up to 1o km downstream of Kathmandu. The untreated discharge from the Bhrikuti paper mill into the Narayani river and from the Everest paper mill into the Orahi river has also been studied. As the Narayani is a large, swiftly flowing riVer, its recovery zone began quite near the discharge zone. The smaller size of the Orahi river resulted in more extensive damage and slower recovery. AIR POLLUTION In contrast with the wealth ofda ta available In developed countries, virtually no quantitative studies 11ave been undertaken to examine the status o( air pollution in Nepal. Sources of air pollution in Nepal are varied and include combustion of fossil fuels, vehlcutar exhausts, industrial emissions and effluents, unmanaged solid wastes, and smoke emission from combustion of biomass. )( SUMl.IAIW Suspended paniculate matter and gaseous chemicals are leading air pollutants. and are potential health and ecological hazards. There ls a serious lack of information on pollutants emitted from combustion of biomass fuels used for cooking and heating purposes In rural Nepal. Poorly ventilated houses compound the effects of these emissions. A number of lung and eye diseases prevalent among Nepalese women are ascribed to Indoor pollution. One study demonstrated the correlation between the use of new, improved cookstoves and a dramatic reduction In the levels of paniculate exposure. Air pollution In the urban areas of Nepal includes vehicular emissions and industrial discharges, !he mostserious of which are sulfur dioxide, nitrogen trioxide and carbon. The levels discovered were comparable to urban areas In industrialised countries. 01 particular concern is the high lead concentration which in other countries has caused acute and irreversible health problems, panlcularly in children. Tue main contributor to lead pollution in urban areas Is the use or leaded gasoline. Poor vehicle maintenance and the low octane level or leaded gasoline exacerbate the problem. Little reliable data exists on the nature and extent of industrial ah pollution. Very hlgh levels of dust are emitted by cement, brick and • tile factories and textile mills. Offensive odours and health hazards are also associated with the open land dumping practices of leather tanneries. LAND POLLUTION Figures on the volume and types of solid waste in Nepal are unreliable for comparison of changes in patterns over time and from place to place. The Solid Waste Management and Resource Mobilisation Centre estimates that solid waste generated in Nepal will increase by almost so percent over the 5 ~ to 1995 with serious implications for the spread of disease's, cornamlQBtlon ol ground and surface water, and for air pollution. Solid waste ls primarily an urban problem, limlted In rural areas to localised dumping in village and along trekking routes. A centralised sorld waste collection and landfill system has been operating in Kathmandu, Patan, Bhaktapur for seven years. m 1988, tl)e Centre reponed rhat about 168 tonnes per day or 400 grams per head per day of solid waste was generated In the valley. According to the Cenue, just over 50 percent of this waste was being collected, of which 22 percent was non-biodegradable. The Gokama dump site has been studied in some detail. Several mitigation measures have been Implemented at the site. Drainage dlrches have been constructed, leachate ponds dug, and the dump srte has a gradient for rain runoff. Despite1hese precautions. xi En\/lronmantal Pollution In Nepal: A Review monitoring wells installed show that leachate lrom the site has seeped into, and is contaminating, the groundwater supply. The area around !he Everest base camp was also studied. AA increase in the number of trekkers visiting the bas!) camp has created a waste disposal problem. The site itself presents very few alternatives for disposal ot wastes. One clean-up operation has been undertaken and policies and regµlations now require trekkers to carry wastes out ot !he area. The environmental impact ot farm pesticide .and fertiliser use has not been quantitlvely stl.(died. Tue use of such chemicals by farmers is limited by availability and high costs. However, as the productivity of the land declines, fertiliser use and, in some areas, the application of pesticides Is Increasing with uncertain consequences. Serious Incidences have been documented of mishandling and poor management and storage of pesticides. The use of b_anned pesticides such as BHC continues, and the heavy use ot DDT with long-term residual effects has only recently been d iscontinued. One study reported that pesticide consumption by residents of Kathmandu valley was liKely to be high due to the Wide availability and heavy use of pestlcidesln the valley. NOISE POLLUTION Noise pollution Ts a relatively new concern. Scientific studies show that long exposure to loud noise has both physiological and . psychological effects. Study or the noise levels in various built-up sections of Kathmandu found average decibel (dBA) levels to be 80-1 oo. These levels e>eceed international safety standards. CONCLUSION Mucl\ quantitative work Is stlll required to improve our understanding of pollution in Nepal. Environmental baseline data Is not available tor most areas and very rew areas have monitoring stations. However, from !his revtew of studies conducted over the past 13 years, it is clear that Nepal suffers from pollution problems associat,ed with development (for example, air pollution irom vehicles) and under development (for example, baeteriological contamination of drinking wate[). Inadequate management structure, technical eapacity and coordination impedes the study of, and responses to, pollution problems in Nepal. While tllese technieal and iAflastructural problems are being addressed, scope exists forfurthe( improvement in governmental and private sector investment in this field. Sinee mostdevelopmenr initiatives In Nepal are project-led, good environmental impact assessment procedures would go a long W?f towards minimising Mureproblems. Many multi and bilateral aid agencies now require environmental impact a5$essments of their aid projects, butmuch greater collaboration of effort is needed to integrate these activities with government decision-making procedures. Systematic SUMMARY env1ronmental planning al both nailonal and local levels, incorporation of practical standards and guidelines based on studies and msnitorlng ot existing induslries are also essential 10 minimising tile pollution thal is causing degradalion of Nepal's resource base. Curre11tly, lhe Governmem does not make it mandato!Y to conduct environmental impact assessmenls prior to appro\ling projects and industrial development aclivity. This situation is under review, and the Natim1al Planning Commission with assislancafrom IUCN - The World Conservation Union is formulating environmental impact assessment p.ollcies and procedures. This work complements other initiatives under the National Conservation Stra1egy Implementation Programme to set up structures for environmental planning and management in Nepal. xiii • MAP I ----·-- i0 ft g _J I ~ zw '"• . ~l' • i• •' ! I I 0 • 0 • ' : i i •' I I I t: i' J E • ! MAP II ~ : i •' I ' l J ~ . .! WATER POLLUTION ater pollution Is the most serious DRINKING WATER POLLUTION environmental quallty Issue in Nepal. WII Is caused by the disposal of solid Pollution of drinking water is the most serious and liquid wastes on land or Into surface waters. public health issue in Nepal. Yet the vital The most significant wastes are sewage, connection between water and health Is given industrial eflluem and agricultural residues and little emphasis in government policy on water chemicals. Sewage originates primarily from supply (UNICEF, 1987). domestic premises. Along with industrial effluents it is discharged untreated into streams Till 1950, drinking water supply was limited to and rivers, indirectly through runoff and open the urban areas of Kathmandu. Now most of the drains and directly via the public sewerage 33 urban centres In the country have piped system. Pesticides, fertJlisers, and livestock are water (CBS, 1989) However, many supply the main agricultural sources of ground and systems provide water for only a few hours each surface water pollution. day (ADS, 1985} and, despite receiving varying levels of treatment, bacteriological Reticulated sewerage and treatment plants contamination remains high. have been established only in the cities of Kathmandu valley but have a poor performance Although some ru(al water supply schemes record The Kathmandu system is old and exist, most of the rural population uses fragmemed and a lack of maintenance has led traditional sources of water. irrespective of to frequent malfunction (ADS, t 985). The quality (ADS, 1985}. In rural areas as well. oxidation pond and treatment plant at Kirtipur coliform contamination of drinking water Is a has ceased to operate for the same reason. major concern. Sewage from septic tanks is dumped into the Bagmatl river or public drains. Drinking water Coliform bacteria Inhabits the Intestinal tract of supplies are polluted through runoff Into humans and animals. Generally, its presence In storage sites or cross-leakages between drinking water Indicates raecal contamination, overloaded sewer lines and water pipes. although not all coliforms are ol feecal origin. Sewage is the primary cause of drinking water Coliforms include all aerobic and anaerobic pollution, end industrial effluent and sewage nonspora-forming bacilli, sucl't as Escherichia combined are the main causes of river pollution. coll, Citrobactar fraundil, Entarobacter EnvironmenlBI Pollution in Nepal: A Re>Htw serogens, Enterobscter cloacae and Klabsiel/a A study was undenakan by Sharma (1978) to pneumoniae. The presence or coliform determine the quality of drinking water supplied micro-organisms in drinking water may indicate to 1ha households ol tho Kathmandu valley. the presence of bacterial inlectlons that c-ause Coliform tests were performed on water watertlome diarrhoeal diseases. In 1985, ewer samples from 39 localities, and results showed 50 percent of hospital patients In Nepal were that all the water samples had some degree of found to be suffering from gastro-lntestinal faecal contamination. The number of coliform disorders normally caused by waterborne cells per 100 ml of water ranged from 4 to 460. pathogens (AOB, 1985). The most polluted water was found in Thamel, Maruhltl, Gyaneshwor and Chikanmugal areas There is no water quality monitoring network in of Kathmandu. Nepal, and studies on drinking water quality do not cover all the urban areas served with piped The levels of coliform organisms present In the water supply, much less rural areas where water drinking water far exceeded the maximum treatment facilities are rare. Most water pollution permissible value of less than one cell per 100 studies have examined the quality of drinking ml of water set by lhe World Health Organisation water supplied to the Kathmandu valley, (WHO) (Annex I) and posed a clear t'1reat to particularly to Its urban areas. Very law places l1uman health. As 1he drlhklng water supply Is have been surveyed elsewhere In Iha country. treated and chlorinated at the treatment plants, However, the extent or drinking water It was assumed that the coliform bacteria must contamination in the areas covered by pollution have entered the drinking water supply through studies suggests that the problem is the delrvery system. Drinking water and sewer nationwide. pipelines are adjacent and parallel to each other In many sections of the city. The sporadic water Kathmandu supply, resulting in decreased water pressure In the pipelines, causes sewage 10 be-sucked Into Bacterial contamination the cracked water pipes. Since farmers Illegally drill holes in the main pipelines to gel water for RiVer water, groundwater, and natural ponds irrigation. it is likely thai sewage also enters the are the main sources of water supply for system through these holes during periods of Kathmandu valley. The Nepal Water Supply low water pressure. Corporation Is responsible for the distribution of water supply In urban communities. It operates Another probable source ol contamination water treatment facilities at the water reservoirs stems from the unhygienic environment around serving the valley. The water Is treated with public taps. At a number of areas faecal matter chlorine (C'2) for disinfection at Kathmandu's from baby diapers, kitchen wastes and animal three waler supply stations - Sundarijal, Balaju excreta accumuia1e at the public tap during and Panipokharl. Somesuburban communities, washing and cleaning activities. Such wastes however, use untreated water from sources also enter me wa1er pipelines tnrougn leakage such as wells, ponds, and streams for domestic points. purposes. Additionally, people from some core urban localltles still use untreated water drawn In a followup study A. P. Sharma (1986) round from local tubewells and dugwells. tha1 the levels of coliform contamination of drinking water in Ka1hmandu had significantly The quality of drinking water in Kathmandu has increased in nine years. In 1978 the maximum been examined by several workers, All but one coliform count was 460 per 100 ml. In 1986, the atudy Indicate that the public water supply is far contamination levels reached 4,800 coliform from satisfactory in almost all tocalltles In terms cells per 1oo rnl. of bacterial contamination. 2 WATER POLJ.VTION The 1986 study examined the relationship amount of free-residual chlorine in the public between the level of bacterial contamination of water supply taps in Kathmandu, confirmed I hat water and the seasonal variation. Water the chlorlnallon of drinking water In treatment samples were taken in the dry summer season, plants was not sufficient to render it potable. the rainy season, and the winter season. One of the easiesl and quickest methods 10 Samples were also collected from the Lalitpur assess the bacteriological quality of drinking area. Additionally. this study tested the water Is to determine the concentration of industrial effluent of selected industries. free-residual chlorine in the public water supply system. A total of 207watersamples were tested The bacterial count was found to be much for free-residual chlorine, and among them 34 higher In the rainy season than on the summer percent had chlorine concentration less than and winter seasons. Thecoliform bacteria count 0.2 mg/1, the lower limit specified by WHO. DISVI ranged from o 10 4,800 during the ralny season. (i990a) therefore, concluded that the city o to 75 In winter and o to 460 per 100 ml in the lacked a proper disinfection system. summer months. It was concluded that sewage system contamination of the drinking water Ad hlkarl et al (1986) carried out coliform tests on supply increased s1gnificantly In the rainy 1oo samples of drinking water collected from season, as water volume on the sewers different areas In the Kathmandu valley. and increased, submerging the water supply from different sources - from water taps, plpeltnes. nat ural springs and ponds. The samples were grouped into four categories on the basis of the The view that contamination is a result of number of coliform present per 100 ml of water cross·leakages between adjacent water pipes as follows-excellent (no coliform), satisfactory and sewage lines, and sucking in of sewage by (1--3 coliforms), suspicious (4·10 coliforms), and water pipes during ,low pressure periods, is unsatisfactory (more than 1O coliforms). The supponed by the minimal levels of pollution sludy revealed that 88 percent of the samples found near the water treatment stations. For we re unsatisfactory, 2 percent suspicious. 6 example, the bacterial count was zero In water percenl satisfactory. and only 4 percent samples from the Balaju Park during all three excellent for drinking purposes. Most of the seasons. The level of bacterial contamination unsatisfactory water samples had more than Increased gradually as the water pipelines 1,800 coliform per 100 ml of water: 42 of the 48 approached densely populated areas. Similarly. tap water samples. 22 of the 27 spring water samples tested near the industrial drainage samples, and 24 of the 25 pond water samples systems shoWed a high percentage of coliform we re unsatisfactory. bacteria. The quality of drinking water in Kathmandu was The level of bacrerial contamlmnlnn 11,.ried also examined by Manandhar el al (1987). greatly between samples. This vanatlon may Microbiological tests were carried out on tap follow the variation in water pressure maintained water samples 1n Kathmandu city. In sharp in the drinking water supply system When water contrast to the results of ear1ierstudles (Sharma, pressure is low, as is often the case during the 1978; Sharma. 1986; Adhikari el al, 1986}, no day, the vacuum created in the pipeline may be cornorm con1aminatlon was found. This study sufllcient to suck in sewage. needs to be interpreted with caution because the sample size was small and taken from only In soma areas, there was little difference in the three localltlos - Jhochl1en. Lazlmpat, and coliform count between chlorinated water Baneshwor. Funhermore, the samples were samples and water samples taken from taken in winter which Sharma (1986) noted as non-chlorinated sources. DISVI, an Italian the season of least contamination. technical assistance organisation, In an examination carried out to determine the 3 • EnvftonmentBI Pollution 'n Nopal: A Roview A more detailed and comprehensive study was that treated water entering a distribution system carried out by DISVI in 1989. The objective ofthe should contain less than one coliform organism study was to assess the quality of Kathmandu's per 100 ml. drinking water supply and Identify waakAesses in tha city's pubtlc water supply system. The As with the earlier studies, DISVI concluded that quality of drinking water was monitored for a contamination of drinking water was due mainly period of six months, from January to June. to the infiltration of sewage into drinking water Drinking water samples were collected from 58 pipelines. The seasonal variation in total sampling points - 7 water treatment plants and coliform in the distribution system showed least reservoirs, 7 hospital storage tanks, and 44 pollution during winter (January to March), with water taps. A total of 472 samples were test ed. steadily lncreaslng levels from April to June during the hot rainy season. It was speculated The study provided an opportunity for the first that polluted water seeped into the ground at an time to determine more clearly linkages increased rate during April 10 June, increasing between seasons and the level or coliform the pressure and temperature In the sewage contamination, to compare the quality of lines, thus facilitating microbial growth. drinking water at distributing and receiving ends, and to assess water quality in storage The 44 sampling locations for tap water were Sites. divided into three sectors based on household density, Sector I being the most densely The study found that almost all the water populated and congested section of the city, samples had coliform counts far exceeding and Sector Ill the least. Within the distribution WHO standards (Table I). Samples from' system, Sector I had the highest degree Gf congested areas of the city had the highest contamination with 79 percent of the samples lovels of contamination. In these areas, both the exceeding the WHO standard value and only 15 water supply pipelines and sewerage network percent of the samples without coliform. are old and in poor condition Seventy percent of samples rrom all sectors had an average of 196 coliform cells with some The study showed that bacteriologi cal samples having as many as 2,800 cells per 100 contamination increased as the water travels ml of water. All the sampling poims in the from the water treatment plants to the distribution system, except those el distribution system. WHO guidelines require Boudhanath and Sano Gaucharan, showed Table I: Coliform Contamination In Kathmandu Drinking Weter Treatment Distribution Hospital Plants SJ stems Storage Number of samples 154 282 36 Minimum rounV100 ml 0 0 0 Maximum count/100 ml 400 2,800 3.000 Average count/100 ml 10 196 639 % of samples with no coliforrns 77 30 8 % of samples wilh coldorms 23 70 92 Source: DISVl (1989). 4 WATER POl.Ll/TION various degrees of bacteriological samples had 639 colfform cells per 100 ml of contamination, indicating that pollution was water on average. In some samples a widespread In the city. There were no safe staggering 3,000 coliform cells were found in areas. Even samples from points located very 1oo ml of water. This Is a panicularly disturbing close to the treatment plants and reservoirs finding given the nature of the public faclllty. such as Old Chabahil and Balaju were contaminated. CEDA (1989) also tested water from different localities in Kathmandu and demonstrated that The seven water treatment plants were also almost all samples were contaminated with found to be contaminated. The new and old fae cal material. None ol t he tap and reservoirs of Mahankalchour were the least groundwater sources tested were safe for polluted with only 4 percent and 8 percenl of drinking. samples respectively above the WHO standard. The Balaju treatment plant was the most Chemical Composition polluted with 52 percent of the samples above the WHO standard. Sundarighat and Sundarijal Th e improper disposal of ever-Inc reasing treatment plants and MaharajgunJ and Bansbari quantities of organic and inorganic chemicals in reservoirs had between 23 10 35 percent of the municipal sewage and industrial effluents samples abOve !he standard. Seventy-seven can adversely affect the chemical quality of percent of all samplesfrom the treatment plants drinking water. and reservoirs were satisfactory and 23 percent unsatisfactory with an average ol 1 O coliform The drinking water supply in Kathmandu from cells per 100 ml of water. surface sources ls within sale limits in terms of chemical parameters, but groundwater sources Water quality in reservolrs supplied by only one are not satlslaotory In this respect. This situation source, whether ground or surface water, was has been substantiated by a number of studies. beuer than that of reservoirs supplied by more than one source. Mahankalchour Old and Sharma (1986) found that most tap water Bansbari reservoirs are supplied only by samples from 51 localities in Kathmandu were groundwater, and the Sundarljal and chemically suitable for drinking purposes, Maharajgunj treatment plants are exclusively confirming his 1978 study. Little variation was supplled by unpolluted surface water. The observed in the chemical content of drinking situation ls more critical for the Sundarighat water supplied to different localities in treatment plant, supplied by tilghly polluted Kathmandu. The pH content ranged from 6.5 to su1face water, and for the Balaju treatment plant 7.5, while the CaC03 content varied from 26 to and Mahankalchour New reservoir, supplied by 30 mg/I. Total hardness due to the presence of both surlaca am.J 9ruundwate1. The higher the venous metallic salts was also similar from one number of sources supplying a reservoir, the loc ation to another. The chemical constituents greater the chance of pollution. DISVI also noted tested were found to be within the standards that a high degree of variability In the chemical prescribed by WHO. composition of water entering the treatment plant from different sources made It more CEOA confirmed these findings in a 1989 study difficult to treat !he waler, resulllng in higher of 13 sites, including three reservoirs - Bala)u, revels of bacterial contamination. M aharajgunj and Mahankalchour. The chemical parameters tested included pH, dissolved All samples taken from water storage tanks or oxygen (DO), BOD, chemical oxygen demand seven hospitals In Kathmandu were found to be (COD), ammonia (NH3), N03, phosphate (P04), more contaminated than !hose collected from and Cl. public taps. Only B percent of the samples were free of coliform bacteria, and 92 percent of !he 5 EtMtontntllllBI PoUution In Nepal: A Review DISVI also undertook a detailed chemical parameters. The values of NOa·N found in an analysis of drinking water In Kathmandu in 1989. treatment plants \vere within WHO standards. The study examined chemicals which corrode water pipelines, affect tlie aesthetic quality of Sunciarighat treatment p lant and water, and Indicate contamination by domestic Mahankalchour Old reservoir showed very hig]l sewage. As described In the previous section, amounts of organic matter as Indicated by their the DISVI study covered treatment plants and BOD level. High amounts of NH3 were detected reservoirs, hospital storage tanks. and taps in in these plants as well as at the Bansbarr the public water supply system. reservoir. The Sundarlghat treatment plant also had a very high content of NO:!. wrth an average The water samples from treatment plants and value of 0.917 mg N/I. and 55 percent of the reservoirs were tested for eight chemical samples exceeded the WHO standard of 0.10 parameters - conductivity, hardness, Cl, mg N/I. organic matter (oxygen consumed or BOD), iron (Fe), ammonia nitrogen (NHa-N), nitrate The WHO standard for Iron fn drinking water, at nitrogen (N03·N), and nit rite nitrogen (N02-N). 1 mg/I, was exceeded In water samples from the Bansbari and the Mahankalchour Old All the treatment plants and reservoirs had reservoirs. averaging 1.68 mg/1 and 3.30 mgli conductivity, hardness and Cl values within the respectively Over 90 percent of the water WHO standards. These three parameters samples from these reservoirs exceeded the should remain constant, or should have only WHO standard. minimal variations which reflect the variability ol the chemical compositlon of the source water Two percent of samples from treatment plants used to supply the treatment plants and contained less than the required level of 0.2mg/I reservoirs studied. The Sundarighat treatment or lree residual chlorine; In the distribution plant, Mahankalchour New reservoir and Balaju system. the percen1age escalated to 40 treatment plant varied more in these three percent. ' Table If: Cheml~I Parameters of Ttips and Groundwater In Kathmandu ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- ,· Unit TapWa~r Ground Water Chloride mg/I 5 to 12 a1p• to 1100• Nitrate mg/I 1010 48 2r to58* Sulphate mg/I 1to3 61 to92 BOD mg/1 1.5 to3 2 1012· pH 6 to 8.5 6 to 8.9 H • Values exceeding the WHO International standard Source: Sharma (1985). 6 • WATER POLLUTION The chemical q uality of the water of the Mardhikhola and Bagdhara. The Set! Canal and Mahankalchour and Balaju treatment plants Phewa lake, other water sources, were also was fairly acceptable. The percentage of sampled. Water samples were collected from sbc samples exceeding the WHO .standards for iron dill erent sites. and NHs was comparatively higher than for Sundarijal and Maharajgunj. As Mahankalchour Chemical and bacteriological tests of drinking and Balaju are fed by groundwater sources, it is water indicated that chemically, the water was assumed that the groundwater contains high suitable for drinking, but bacteriologlcallY it was values of these elements. noL The water of Mahankalchour Old reservoir and While the faecal coliform bacteria count for Bansbari reservoir also had very high amounts water samples from reservoirs was 35 cells/100 of NHa 7 Environ1nental Poff.utlon In Napa.I: A Revfow contamination as high as 4,800 cells/1 oo ml. and i 7 water sources including springs, spring Even the samples tested from lhe reservoir wells, aquifers (kuwa), rivers, and river water showed 29 cells/1'00 ml of water. The water in reservoir. Bactertological, physical and Biratnagar, therefore, was round to be chemical parameters were tested. The main unsuitable for drinking purposes. objective ol the assessment was to generate. baseline data on water quality at sources and The chemical analysis showed all the households in orderto evaluate the impact of a parameters to be within lhe WHO standards health and sanitation education programme run except for BOD and iron cohtent values. While in the vlllages. the BOD value only sligtilly exceeded the WHO standard in all the samples. the iron content All but two sources, Chhipilar and Hlty Kuwa in level was much higher than the WHO standard. Phikal, had unacceptable levels ot faecal The other chemical parameters examined were coliform bacteria ranging from 2 to 2,400 pH, DO, COD, NI-la; N03, P04, and Cl. cells/100 ml. Table Ill shows the maximum and minimum levels offaecal coliform contamination Rural Areas In the suNeyed villages. The bulk or Nepal's rural population does not Filly five percent ol the samples frem have acoess to piped drinking water supply and households drawing water from these sources waste disposal facilities. In 1981 , UNEP had inoreas·ed contamination. 8 percent reported that only 6.6 percent ol the rural remained unchanged, and 35 percent Had population had access to reticulated drinking decreased contamination. Coliform ( water. Pradhan and Pradhan (1972) observed eomamination seemed to decrease in water ( that in rural hilly areas people used water from collected and stored in tradltfonal .copper and springs, rivers, and ponds, and in the Tera!, brass containers (!ja9n). a correl;;nion that water was e1 8 WATER POUllTION Table Ill: Bacterlologfcal Quality of Drinking Water In lllam Locauon EM9al Conrorm LC!filsJ10.Q_ml)_ Minimum maximum Phlkal 0 1,400 Chhip~ar 0 Pashupa1inagar 20 114 Gurung Nlwas 1,800 Karfok 50 Aitabare n 2,400 Teenghare 1.100 Source: DISVI 990b coliform contamination within the range of 5-1 O GROUNDWATER POLLUTION cells/100 ml, whereas in Syabru water from uncovered springs showed contamination Groundwater quallty has not been extensively within the range 0120-100 cells/ml (Table Iv). studied In Nepal. Many village communities supplement their water demand with groundwater; others depend solely on this Table IV: Tolal Coliform Contamination of VIiiage Water Source V1lla9e ______..;=.;=-= Water Sources Total Coliforrn/100 ml Chaubas Covered spring 5·10 Surface pool 5 -10 Village tap 10-20 Syabru Village tap 10-20 Spring 1 20-30 Spring 2 -100 River -100 Source: Joshi (1987). 9 Envlronmontal Poffutlon /(l /llePtJI: A Roviow source. Groundwater is extracted through bore general, comamlnalion was round to be hlgher holes and wells. In the Teral use oftubewel Is and in the rainy season (June • September) than In dugwells Is widespread in areas where there is the dry season. This study confirmes that tlUi no easy access 10 surface water. groundwater from stone spouts in Kathmandu is not safe fordrinking. Kathmandu Teral Areas People in many areas of Kathmandu and Lalitpur use groundwater from open dugwells, Groundwater quality was assessed by DIS'll tubewells, and stone spouts (dhunge dhara) for (1990c) In seven rural areas of Morang, Sunsa(\ washing, drinking and ceremonial purposes. Jhapa. Siraha, and Saptarl in the Eastern CEDA {1989) reported that 5 percent of Development Region of Nepal. The study w~ Kathmandu's population regularly used water conducted for UNICEF, and covered villages from dugwells and stone spouts. A P. Sharma served by the Terai Tubewell Project· {1986) found that water from these sources was Baijnathpur, Takuwa and Bayarban in Morang. highly polluted with coliform bacteria counts Shreepur Jabdi in Sunsari, Panchagaachhi fo from O to 460 per 100 ml during summer. Water Jhapa, Bandipur in Slraha, and Naktlarpur In from tubewells was more contaminated than Saptari. A total of 164 samples were tested lor that from open dugwells and water spouts. chemical and bacteriological properties, 70 from iron removal plants of the project, 20 from The most polluted spout water was found at non-project tubewells, 12 from non-pro]ect Ohobighat in Jawalakhel, Lalitpur. Groundwater dugwells, and 39 lrom households. in this area wasfound to be contaminated by the effiuent discharge of the Jawalakhel Distillery. The bacteriological quality of water from The coliform count Jn the distillery effluent and 1ubewells was found to be far better than thalti spout water was 4,800 per 100 ml. The open water from dugwells. About 90 percent of lhe dugwell with the highest levels or pollution was samples from project tubewells had less than 10 at Hyumat in Kathmandu. 11 was noticed that the faecal coliform cells per 100 ml, 8 percent had sewerage system In this locality was seriously 10-1 oo cells/1 oo ml, and only 2 percent hatt overloaded, leading to groundwater more than 100 cells/100 ml. Similar and contamination. Overall, no groundwater that comparatively low levels of water pollution wera supplied open dugwells, tubewells and water found in non-project tubewells. spouts was found 10 be suitable for drlnkl ng, a conclusion substantiated by Vaidya and Samples from dugwells were highly polluted. Karmacharya (1986). None of the samples collected from projea dugwells had less then 1o faecal coliform eel ~ Bacteriological quality of groundwater in per 100 ml, and about seven percent of samples Kathmandu was also investigated by had 10-100 cells/100 ml, while 93 percent had ENPHO/DISVI (1990). Samples were collected more than 100 cells/100 ml. All samples from from stone spouts in 21 localities. Water from all non-prolect dugwells had more than 100 the spouts was found to be faecally cefls/100 ml. Water from households was contaminated. The lowest average faecal generally more contaminated than at its source. col norm densities were observed in the samples from Bhalbhalenl (8 cells/100 ml), Balajutar (1 Several parameters were tested to delermfne cell/100 ml) and Sundhara (19cell/100 mQ. The the physlco-chem1cal quality of water and mos: highest densities were observed in the samples were within WHO standards for drinking watei l from Bhlrnsenlhan (37,602 cells/100 ml) and quality, except Fe, Mn, N03, and hardness. Fe Narayanhity (15,198 cells/10Q ml). In all, 81 and Mn are classified by WHO as constituents percent of the samples contained an average that may affect the aesthetic quality of drinking density of more than 100 cells/100 ml. In water, but are not of panicular impor1ance 111 10 WATER POU.l/TION terms of health. About 82 percent of Fe and Mn Bagmati River present in the water was removed by iron removal plants Installed by the project. NOa can While sewage and Industrial wastes are the pose a threat to health, but only 3 percent of the most visible causes of contamination along the samples collected from project tubewells and Kathmandu section of the Bagmatl river, none of the samples COiiected from the other nonpoint sources such as air pollutants, sources were above WHO guidelines. pesticides and fertlfisers carried to the rivers by the rain and the soil washing process also SURFACE WATER POLLUTION contribute to contamination. Drinking water comes mainly from streams, The Bagmati river Is the largest river in the rivers, lakes and reservoirs. In addition rivers Kathmandu valley, covering a length exceeding and other surface water bodies are important for 30 km. ft is an important source of city water recreation, irrigation, hydropower generation supply. Studies on the pollution of the Bagmati and fisheries. They play a fundamental role In nver have been conducted by Shrestha (1980), the economic development of Nepal. Yet they Upadhyaya and Roy (1982), Khadka (1983), are also the main repository for the nation's Napit (1987), Pradhanang eta/ (1988b), Vaidya untreated sewage, solid waste and Industrial el al (1988), DISVI (1988), RONAST (1988a,b), effluent. As the population increases and Shrestha (1990), and Karmacharya (1990). human use of surface water courses and bodies intensifies, many of these uses become The most comprehensive ofthese studies was incompatible. that conducted by DISVI, in cooperatiOn with RONAS T, in 1988. Water samples and biological There are over 6,000 rivers in Nepal with an samples were collected rrom seven sampling estimated total length ol some 45,000 km (CBS, sites along the Bagmatl river and from its three 1989). Economically, the most important rivers major tributaries. With assistance from are the Koshi, Gandaki and Karnali. Other major RONAST, DISVI collected and analysed rivers include the Kankai, Kamala, Bagmati, samples on alternate months from January to Tinau, West Rapti and Sabal. Nepal has only a July. RONAST continued the study until lew small lakes; the best known and most September. Very similar studies were carried Intensively used is the man·made Phewa lake In ou1 by Shrestha (1990) and Karmacharya Pokhara. The turbulent and rapidly rtowlng (1990). waters of Nepal's rivers and streams have considerable self cleansing abililfes through 01svr cfassllied the river into distinct zones mechanical and oxidation processes. But takes according to water quality class as determined and reservoirs are more static, with slower by the extended biOtic index (EBI). The EBI turnover of water, and are particutarty prone to indicates the degree of pollution of surface rapid degeneration In water quality. wa1er using benthlc invertebrates as Indicators. The biotic Index value of water quahty ls based Few studies have been conducted on surface on the known pollution tolerance or specific water quality in Nepal and Information on fresh Invertebrate species. Least polluted water is water ecology is scattered and fragmentary classified under class f, and most pollu1ed as Nowhere is monitoring carried out on a class V. Various chemical parameters such as systematic basis. The quahty of lhe Bagma1i COD, 800, NH3, PO•, NOa, Cl and conductrvity river in the Ka1hmandu valley IS now receiving have also been examined to determine the river the most consistent attention. water quality with similar results to those using the EBI. Table V summarises the findings of the various water quality studies on the Bagmatl river system. 11 Environmental PoJluUon kt Nepal.· A RaYiow Table V: Water Quality otthe Bagmall River System Sample Sile Oistanceol Water Quality Parameters Sample Site Class (EBI) Exceeding WHO from Source Standard BAGMATl RIVER Sundarijal 7km None Gokatna 1skm None Pashupatinath 20km II COD. P04 Thapathali 25km m COD, NH3, P04. and Conductivity Sundarighat 2Bkm v All Chobhat 31 llm Fluctuates COO, NHa, BOD Khokana 35km Ill COO, NH3 TRIBUTARIES Manohara Ffiver, Phutbari II None Ohobl Khela River, Baneswore Ill BOO, COO, NHa,CI, and Conductivity Blshnumati River Kalimati v.v All Source~ OISVI (1988), RONAST (f9B8a). Shrestha (1990), Karmacharya (1990). 12 WATER POLLUTION Chemical parameters including levels of d ischarged into the river varies with the detergents were found to increase downstream seasons, the highest discharges being in the of Sundarijal, and then slightly decrease monsoon months from June to September. downstream of Chobhar. Bacteriological analysis showed high faecal coliform The total dissolved solids (TDS) value (a contamination of the river water at most of the slgnilicant pollution Indicator) in Ohobl Khola sample sites. The diversity of was minimum In Sep1ember and roached a macroinvertebrates was higher In the maximum In May before the onset or the rains. unpolluted zone of the river than in the polluted As the Manohara river does not pass through zone. Only a few taxa were reported present in the city, it was not polluted with industrial and the polluted zone. municipal discharges. The TOS values for this river were comparatlvelY. lower than those for The river water quality varied with seasonal other sites. In the Naktlu Khola, where trucks, variation. Pollution load was highest in summer, cars and domestic animals are washed, there while It decreased in winter and during the rainy was a sudden increase in specific conductance season. value, perhaps due to organic man er. The Balkhu Khela, Bishnumatr and Bagmall rivers Among the Bagmall river sampling sites, pass through the city and receive municipal Sundarighat was the most polluted, and among discharges throughout the year. However, the the tributary sampling sites Bishnumatl river at values of water chemistry parameters In the Kalimati was found to be the most polluted. rainy season were lower than those during the Among the three important tnoutaries studied, winter and summer seasons. This was due to the Manohara river contributed fess pollution increased water volume and dilullon ratio. The load to the Bagmatl river than the Dhobl Khola Bagmati and Bishnumatl had higher TDS and Bishnumati rivers. values. specific conduclance, and concentrations or Na, K and Cl. In summary, the Bagmati river and ns tributaries maintain good chemical and biological quafity CEDA (1989) found the level of total coldorm and until they enter the urban areas. The destruction faecal coliform in the Bagmati, Bishnumati and of the aquatic ecosystem at thfs point In the river Dhobl Khela rivers to be a staggering 720,000 1s caused by the untreated sewage of cells/100 ml In each case. Of the chemlcal Kathmandu and Patan entering the river, as well parameters tested, only the Cl value In each river as the untreated wastewater discharge of proved to be higher than the WHO standard industries. Industrial effluents are discharged by Dissolved oxygen (DO) in the Bagmati and various small and medium sized Industries Bishnumati rivers was slightly lower than the directly into the river or its major tribu1arles. desired level of 6 mg/I which suggests that at limos or low now these rivers may be susceptible The self purification capability of the Bagmati to eutrophication or anaerobic conditions. river Is degenerating. The river has a high Water tested from the Dhabi Khola had a concentration of pollutants and now has a chromium (Cr) level of 0.1 O mg/I, probably due reduced number of organism groups 10 km to the discllarge of Bansbari tannery effluent downstteam from Kathmandu, at the Khokana Into the river However, It was not known site. whet her Cr was non-toxic trivalent or highly toxic hexavalent. In 1982, Upadhyaya and Roy studied chemical parameters 1n six rivers and rivulets - Dhobi Shrestha (1990) tested water samples from the Khola, Manohara, Nakhu Khola, Balkhu Khola, Bagmau river for organic pollution. As with the Bishnumati and Bagmatl. A wide seasonal DISVI and RONAST study of 1988, he found Iha• variation was noted In water chemistry. Thls is the river had definite zones of pollution to be expected as the quantity of rain water depending on proximity to urban areas and 13 Envlronmontal Pollution In Nepal: A Revlrrw industry. The Bagmati was classified into six Napit (19BS) also investigated pollution of the zones - a healthy zone, moderate upstream Bagmati river in Pashupati area He found Iha pollution zone, polluted zone, moderato physical characteristics such as colour, turbidity downstream pollution zone, recovery zone, and and suspended particles exceeded desirable clean zone. levels. However, the chemical parameters tested did not exceed the WHO standards. The pollutants were classified Into four groups: Pradhananga er al (1988b) tested water inert Inorganic material, putrisible wastes, toxic samples of the Bagmati river at different sites in wastes or biocides, and sewage ettluents. The the Pashupatl area and found parameters such chief sources of pollution were Identified as as pH, conductivity, DO, P04, and NH3-N within domestic wastes; garbage; faecal matter; finely the permissible value for water supply. fisheries divided organic matter in suspension: and industry. However, the values for detergents; acid, alkalies and salts from suspended solids and BOD exceeded WHO hospitals, laboratories, tanneries and standards. Vaidya et el (1988} Investigated distilleries: and petroleum products from pollution of the Bagmatl river in lhe Pashupah laundries and automobile workshops. area on the basis of a diversity Index for macro-invenebt'ate fauna and found the level d Approximately 50 percent or these pollutants pollution nsing from low at upstream sites to were found to be discharged into the Bagmatl moderate and high at downstream sites. The river by two very polluted feeder streams - the higher population of pollution-tolerant species Dhobl Khola and Tukucha. These streams were in each sampling site during the month ol May so polluted that, In 1983, the Royal Drugs to August indicated that the pollution level Research Laboratory of His Majesty s increased in summer. They speculated that the Government (HMG) was said to have refused to high degree of pollution could be due 10 test the water from Dhabi Khela rivulet for rear municipal discharge and agricull ural runoff. that the equipment would be damaged by the heavily polluted samples (Sharma, 1986; Himal, Phewa Lake 1987). In 1990, Rana assessed water pollution in The impact ot toxic substances on nsh In lhe Phewa lake al Pokhara. The Phewa lake is a Bagmatl river ls dramatic. Dead fish collected multipurpose reservoir for recreation, irrigation, during early spring and late monsoon showed hydr-0power generation, fisheries, washing some morbid changes in gllls. scales and drinking and waste disposal. lnteslines. High fish mortality occurs every year in the Bagmatl river over the months of July and The main contributors 10 the pollution load ol August. One of the causes of this massive Phewa lake have been sewage discharge from mo1111tlty rate rs the very row lever ot DO, households and small hotels situated in the lake approximately 2 to 3.5 mg/I (Shrestha, 1980). periphery and surface runoff, from both urban and agricultural areas within the lal 14 WATcR POLLU170N ror the lake was calculated at 14 tonnes. BOD to a high degree. Water quality of receiving arid COD were found to be higher in the bottom streams was generally woFse during the lake strata than in surface waters. Total coliform summer than during the rainy season due to the and faecal coliform counts in tributaries flowing lower dilution rate. As expected, water quality Into the lake were high (aJ 17,000 and 900 improved ror most parameters going from the cells/100 ml. respectively). Fe and Mn discharge point to the downstream sampling concentration were found to be 8 and 1 mg/I point. Effluent from the tannery and carpet respectively, which also exceeded WHO factories had the lowest dissolved oxygen (DO) drinking water quality standards. levels, and W 15 Envlronmerita/ Pollution in Nepal: A Review m3 /day, and the concentration of po[lutants was Heritage Site and is a rich habitat for a wide very high (Miyoshi, 1987). variety of terrestrial and aquatic flora and fauna The local people use its water tor drinking, Miyoshi (1987) measured the levels ot different washing and irrigation purposes: parameters iffdomestic sewage at three places in Kathmandu - Bouddha, Balaju and Kalimali. The Everest Paper Mill is situated on the Oratil In all case.s, the number of total coliform was river, at Mahendra Nagar in Dhanusha District, 4,800 cells/100 ml. The level otDOwas very low approximately 11 o km southeast of Kathmandu, in all cases, and at no point higher than 1 mg/I. The emuent of this mill enters into a pool In a The BOD and COD values were hlg h ~t for nearby field and is then discharged into the river Kaflmati sewage, at 582 mg/I and 250 mg/I which is 300 meters away from the mill. The respectively. Orahf is a small river. In 1983, Forestry Services examined the effluent These paper mills discharge ttieir effluents ot the Hlmal Cement Factory and pollution directly into the river system without any parameters of the Bagmati river. The factory treatment (RONAST, 1987; Pradhananga' el al, effluent contained heavy metals such as lead 198Bb). Public concern has been growing OV!!I (Pb), mercury (Hg) and Cr, as well as dissolved thepoUution, esi:iecialty that caused by effluents solids. The. values for Pb and Cr in the effluent of the Bhrikutl Paper Miii. Some preliminary and in river water were 0.2 mg/I and 0.1 mg/I studies had been conducted by Bhat1aral et al respectively. These metals are known to (1S86) and ISC (196!1). concentrate rn plants and animals. Pradhanangaet al studied water samples taken Narayani and Orahi Rivers from upstream, the effiuent mixing zone, and downstream, as well as effluent samples from RONAST(i987) and Pradhanangaeca/ (1988a) both paper mills. Physical properties such as analysed samples collected at different sites ot temperature, colour, and !low rate were notea the Narayani ancl Orahi river's to examine the and various chemical properties were analysed impact of paper mill effluents on the local biotiC Biological samples comprising phytoplan~to~ systems. The pollution cause.d by effluents of zooplanl\ton, algae, invertebrates and fishes the Bhrikuti and Everest Paper Mill was high at were collec;ted, as appropriate. some points along the course of rivers, especially at the zone of active decomposition Considerable change in cqlour and odour wa.~ and the initial zone of mixing. The pollution was observed between the upstream and more severe in the Orahl river, due to Its low dovmstream water of the Orahi river. The dilution ratio. In the case of the Narayan! river, magnitude of temperature increase due to the water 15 km downstream of the Initial mixing effluent discharge In both mills was well within zone retumedto almost normal quality. the.specified standard. The Bhrikuli Paper Mill is located on ttie The discharge rate of the Bhri ~uu Paper Mill Narayan! river, at Galnda! 16 WATER POl.LVTION dilution ratio is only 1 :1.6, and there is no extenslVely and species divers.ty decreased thorough mixing or effluent and rrver water, as subSlantially. Pollution-tolerant invertebrates shown in the difference of pH values at opposite were present In low diversity at this zone, along banks. w~h larvae of Erlsratls spp and Simullum spp; both of these species are excellent fndlcaiors of Values for suspended solids In both rivers were high pollutiOn, and were abundantly present within acceptable limits, ranging between 17 to The dOwnstream waters of the Nar ayanl rlVer, 21 mg/I, as was the case for siflcon dlO>Ode unlike those ol ttw> Orahi nver, recovered their (5102). Ca, magnesium (Mg) and Na How811'er, ooginal quality the value for Iron Ion concentr.mon tn Orahl mer water exceeded the standard specification The water quahty studies of the Narayan1 and following mixing with faClory effluent Tho values Orah• rivers found high levels of pollutlon at lor copper (Cu), silver (Ag), load (Pb) and zinc some points along the course ol the overs duo (Zn) were loss than 0.2 mg/I and hence wnh1n to the papr,r mills. especially at the zone ol nctive the standard value. There wore no s1gn1licant decompos1t1on ~nd ln1tlal zone of mixing The dllforences In DO values between upstream and extent cl pollution was severe In the Otahi cluo downstream waters of either rlVPr to the rivers low d1lutron rate. The studlr"i did not eltBmine tho effects of pollution on the The COO value of Narayan! nver watGf 1.5 km aquatic fOOd chain 111 either 01 tho rivers The downstream was 40 mg/I, which is a maxomum impac1 of polluuon on higher vertebratcs threshold llmh for rivfH water as spoahed by the including endangered species such 11s European Economic Community (EEC). COO Gangetrc Oolphms, Gharial and Mugger which lor the Orahl river, however, exceeded the the Narayanl rrver ts known to harbour, was not maximum level up to 3 l 17 EnvlronmontJJJ Pollution in No pal: A Rovlaw Nepal Leather Industry In Bhairhawa, as well as quality standards ploposed for Nepal for inland that caused by the Bansbari Tannery in waters (EISP, 1987) (Annex II). Kathmandu. The Bhairhawa tannery was found to contain The Blrgunj tannery discharges its effluents 1, 780 mg/I or total dissolved solids and 800 mg}I withoU1 any treatment directly Into the Sirsiya of total suspended solids. The wastewater also river via a small irrigation canal called pain/. The contained a high amount ol heavy metals such Bhalrhawa tannery discharges its untreated as arsenic (As) (Kunwar, 1985). The local people efftuent directly into the Ghagra river. have stopped using the effluent mixed river waterfor drinking purposes. The pollution load of the Birgunj tannery effluent was less than that of the Bansbari tannery, but The Nepal Bureau or Standards and Metrology this may be due to sampling at a time when the or His Majesty's Government has proposed tanning process was not complete. The waste tolerance limits lor inland surface waters water, however, did not meetthe environmental receiving Industrial effluents, as listed in Annex II. 18 AIR POLLUTION n contrast to the wealth of data available ln American contribution. The total CH• emission developed countries on air pollution, no for Nepal included 38,000 t from solid waste, I systematic monitoring has been 490,000 t from livestock and 660,000 t from wet undertaken to examine the situation In Nepal. rice. The lack ot a1r pollution information conceals a significant public health problem, and hampers The eX1ent to which Nepal is adding C02 and development of control measures. CFC to the atmosphere isvirtually negligible and likely to remain so for a long time (Banskota er In 1990, the World Resources Institute (WAI) al, 1990). However, emissions of CH• from the estimated Nepal's contribution to the global agricultural sector are significant. greenhouse effect through the emission of C02 (expressed in terms of total carbon content), Localised sources of air pollution In Nepal methane (CH•), and chlorofluorocarbons include combustion of fossil fuels, vehicular (CFCs). WAI reported that, in 1987. Nepal's exhausts, indus1rial emissions, unmanaged anthropogenic additions to the C02 flux solid wastes, and burning of biomass with included 14,000 tonnes of carbon from cement resulting smoke emission. In Nepal, Industries production, 62,000 t of carbon from combustion and automobiles are significant contributors to of solid fossil fuels, 150,000 t ol carbon from air pollution In urban areas, while in rural areas combustion ol liquid fossil fuels, and 6. 7 mimon the principle source is domestic burning of plant tonnes of carbon from annual land use change, material for cooking and heating. totalling 6. 9 mill Ion tonnes of carbon. Destruction of forests by flaring and combustion S~1 spe n ded particulate m atter and gaseous of fuel gas made a negligible comribullon. The chemicals are the main forms of air pollution and per capita contribu1ion In lhat year was 0.4 t of are potential health and ecological hazards. carbon, whichisvery fowwhencomparedtothe Particulates consist of fine solids, or liquid average Asian per capita contribution of o.8 t, droplets suspended in air which are collectively European per capita of 2.4 t, North and Central called suspended particulate matter (SPM). The A111erlcan per capita of 3.8 t, and South larger sized particulates are grit, dust, soot and American per capita of 5.8 L. lly ash, and the smaller sized are smoke, fumes, mist and aerosols. Gaseous emissions from Nepal's per capita addition to the methane combustion ol fossil fuels are dangerous air (CH•) nux (0.07 t) was, however, more than the pollutants. Incomplete combustion of fossil fuels average Asian (0.04 t), European and African such as petrol, diesel, kerosene, and coal contributions and equal to the average Soulh proctuce large amounts of carbon monoxide 19 Envlronmantal Pollution in NoptJJ: A RaV/ow (CO), sulphur dioxide (S02), oxide5 of nitrogen INDUSTRIAL EMISSIONS (NOx). unburned hydrocarbon, andtar droplets. In addition, lead is released into the atmosphere The main sources of air pollutants irom the through the use In Nepal of petrol with a high lndustrfal sector are the combustion of fossil lead content. fuels for heating and power, and waste gases and dust from Industrial processes and sites. Industrial emissions which contain S02, CO, Hg, The burning of luels produces heat energy and cadmium (Cd), and ar.senic (As) are serious air gaseous and particulate waste products. When pollutants. In addition, the decomposition or eombustion is corrrplete the main gaseous unmanaged solid wastes emits hydrogen product'is C02, but ln the event of incomplete sulphide (H2S) and airborne pathogens which combuslion and oxidation. more harmful CO is create a health and aesthetic hazard. Open ait produced in addition to hydrocarbons. Fossil defecation due to limited toilet facilities and fuels also contain o,s - 4.0 peroenl of sulphur, hygiene awareness aggravates this situation. which is oxidised to S02 during combustion. ADB (1985) noted that there was no data. on rural sanitation practices In Nepal but Many industrial manufact1Jring processes are defecating in open air situations was the norm. also potential sources or other toxic gases, heavy metals and complex organic compounds Pollutants emitted rrom combustion or biomass which rnay have carcinogenic ettects. Th e fuels used for coo~ing and heating in rural industrial plants that appear to be the major households of Nepal pose serious health sources or pollution include iron and steel hazards. poorly ventilated households intensify foundries, coking ovens, pulp and paper mills, the effects of these emissions. Many lung ari.d chemical plants and cement wor~s (Dix, 1981 ). eye diseases among Nepalese women are ascribed to indoor pollution. Allhough the level or industrialisation is still low in Nepal, looaliSed air pellutlon pmblems have General air pollution Is noticeable In Nepal In tile become signlffcant. Moreover, the number of late spring and early summ.er months at which manufacturing industries Is on the rise. In the 20 time a haz.e format1on nisults through a years lo 1986/.87, the number of industrial combination of wind.blown dust and the smoke establishments increases by seven t·imes to or many grass and forest fires in both lowland 9,359, primarily in the Eastern, Central and and midland Nepal. The Kathmandu valley is Western Development Regions (CBS, 1989). especially vulnerable 10 air pollution due to its bowl-like topography, dense population, valley A lew studies have been undertaken to examine centlic Industrial development and relatively industrial emissions. but they do not provide a large riumb·er of automobiles (Fleming, Jr.• consistent qualily of information. Lack of 1977). The .bowl-like topography restricts wind appropriate Instruments and laboratory racililies movement and retains the pollutants in the was a r'na]or constraint to those studies. atmosphere, especially during periods or Addltionally. in the absence of national thermal inversion over Kathmanc;Ju where cold standards an industrral emissions and ambient air flowing dowp rrom the mountains is ttapped air quality, 1he study res.ults assumed less than under a layer of warmer aJr whlcll acts like a lfd desired significance. One~ study suggested that over a bowl. Improperly placed lac1aries eould U.S. ambient air quality standards, as llsteel in contribute si§nificantly to air pollution in Annex Ill, may be followed for the time belng, Kathmandu and the incidence of respiratory illness among valley residents. In 1983, a study by Forestry Services r~ported that no ~apiici ty e~isted In Nepal for sampling and analysis ot the chemical composition or amblenlalran·d emitted gases. The assessment or air quality was therefore conducted by 20 AIR POLLIJTION interview. The two largest industries in contained various gaseous compounds, Kathmandu (Himal Cement Factory, Bansbari including NO (200 ppm), N02 (30 ppm), and Leather and Shoe Factory) and various brick S02 (5 ppm). Carbon dioxide (C02) formed 16 and tile factories were selected as case studies, percent of the flue gas Ttie major air p.ollutants of the cement industry No meteorological parameters such as wind are particulates and gaseocus Wastes such as speed and· direction, vertical remperature S02, CO and NOx which are emitted from gradient anc,l flux were available to the 1983 chimneys or smokestacks. Dust from the s\udy, and thus dispersal rates and areas could limestone mines, coal yares and cement not be calculated. There was no stack sampling clinkers is emitted Into the air, together with dust or moniloring of emissions. However, a from various processes such as crushing and reconnaissance survey of 1he area surrounding cllnkerisation. Oust emitted generally contains the factory revealed very heavy dustfalf within a carbonate, silicate, alum lnate, fluoride and 300 m radius from the base or the stack. Hima/ alkalihalide. Higher amounts or silica and (1987) reported that depending on the wind alkalihalide will be present In the dust If low conditions, Chobharvillage nearthe factory and grade limestone is used. Sanga vmage across the Bagmati river were eriveloped in dust. Miyoshi (1987) confirmed The Himel Cement Factory at Chobhar near that everything near the factory o,yas covered Kirtipur In the Kathmandu valley has attracted with dust and looked whitish grey. The lack" of considerable public attention for Its dust adequate dust collectors was cited as the emissions which at times can be seen from any reason for high dust emission. point in the valley. Commissioned in 1974, the company has expanded its production capacity According to some observers Himal Cement's from 160 to 400 tonnes of clinker per day. silica eust, ash and smoke do not remain Limestone required for this factory comes from restricted to the Immediate environs and ttie limestone deposits in the Chobhar hills. ISC villages, but spread In a thin haze throughout (1987) reported thattlle flue gas emitted from the valley. These emissions have affected the the cement kiln before the factory's expansion health of the factory workers as w.ell as 21 Enviror1tnental Pollutfon in Nepal: A Roviow inhabitants ol surrounding villages (Hima/, Leather Tanning Industry 1987). Steam is required at many S1ages of the leather Another major cement factory is Hetauda 1annlng process, and Is generated by burning Cement Industries. Establisl1ed in 1985 with a steam coal and oil as fuels. Th1s combustion production capacity of 750 tonnes or clinker per results in the emission of gases such as SOx, day, this factory is located about 3 km NOx. CO and C02. These em1ssfons are soutl1-west of Hetauda town at Lamaure. The generally low. production process of the factory Is based on rotary kiln technology. ISC (1987) reported that According toFor.estry Services (1983), Bansbari the flue gas emitted by the factory was Leather and Shoe Factory in Kathmandu composed of 18 percent C02, and only 0.1 consumed only 150tonnes of fuel per year and percent CO. The amount or NOx was 150 ppm had no significant emissions -Of gaseous and so~ was 50 ppm. This composition or flue pollutants. Miyoshi (1987) cenlirmed this view gas is within international emission standards, and repdrted that the a mo um of S02 emltted by This is due lo the faet that an electrostatic the operation of two boilers was 55 to 100 ppm. precipitator (ESP) has been installed in the kiln. A strong, offensive odour, however. prevailed in However, the ISC report slates that ·lhe ESP the open air yard where lhe solid wastes of the could reduce emissions even more ii it were factory such as pelts and flesh are dumped. The functioning properly. Miyoshi (1987) reported odeur was severe within an area at least 500 m that almost all dust was emitted from the factoiy down1•1lnd of the factory, and was strongest in stack when the ESP stoppedfonctioning. It was the ralny season, The afeas downwind were reported that malfunctioning of the ESP unsuitable for residential pufposes as the occurred frequently. stench from the dumping yard was strong enough lo cause nausea and vomiting. The The factory also installed dust filters in eveiy Forestry Services report re·commends that- a station to control dust concentrations in the burra1 practice be adopted or that the wastes be exhavstso that the collected dust is recifculaled used for otfler purposes. in the process. These dust filters were installed in all the dust emitting seetlons, from the raw Briel< Factories material handling section to the packaging sections. There are two large, modern brick factories in the Kathmandu valley: one at Harisiddhi in Four cement plants are In operation in Central Lalitpur, and the 01her at Bha]ltapur. fn addition, Nepal, two of which are l<1rge-scale. Uprety there are appro~im<1tely two hundred brick kiln (1988) Investigated these four cement factories chimneys lhroughout \he valley, particularly in and reported that the dust emitted from tlhese Balal area in KathmaRdu, and in Harisiddhi. factories was seriously affecting the health of local people as well as the factory workers. This The ouming of coal and fuelwood in brick kilns was true despite the installation ot pollution releases a cemplex mixture of gases and control equipment and provision of pollution particulates, the most hazardous being S02. Yet control measures to the workers in all but one the Forestry Services 1983 survey ef crops in case. It was estimated that the HetaudaCement areas surrounding the large factories did not Factory emitted dust equivalent to 6 tonnes ot reveal any signs ol crop injury due to SOz. cement per day, and the Himal Cement Factory Miyoshi (1987) concluded that as t-larisiddhl the equivalent of 400 tonnes of cement each Brick Factory's stack was tall (65 m) and year (Hims/, 1987; Uprely, 1988), Ttie Trivenl facilitated a well dispersed dust fall, It was not Oemenl Factory lacked pollution control environmentally sign~rcant. The quantity of dust equipment and was located adjacent to a particles emitted by bri.ck and tile factories was village, posing a serious public heallh ha~ard. not as high as for cement factories but the 22 AJR POl.LUTION cumulative effects of so many kilns. throughout According to the ISC report, the mlll had the valley needs to be assessed. Miyoshi {1987) adopted appropriate measures for controlling emphasised the need to estimate the exhaust air pollution. The dust collection chamber gas volume. ADB (1.990) indicated that the trapped the dust and foreign material emitted amount of smoke from brlck kilns is rapidly when Sabal grass and wheat straw were increasing, especially in Kathmandu valley. handled. The coke collecting equipment screened the smoke of burnt coal In the boTier Bhattarai (1 990) surveyed brick kilns of the house. The smoke emitted was thus assumed Kathmandu valley area and reported that brick to contain no ash or small par1lcles of unburnt kilns were markedly contributing to ajr p.ollution coke. The tall 30 m high chimney would further in the valley. Firewood, coal and lignite are used reduce .the. emission of particulate matter. The as fuel at ·a typical klln. This process releases mill's steam rec.ovary system did npt allow S02, NOx, and carbon'and dust partrcles 10 the steam to escape, reducing the potential for the atmosphere. These emrssions contribute to the emissions cif bad odours. smog in the valley which is evident during thermal inversions. No studies have been carried out on the air quality effects of the Everest Paper Mill, Pulp and Paper Industry Sugar Mills and Distilleries The pulp and paper Industry uses coal 1;1nd heavy oil as fuel at various stages or the Sugar mills burn bagasse as boifer fuel. The manufacturing process. Coal isosed to produce black smoke or11y ash from the boiler chimneys steam for cooking pulp and drying paper, and contains gaseous chemicals such as so;, NO,.., heavy oil is us.ad for generating electricity. The CO and C02. Molasses, a usaful by-product ot chimney exhaust contairis gasescsuch as SOx, sug·ar mills, give ofl an oflensille odour if NOx; CO, C02 and particulate matter. The steam improperly stored. that escapes has an offensive odour. Five sugar mills are operating in Nepal, along Two large paper mills are In operation in Nepal: with about seven kl1andsari mills (which the Shrikuti Paper Mill in Gaindakot, produce jaggery and sugarcane products). Nawalparasi, and the Everest Paper M Ill in Mahendranagar near Janakpur, Dhanusha. tSC (1987) reported that the Birgunj Sugar Mill' Although water pollution caused by these mills and Distillery, \•1hich is located very near the has been studied in detall, the eXJenl ol air residential areas of Birgunj, had not Installed pollution due to smoke stack emission has yet any equipment for controlling air pollution. No to t>e examined. analysis had been undertakeh of the emitted gases and particulates. ISC completed a study of the Bhrlkutl Paper Mill In 1984. Situated on the Narayani river, thls mill Distilleries contribute to air pollution as they also has a production capacity ot1 O tonnes of writing· burn coat, bagasse, wood and sal seed coke as and printing paper per day. Studies have yet to boiler ruel, producing SOx. NOx and C02. In be conducted of the composition of chimney addition, a large volume of CO~ is emitted as a exhaust gases. Miyoshi (1.987) reported that result of the lermentation process. After making gases such as S02 and NO;, as well as soot a brief study or nine food and beverage particles were emitted by operation of the boiler, processing industries including sugar mills and but did not consider that the emission was distilleries, a dairy factory, soft drink bottling causing significant adverse Impact on the plant, vegetable ghee factory, noodles factory environment. and biscuit fa.ctory, Miyoshi (1987) concluded that while.pollutlon caused by these industries requlred urgent attention, their air pollution 23 effects, in terms ol S(h and NO,. emissions, AUTOMOTIVE VEHICLES were not significant. The rapid Increase In motor vehicles during the Textile Mills last lorty years in Nepal has led to serious adverse consequences for public health and Fine dust is produced at various stages in textile the environment mill operation, especially when weaving yam into clolh which is a high speed, mechanical The number or vehicles In Kathmandu alone has operation. Finely divided lint is present in !he quadrupled over the past decade (Hlmal, 1987). dust emitted in the vicinity of the mills, probably By February 1987, 13,460 cars and feeps; 6,150 presenting a health hazard to workers, motorcycles; 4,51 O buses, trucks and specifically respiratory disorders. Additionally, minibuses: 900 power tillers and tractors; and the boiler operation releases smoke into the 620 autorlckshaws were registered in atmosphere. Kathmandu - a total of 25,640 Internal combustion engine vehicles. Elsewhere in the The country has two large, modem textile mills, country, the number or vehicles registered one at Hetauda and the other at Bataju in during the flScal years 1978/79 to 1987/88 is Kathmandu. The ISC report states that these 2,872buses, 4,759trucks, and 10,574 jeeps and mills emit cotton dust into the factory premises. cars, totalling 18, 178 motor vehioles (CBS, Miyoshi (1987) briefly surveyed the pollutants 1989). Many of these vehicles are badly emitted by the operation of boilers at textile mills maintained, thus emittJng more carbon, sulphur at Balaju and Hetauda, and Nepal Synthetic and lead than normal Industries and Raj Kamal Spinning Mills at Balaju. He found thal although S02, NOx and Regular monitoring or vshleular exhausts in !he dust were emitted, the amounts were too small country has not yet been carried oul. Dhamala to cause concern. Also, except at Hetauda, fuel (1983), however, estimated the amount of consumption was small and the quality high, gaseous compounds emitted by road vehicles with sulphur content less than O.• percent in the into the atmosphere of Kathmandu valley, on the fuel oll used at Hetauda. basis of a similar estimation in the United States by Ehrlich and Ehrlich (1972). The 30,ooo Chemical Industry vehicles operating in Kathmandu valley at that time contributed to the pollution level in the Miyoshi (1987) also studied several chemical valley's atmosphere as follows: industries within and outside or Kathmandu valley to examine the pollutants emitted by Carbon monoxrde (CO) 22,000 tonnes/year boilers or furnaces. The industries surveyed Nitrogen oxides (NOx) 2,000 tonnes/year manufactured polythene, paints. so"r. Hydroca1t>ons 400 tonnes/year lubricating oft, wood products, matches. and batteries. He concluded that emission of S02, Sulphu1 oxides (SOx) & partlcu1a1es 333 tonnes/year NO~ and duS1 was not slgnilicanr. Steel Industry Miyoshi (1987) reported on the steel m111s at Furthermore, i1 was eS1imated that 67,500 liters Simra near Birgunj which use fossil fuels for ofNO• were emitted by vehicles every minute. It furnace and boiler operation The amount ol oil was noted that the circulation of air in the consumed was small, ranging from 1.85 to 5.2 Kathmandu valley was not sufficient to kVday and once again he considered that effectively dilute and disperse the NO,.. emission from these factories was not significant. 24 • AIR POU.VT/ON Gaseous emissions from vehicles in Kathmandu While Nepal does import gasoline wtth a high city can be estimated on the basis of figures for 2.93 octane value, the gasoline ava~ablo 10< Bombay. Phatak and Warade (1987) reported public: coosumptiOn has an octane value of only that about 1,800 tonnes of pollutants were 1.87. Several compounds such as tetraothyl released Into Bombay's atmosphere rNery day, lead, ethylene dichloride and ethyleno and more than 50 percent of the pollutant load d1bromldo are added to the gasoline to improve was contributed by 400,000 motor vehicles 0C1ane quality. The combustion ol low octane Nine hundred tonnes of various air poflutants gasoline emits Pb into the atmosphere In tho rrom this source ontored Ille atmosphere each form of Inorganic lead aerosol. which Is lnhalod day. In 1907, Kathmandu city's 25,000 motor t:>y humans and sallies on soil and water Food vehicles alone omitted more than 20.000 tonnes sold 1n the open air along city roads has nlso or various pollutants Into the atmosphere !Nery bean found to contain high levels of Pb year (UNEP/UNICEF. 1990). Walsh and Karlsson (1990) reported that approximately 90 Pflrcent The sltuallon IS rapidly deteriorating About ol F>b In urban air came from combustion of 40,000 tonnes or air pollutants are emiited every petrol in mot0< vehieles. Widespread proson<:o year Tho number ol vehleles m the Kathmandu of Pb In tho erMronment presents a Signihcant valley Is expected to double by the year 2010 hcntth nsk Lead scavengers hke ethylene (ADB, 1990). die hlorldo and ethylene d1bromide arc also added to petrol to clear engines of lead. These The primary pollutants 1n vehicle errusslOOS. lead scavengers have been 1don11fled r1s panlcularly N~ and hydrocarbons, undergo a potential human carcinogens. series of complox chemical reactions m the presence of sunlight 10 rorm secondary Bhanaral and Shrestha (1982} studied tho Pb pollutants such os peroxyaceiyr nitrate (PAN) content of the dust ot Kathmandu city roads A end oz.one (03). In areas of relatively high traffic d•raot correlation was found between heavy density and atmospheric thermal lnversiOn, vehicular traffic and lead content In the dust such as Kathmandu valley, photochemical lrom these roads, as Shovm in Table Vt. smog can be readily formed Such smog consiSts of a mU 25 \ Environmont.al Pollution In Nepcrl: A RevJew in Kalimati, with 18.2 mg/(m2.h), followed by Table VI: Road Traffic and Lead In New Road and Ratna Park. The lowest Kathmandu concentration was recorded at Paknajol, at 7.2 mg/(m2.h). The highest concentration of Localion VehicleS/day Lead paniculates In Pok hara, 18.67 mg/(m2 .h), was ______. ___ __ (2pm) recorded at Prlthvi Chowk. The lowest concentration was recorded at Phew a lake area, Heavy Traffic at 4.01 mg/(m2.h). Mailighar 2,200 574 In Blratnagar, the highest density of particulates was recorded at the Tinpalni area, with 17.32 Kathmandu GPO 2,000 374 mg/(m2.t1) . Narayanhlly 1,600 These results show that air particulate density is high in areas where the density or vehicular Light Traffic traffic is high. The study also estimated the number of carbon, silt and other particulates per Baiaju <100 34 mm2/h and the concentration of particulates in mg/(m2.h). Table VII shows the highest DharmasthaJi <100 51 estimated value lor each particulate. Budhanlikamha <100 10 INDOOR BIOMASS COMBUSTION '<'less than Air polMlon is most often associated with Source: Bhattarai end Shreslha (19621. Industrial, urban and outdoor locations where fossil fuels are burned, but in developing paniculates concentration was also quite high, 3 countries more people are affected by air at 8,800 mg/m . The trace element pollution in agricultural, rural, Indoor localions concentrations at a busy sireet in Kathmandu where biofueis are dominant (Smith, 1984). were similar to those in the hotel counyard. Indoor air pollution caused by combusllon of However, the concentration or Pb In the street 3 biomass fuel for cooking and heating purposes was 0.80 mgfm . more than double the 1n rural households has been studied in vanous counyard concentration. Combustion elements pans of Nepal, Combustion of biomass fuels or so2, N03, and carbon in Kathmandu are such as llrewood, dried animal dung (gulntha), present In concentrations comparable to urban and agricultural residues emit relatively high areas in industrialised countries. levels ol respirable hydrocarbons, particulates ol several categories, as well as CO. Poor CEDA {1989) conducted a study of air pollution ventOation contributes to high concentrations of problems in the three major towns of emissions within rural houses, panicularly in Kathmandu, Pokhara and Biratnagar, with kitchens. special attention to parllculates. The air particulates were irregular in shape and were Oav1dson et al (1986) measured the composed or carbon, silt, fungal spores, pollen concentrations Of different air pollutants In 18 grains, wood dust and other dust panicies of houses In several villages in the Himalayas, various sizes. including high altitude villages such as Lukla, Phakding, Namche Bazar and Khumjung. All the Particulate concentration was measured by remote villages were characterised by the weighing the paniculates deposited within a absence ol Industries and motor vehicle traffic, square meter area in an hour. In Kathmandu, the except for villages in Kathmandu Olstrlot such highest concentration of particulates was found asAlapot, Bhadrabas and Sundarijal, which had 26 AIR POLLUTION Table VII: Air Pa111cullltes In Kathmandu, Pokti.ra and Blratnager Cttles No. o1 cart>on No. ol S1h No. of Other Concenuauoo Panicutmes Particulates Pamcula1cs of Particulates 2 permm2{h per rnm2(h mg/(m2.19 -- per mm 111 Kathmandu 33,750 45.000 Too numerous 10 18.20 count Pokhara &3,682 18,750 Too numerous to 18,67 count Blratnagar 33,750 52,500 Too numerous 10 1732 count Source: CEDA (1989). Infrequent 1ratflc. Wood was the prniclpal fuel, was thought to be responsible for the high with lesser amounts ol animal dung, Charcoal. pollutant concentmtt00s. and crop residues Charcoal emits less panlculate matter and burns more etticiently Tho concentration of many of the pantculate than the other biomass fuels (WHO. 1984). lls and gaseous species measured durine tho cos!, however, prevented widespread use in study was much greater than values typically Nepali households. Serious energy supply found m developed countries. Indoor problems were noted tn the villages, per caplla concentrauons of to:al suspended particulate biomass fuel use averaged 8.2 kglday at high (TSP) mass rneasured ir Nnpal generally elevations and 2.8 kg/day in the lower ele-.'Btion exceeded. often substantially. the ambient air villages. quality standards established by ftle U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for Concentrations or suspended particulates v.ere suspended paruculates (75 g/m3 annual 3 3 In the range of 3-42 mg/m High concentraliOns average. 260 g/m tor 24 hl. CO (9 ppm by or several trace elemems were alSO found. Data VOlurne for 8 h. 35 ppm by 1olume tor 1 h), and for gaseous species showed appreciable levels non-methane hydrocarbons (330 ppbof carbon of CO (21-37 ppm), C02, methane and several for 3 h). In addition, many ol the other trace non-methane hydrocarbons. gases were found by the study 10 be present In toxic concemration Estimation of the average polfutan• concentrations per household proved to be Energy consumpttOn patterns are quitedifferent difficult. High outdoor concentrations ol 1n rural ~epalf households 10 those or other potassium and methyl chloride, traceable to Asian oountnes. Stove use for cooking and biomass combustion, lndfcated degradation of healing averages 11.6 h/day, with additional the outdoor environment by indoor biomass use of fireplaces 1n many instances. By contrast, combustion. The study round lhe most polluted stO\IB use l purposes was continuous during daylight hours concentration by factors of 3.6 to 5.6. Nttrogen In several households and four households had dioxide (N02) and 1ormaldehyda results were fires burning 24 h/day. Nona of the houses had limited due to the small sample -sizes. Higher chimneys, cilthough many had small holi;is rn the concentrations were round in cooking areas as root abov.a the stove to provide some ventilation. against sleeping areas, and N02 kitchen values ware-slgnliicantly tower in homes with improved Poor ventilation is even more common In alpine stoves. environments, as houses are tighlly sealed against the cold. Indoor stoves tend to be used The study indicated that twice as many for heating as well as cooking and are lft for a traditional cookstove owners (72 percent) than longer period of the day and year than In the impr.oved cookS1ove owners (36 percent) tropical or subtropical climates (Reid et al, complained of eye proplems and cougtiing. 1986). Davidson el a/ (1986) did not compare stove Reid et al (1986) monitored individual exposure types but the suspended particulates levels to suspended particulates during cooking were within the same range in both studies. The periods. The monitoring activity focused on 60 CO concentrations were, however, found to be households in the middle hills of Nepal and took substantially lower (21-37 ppm) by Davidson et f'llace after the monsoon season. The studies al. Reid at al remarked that it would seam were conducted in Gorkha (Gorkha District) and unlikely that the high indoO( CO concentrations Benl (Myagdi District). Both villages are situated reported by them rej;lresent actual exposure, along major trade (outes. Beni is not influenced given the acute poisoning that is known to result by any source of industrial or vehicular air at these levels. Such poisoning was not pollution and Gorkha has infrequenttraffio. on a observed. road that ends at the village. The third region of the study, the southern part ot Mustang District, Increasing attentTon has been given to the Is higher, drier and colder. Filters for gravfmetric problems of Indoor air pollution Md Its erfects analysis were exposed in rural households with on health. Pandey and Basnet (1987) and traditional (without flue) and improved (wtth flue) Pandey (f9B7) have shown that the prevalence cookstoves. Active stationary monitoring for of chrenic brenchilis in Nepal has . a strong N02 and formaldehyde was also conducted. relatfon to domestic smoke pollution: 31 percent ol the bronchitis cases were due to Indoor The study showed that exposure to airborne smoke poll ution in Chandannath of Jumlci pollutants was significantly lowered by the use (mountains), 17 percent In Sundarljal and of improved cookstoVes; the average 'exposure Bhadrabas (hills). 13 percent In Pcirasauni of to suspended particulates was reduced by Bara Dlst(icts (Terai) and 11 percent In urban approximately 2.0 mg/m3 and the co Kathmandu. It was ·round that prevalence of concentration by 200 ppm. smoking hat!Jtln Chandannath (78percent) was not s1@nilicantly higher than in Sundarijal and Moreover, traditional metal tripod stoves Bhadrabas (68 percent). The domestic smoke (agena) with open fires had higher exposure pollution lave! was com;Jderably higher cit the levels than the traditional mud stoves (chulho) former site. However, tobacco smoking was with enclosed fires. The Improved cookstove also reported as causing bronchttis. In an earlier deereased exposure to particulates by faetors study conducted in Chandannath, Pandey el al of 3.5 and 2.3 when compared with agena and (1982) noted evidence to show that parental mud stoves, respectively. smoking habit was an Important factor contributing to the high Incidence of acute Carbon mono>eide (CO) data showed an even respiratory illness among infants, A strong greater improvement The flues of improved correlation of high Incidence of chronic cookstoves were found to raduc.e the. GO broncf\ilis and Acute Re.sptratory Infection (ARI) 28 AIR POU.unoN with domestic smoke pollution and tobacco biomass. Measurements were taken In a high smoking has been shown by Pandey (1984a, altitude rural area, Thyangboche, an urban 1984b, 1966), Pandey et al (1965) and Smith area, and Kathmandu. The high concentrations (1967). of some pollutants In Thyangboche suggested that Indoor biomass combustion attected In summary, the burning of wood, charcoal, ambient air quality in the high altltude villages. animal dung and crop residues for cooking and For example, the mean or~anlc carbon heating purposes in Nepali villages resutts in concentration of 4.4 g/m suspended high Indoor pollutant concentrations.• These particulates was similar to levels reported for pollutants include particulate species such as U.S. urban areas and far greater than expected trace elements, S02. N03 and carbon, as well for a remote rural site. as gaseous species such as CO and volatile hydrocarbons. The Indoor emissions also The inlluence of Indoor combustion on ambient Influence the outdoor environment. creating a air quality was feflected In the trace gas visible haze in the more populated areas of the measurements. Outdoor concentrations were Himalayas. greater than expected for clean ambienl conditions. In all ol the vlllages sampled. a light OUTDOOR BIOMASS COMBUSTION haze was seen near ground level with better visibility above. Davidson et al (1966) measured the levels of pollutants caused by the outdoor combustion of , 29 LAND POLLUTION URBAN SOLID WASTES other factors {Flintoff, 1976). Cointreau (1983) concluded that a strong relation existed olid waste is a pollutant of soif, air and between the standard of living (as expressed in water with important implications for GNP) and the 'amount of waste generated per Spublic health (Thapa and Ringeltaube, person per day. Low income countries with per 1981). It ls also an aesthetic or visual pollutant. capita income below US$ 360 in 1976 produced This is primarily an urban problem !n Nepal, with 0.5 kg {i.e .. SOO g) per person per day, middle localised solid wa,ste pollution in some rural income countries with below US$ 3,500 villages and along trekking routes. produced 1.5 kg and high income countries with per capita income above USS 3,500 produced About 8 percent or Nepal's 19 million people 2.75 to 4 kg per person per day. reside In urban areas, but the numbl)r of people living in towns is expected to double by 1995 The Solid Waste Management and Resource {CBS, 1987). Nepal has the highest rate or urban Mobi1lsation Centre (SWMRMC) cleans about growth in the SAARC region (UNICEF, 1987). 50 percent of Kathmandu's roads and streets The 300,000 residents of Kathmandu now and its operation ol waste collec1ion points at produce 1oo tonnes of refuse daily {Habitat, various localities covers 70 percent of the city's 1990). Thapa (1989) reported that the daily area. In Lalitpur, 35 percent or the town area is waste generation of 400,000 people in covered by the operation of waste collection Kathmandu and Lalltpur towns was 160 tonnes points at dif!eren1 locations (Sharma, 1986). in 1988. The da11y per capita waste generation CEDA (1989) fqund that 26 percent of in1he urban area!? of Kathmandu valley-was 400 households in Kathmandu dispose of solid g. The density of waste was estimated10 be ·350 waste in SWMRMC disposal containers, 8.5 3 to 400 g/cm • percent use dome$tic waste for domestic composting and the rest, about 64 percent, By comparison, the per capita production of dispose haphazardly. CEDA also undertook a solid waste In India Is 450 g/day In urban areas solid waste survey ol Pokhara and Blratnagar. and half that in rural areas (Mahajan, 1985). The composition of sond waste materials was Phatak and Warade (1987) estimated the solid very similar to that of Kathmandu. waste generation In Bombay to be 400 to 425 g per person per day. Worldwide, the range of Manandnar et al (1987) conducted a study of solid waste weignt generated per person per the solid wa5te situation In Nepal. All the wards day usually lies between 250 and 1,000 g, of Kathmandu were examined and none depending on the level of Industrialisation and 31 Envltonmontal Pollution In Nepal: A Review followed proper solid waste management of leachate increases. Control measures practices. include pipes and d rainage ditches. The garbage rs compacted at a gradient or 2.5 to 6.0 The solid waste ol Kathmandu consists of 78 so that direct ra infall runs off with limited percent biodegradable materials such as fat, percolation. A 60 m3 capacity leachate pond protein and carbohydrates, and 22 percent has been constructed lo collect the leachate non-biodegradable materials such as plastics, and has been fitted with an overflow outlet Such glasses and foam (CEDA, 1989). Thapa {1989) excess leachate is rormed only during the rainy found the proportion of organic material in season when water reduces the concentration Kathmandu valley solid waste to be lower at 57 of pollution. The leachate collected is then percent He noted that the organic content of passed through to processing ponds. solid waste decreased with the increase in size ol urban populations. Nepali towns wilh a Monitoring wells have been drilled to sample the population below 20,000 generated solid waste wator for analysis. Water samples collected from with as high as 87 percent organic matter that the landfill area and 10 sites In the surrounding could be composted. set tlements wete analysed at the Institute Freserlus of West Germany in December 1988. SWMRMC operates a compost plant at Teku The findings ofthe report showed that landmling which produces about 13 tonnes of compost actrvities had polluted the groundwater. Water manure per day for use by farmers ofthe valley samples collected east of the landfill area (Thapa, 1989). The composting site at Teku is showed high levels or nttrogen, which may be located close to a densely populated area as explained by nitrate renifiser applied in large well as the Bagmati and Bishnumati rivers. The quantities by local farmers. dumping site is a local nuisance in terms or aeslhetics and smell and is a potential public The Gokarna landfill site has been In operation health hazard due to air and water pollution, since October 19Bfi: it Is now half full, and was specially during the ralny seasons. These expected 10 be in use until the late 1990s factors suggest the need for shifting the (Thapa, 1989). A search has begun for another composting facility to a less environmentally landfill site within the valley due primarily to the sensitive area. Recent analysis ol compost emergence of a rock of religious significance in samples showed high concentrations of the the remaining area at Gokarna. There are also heavy metals, copper and zinc (Schaumberg, indications that as in the case of the Teku 1991). This unpublished work needs to be compositing facility, local opposition will verified due to its serious public health accelerate the closure of tho Gokarna landfill Implications. site. In fiscal ;ear 1987(88, SWMRMC collected A special concern in Nepal is the rack of a proper 62,583 m of waste of which 51,584 m3 or waste disposal system for hazardous solid wastes was transported to Gokarna sanitary landfill site from industries and hospitals (Thapa, 1989). (Thapa, 1989). In 1988, an average of 240 m3 Dorfman (1987) studied both solid and liquid garbage was dumped and compacted at the waste treatment and disposal practices of some Gokarna landfill site every day. Industries in Kathmandu valley. Few of the lndustries observed disposed ol solid waste in Leachate caused by the a naerobic a proper way; a number dumped solid waste on decomposition of organic wastes was also open lands and river banks. II was found that produced at the Gokarna site, posing a potential Nepal Battery, a dry-cell ballery manufacturing pollution threat to ground and surface water. factory, practiced on-site disposal and dumping The Gokama landfill site is surrounded by hills on the banks of the Bishnumatl river. Bansbari on three sides. As small rivulets form during the Tannery dumped 1ts solid waste, consisting of rainy season In the catchment area, the volume unused pelts and hide splrts, in an open yard 32 I.AND POLLUTION within the factory premises. The stench or regions. Even paper may take several ye.ars to rotting pelts, and vultures hovering over the disintegrate and discarded cans may remain dumpyard have become a lpcal public nuisance Intact lor many decades (Cullen, 1986; LW. (EISP, 1987). Price, 1981; M. E. Price, 1985). Hospitals generate hazardous and infectious Cullen reported that a variety ofrefuse materials wastes. Of the 15 hospitals in the Kathmandu could be round at trek campsites: food, food valley, only the two largest have Incinerators, containers, fuel containers, ropes, tools, which are used irregularly (GTZ/SWMRMC, batteries, film canisters, broken glass, old 1988). In Kathmandu hospitals wastes of a clothing, skis, packaging material, mediclne.s, hazardous nature are handled through the oxygen cylinders, cooking equipment, and domestic waste management system. utensils. Khadka (1986) investigated the nature Elsewhere in the country such wastes· are just and exter11 of solid waste pollution Jn the dumped on open rields or discharged Into Sagarmatha National Park area. He weighed public drains and rivers (Thapa, 1989). The and sorted solid waste deposited along the trek number of hospitals in Nepal has steadily route lrom Namche (3,440 m) to the Evere.st increased over the years. In 1978/79 there were base camp (5,546 m). focusing on lodges and 72 hospitals and the number had reaclled 96 in campsites. Khadka reported a greater 1987/88 (CBS, 1989). For cities that do not have percentage or non-biodegradable rubbi~h in adequate systems for the disposal of hospital Sagarmatha National Park than organic wastes, wastes (and most Asian chies are deficient in both by weight and quantity. The density of solid this respect) there are risks of contagion and, in waste was found to range from 65 • 75 kg/m3 some cases, exposure to radioactive materials and thehighest density was found at the Everest (Furedy, 1989). bas& camp, where the process of solid waste degradation was slowest. RURAL SOLID WASTES There has been a rapid Increase In the number There is no systematic management of solid of ell mbing expeditions to the Himalayas. The waste in villages in rural areas (Thapa, 1989). quantity of material .carried with these While the problem is not yet serious for most expeditions to the mountain can be substantial. villages, I.or an increasing number the waste Unsworth (1981) reported that a 1978 Evere.st poses serious health hazards. No formal study expe.dition transported 185 tonnes of material has examined the extent of the problems. and equipment to Its base camp. By the end of the expedition a signtticant proportion of such A study was undertaken by Cullen (1986) on material is dumped haphazardly as sofld waste. gar bage produced by Himalayan Luhan (1989) observed that the South Col on mountaineering expeditions. It was noted tha1 Everest had become legendary as the highest even simple dumping on-site caused despoiling ga1bage dump on earth. or the environmer.t, fouled water supplies, and presented health hazards. The costs or such The number and frequency of trekkers to the pollution were largely borne by local Ever.est base camp reglon has also increased communities and future visitors to the site. significantly . On the Tibetan side of the Himalayas, the opening of the Cullen noted that the practice or dumping Kathmandu-Lhasa road to tourists has resulted unwanted materials might not be a problem if In a steady sire.am of visitors to the Rongbuk rapid breakdown or refuse materials oeeurred, valliry and the Everest base camp. Jefferies if campsites were large. in relation to the number (198.2) reported that by the early 1980s, about or users, or if the number or users were small. 5,000 1rekkers per year were visiting the These circumstances rarely apply. Typically, Khumbu valley, some travelling as far as 1he decom position of wastes Is slow in alpine Everest base camp. An estimated 40,000 Environmental Pollutlon In Nopal: A Rovlew climbers and trekkers every year continue to Although Nepal has developed policies add to the growing garbage pile (Lu'han, 1989). regarding garbage disposal in the Himalayas - to the extent that the protocol in climbing Cullen's inspection of Everest base camp sites permits contains requirements regarding the revealed large amounts of material at the sites disposal of garbage - at present they are and a state of near squalor. Although the size of widely Ignored, or not enforced, as the garbage climbing expeditions has· be·en reduced, the heaps testify (Cullen, 1986). quantities of wastes are increasing proportionally with total climber numbers. SOIL POLLUTION Cullen suggested four possible means of Sharma {1987) reported that pesticide and dealing with expedition garbage: burning; fertiliser use is increasing in Nepal. Pesticides, covering with rocks; burying in glacier chemieal fertilisers, and polluted irrigation water crevasses: and burying off-site. There are, on farmlands can signlfiC"lnlly alter the physical, however, problems associated with each chemical and microblol9gical quality of soil. method. Burning leaves behind incombustible Such alleratlons eventually lead to deterioration materials. Covering the garbage with rocks is in soil quality, reducing its structure and fertility. unsatisfactory unless the garbage is very It can also lead to the accumulation.of.chemicals thoroughly covered. Burying the garbage in and heavy metals In crops. glacier crevasses may be the only practical method available at glacier sites, but such l'lbout 20-25 percenl or major food and cash garbage may be spewed out in original form crops in Nepal are destroyed by pests, decades later. Burying garbage on or ofl-site in especially insects (Pradhan. 1988) and crop pits seems to be best solution ifwell managed, productivity is declining. but effort and transport costs for off-site burying are high. Pesticides The 1984 First Sagarmat11a Cleanup Expedi'tion Many ol the insecticides. herbicides and chose the oft-site burying strategy. In an attempt fungicides (collectively known as pesticides) to reverse the growing reputation of Everest as used in Nepal are toxie and persist in the food the garbage dump otthe Himalayas, Nepale:;ie chain. Although the environmental impact ol police, Sherpa climbers and American pesticides has not been assessed and no volunteers carried over 1,800 trash-can sized legislatlon currenUy exists regulating pesticide loads of garbage to an ofl-glacier site where it use, there is considerable concern about their was buried (Salisbury, 1985). cost-eflectiveness and the associated dangers to users <;ind the environment (ADB, 1987; Contrary to the mounting garbage problem in Klarman, 1987). Sagarmatha region, Annapurna region In the Western Himalayas seems to be better pla cetJ Jnforrriation on the nature and extent otpestleide In terms of garbage situation. Luhan (198.9) use in Nepal is extremely limited. Sh<1rma (1987) reported that even though Annapurna region reported th 34 I.AND POLLUTION Since the late 1960s, the Division of Entomology expired pesticides, and consumers of pesticide within the M inistry of Agriculture has not treated food 01e potentially very significant. recommended DDT for agricultural use. The Klarman speculated thatpesticide consumption Nepal Pesticide and Chemicals Company, by residents of the Kathmandu valley was produces 60 kllolltres of liquid pesticide and almost certain lo be high due to the wide 3, 000 tonnes ol the organoohlonne BHC avallabihty and heavy use of pesticides In the annually {Klarmafl, 1987). There 01e also a few area He noted 1ha1 pesticides such as BHC and small·scale pesticide production plal'lts_ DDT which are persistent . and therefore accumulate Oller time, pose a potential lhreat to ADB (1987) reportecllhatfarmersusepestlcides soil, surtace water, and groundwater quality. on a •need" basis, usually in minimal doses but with lli11e awareness concernlng handling and Condrtlons at Nepal's only pesticide production storage methods. In addh1on, because plant at Bahadurgunj, near Butwal, were persistent pesticides such as DOT and BHC panteularly poor Klarman observed a 1 ·2 mm have been used extensively In the past, residues lever of mala1heon dust throughout the factory may still be detected In food crops and leaking drums of methyl paralhlon. Because or these conditions and the lact that Although all types ol pesticides -1nsec11c1des. the workers there had inadequate safety herbicides, fungicides and roden11cides - equipment, 11 was concluded that the factory adversely affect the environment, insecticides snoukl not be allowed 10 operate. generally pose the most senous risks lnseolicldes are acutely and chronically toxie 10 Three papms were presented at e seminar in living organisms, persist In ttie envlronmen1, July 1990 In Kathmandu, all of which rocused on and exhibit cumulative properties. problems related to pesticide use In Nepal (Girl, 1990) While ackno.,...ledglng the lmponance cf Most fungicides and herbicides. and cenaln pesticides in rncreaslng agrlculwre production types of insecticides (organophosphates), bind and in disease comrol, all three authors pointed to soil panlcles or break down relatively quickly out serious probtems with the way pesticide are Into less harmful materials after application produced, imported, stored, applied, and (although water may become contaminated markeled in Nepal Giri described the pesticide when percolating through such soil). Persistent situation 1n Nepal as nothing less than chaotic. pesticides, such as organochlonnes (DDT, BHC He was especially concerned about the aldrin, heptachlor, dieldrin and chlordane) widespread useor organochtorides (speottlcafly remain unchanged In the environment for tong BHC and DD1), a group of pesticides that has periods. The length varies with climatic been banned in many other countries because conditions. The rate of decomposition is hfgher or adverse health and environmental impacts. fn tropical than in temperate cifmates. These authors concluded that the key to In 1987, Klarman conducred a survey of Improving the current pesticide situatlon lay in pesticide use in Nepal and raised sen.. us estabITsnment of a pesticide regulatory and concerns about impacts on human heahh and enforcement authority and in education of the environment. Problems cited by Klarman pesticide distributors and pesticide users. The Included poor quality control: the complete lack Food and Agricultural 0(ganisalfon (FAO) has of safe pesticide disposal methods: the prepared a series of t echnical guideline absence of safety procedures during pesticide documents on the distribution and use or production and applicalion; and the fadure to pesticides. which could be used as a basis for dlsseminale lnfonnation regarding proper lmplemen1ing necessary Improvements (Giri, pestictde selection and appfica110n. As a result 1990). the heallh risks to pesticide factory worl In 1988, Pavey reported 10 ADB on the status of Poudyal (1989) reported that soil in the pesticide use in Nepal and proposed a more Godavari area has been heavily polluted by detailed programme for beginning to address excessive use al chemical lertlllser (including the situation. After reiterating the problems nitrogen and phosphorus), as well as by the described previously, Pavey made concrete Godavari marble quarry. In addition, effluent suggestions for establishment of a legal from a brewery and distillery and the careless authority to register and regulate pesticide use, management of domestic waste also for disposal of obsolete and out of date contributed to soil pollution in this area. pesticides, and for improvements to worl oise is generally defined as unwanted legal or administrative mechanisms to deal with sound. It is slowly becoming recognised noise pollution. Although there are traffic bye. N as an unjustifiable interference and laws that prohibit use of vehicle horns near Imposition upon human comfort, health, and hospitals and schools, these are often Ignored quality of modern life (Dix, 1 ~8 1) . As wtth many and no other rules exist for controlling vehicular other pollutants, noise is concentrated where noise. population is greatest {Shrestha and Shrestha, 1985). Noise is a public nuisance. Although Tiwari (1990) described noise as being noise does not change or damage the insidious. Many people work and live in environment physically or chemically as do environmental conditions where the noise level other pollutants, it affects people's health is not obviously hazardous. Never111eless, over physically, pathologically, and psychologically. long periods or time, they may suffer p rogressive hearing loss (Dix, 1981) Prolonged exposure to high noise levels may Alternatively there are many environmental cause permanent hearing loss. The mdst situations where the noise level is recognised as commonly occurring ear damage is caused by sufficiently high as to be immediately-hazardous continuous periods ot high Intensity noise. to nearing. Maximum permissible levels that Besldes progressive hearing loss, there may be have been recommended by t h e UK inslantaneous damage or acoustic trauma, Department ol Environment for some of these caused by very high intensity noise Impulses general situations appear as Annex IV. that can result from an explosion or sudden excessive noise (Dix, 1981). Pathological effects Hazardous noise and disturbance noise are the of excessive noise include nausea, dizziness, two broad categories of noise occurrence, va['iation in blood pressure, reduction In visual Hazardous noise is usually associated \>11th reaction and breathing difficulties. Excessive industrial work situalions, whereas disturbance noise can affect p·eople's mental health by noise is often described as the environmental increasing Irritation, tension, nervousness, noise to which pe,ople are subjected outside anxiety and fear, all of which adversely affect th.11lr place ot woJk. work efficiency and peace of mind. Sharma (1987) remarked that animals are also stressed As In most other countries, transport noise, if subfected to high nolse revels. industrial noise, and community or neighbourhood noTse represent the leading and The hazardous effects of noise have not been significant forms of noise pollution in Nepal. studied in Nepal. Neitner are there any specific Alihough noise pollution studies in Nepal are 37 Eim""'montal Pollution in Nepal: A Revi few, such surveys as have been conducted desirable. Some classrooms or Amrit Science reveal that noise levels In urban areas are Campus had become unfit for lecturing and had generally mucn higher than recommended been abandoned. In Tri-Chandra Campus lnternauonal standards would penniL lecturing was often disturbed by traffic noise. Windows of a significant number of office The most comprehensive study on noise buildings were kept closed to reduce pollution In Kathmandu has been made by disturbance by traHic noise. Shrestha and Shrestha (1985). They measured noise levels in various areas of the city It iscommon on urban roads to have peak traffic associated with transport, industry and the in the morning and evening as people travel to community. Manandhar et al (1987) conducted and from work (Dix, 1981). Shrestha and a complementary study ol traffic noise In Shres1ha, however, observed that although additional areas of Kathmandu. Industrial noise noise levels were slightly higher during the was examined by Miyoshi (1987) in Kathmandu morning and evening rush hours, there was little and a few other industrial towns of Nepal. significant variation throughout the day. TRANSPORT NOISE Traffic noise arises from engines, horns, road-tyre friction and gear box and exhaust Road traffic noise produces disturbance to systems. Power tillers that are widely used 10 more people than any otner noise source (Dix, transpon goods, buses, heavy trucks and the 1981 ). This can be expected to increase with the ubiquitous three wheeler taxis are also increasing number of motor vehicles and road significant contributors to the high noise levels traffic density. There are currently about 50,000 in bulh up areas ol Kathmandu. Engine and tyre automoblles in Kathmandu valley (Banskota et noise Increases with speed, and a wet road can a/, 1990), and ADB (1990) has predicted 1hat1hls figure will double by the year 2010. With the increasing length of roads, more communities Table VIII: Road Traffic Noise Level In Kathmandu will be exposed to traffic noise. Nepal had 376 km of road in 1951and6,306 km in 1987 (CBS, 1989). Location Noise Level (dBA). Road traffic noise has been assessed only in Amrit Campus 75 -85 Kathmandu. Shrestha and Shrestha (1985) recorded traffic noise levels in five different Tri.Chandra Campus 80 .90 areas of the city, including streets ad1acent to noise-sensitive sites such as hospitals and Bir Hospi1a1 90 .95 college campuses. Manandhar et al (1987) measured noise levels In threA ::inc11tlonal Ratna Park 72 -88 locations of Kathmandu Including reside ntlal areas. The noise levels found in these two Teku 85. 100 studies are summarised in Table VIII. Lazimpat 80. 99 The study finding suggests that an 80 • 100 decibels (dBA) range Is typical for urban Jhochhen 82. 100 Kathmandu roads. These noise levels are much higher than those recommended in the United Putall Sadak 82· 98 Kingdom for road traffic near residential areas (See Annex IV). Even noise-sensitive sites such Source: Shrestha and Shrestha (1985), as the college campuses and Bir Hospital werf' Manandhareta/ (1987). subjected to much higher noise levels than 38 NOISE POU.l.JT/Ofol increase the nolse by 10dBA (Dix. 1981). There noise levels exceeding 90 dBA. In several cases Is no vehicle maintenance regulation in Nepal noise levels were higher than 100 dBA. The and older vehicles tend to produce more noise. highest recorded level was 120 dBA at Balaju There are also no effective controls over 1ralfic Kapada Udyog (Textile MflQ . According to the flow and volume. recommended noise level for workers In the UMed Kingdom, at this level the maximum dally Aircraft produce very high levels of noise. exposure period lot workers should no1 exceed although vartable and lnterminent. The n 39 Envlronmonta/ Pollution In Nopal: A Roviow Table IX: lndustrlal Noise Level In !iepel Industry and Localion______N_o_isa_Lev __ el~(_dB_A_.)'----- Textlle: 1. Balaju Kl!pada Udyog Ltd. {BID) 82-120 2. Raj Kamal Spinning and Weaving Mills (BIO) B0-90 3. Hetauda Textile Mills {Hetauda) 90-95 4. Nepal Synthetic Industry (Hetauda) 90-92 Met11I Works: 5. Balaju Auto Works Pvt. Ltd. (BID) 86-109 6. limila Metal Co. Pvt. Ud. (BID) 109 7. Aluminium Industries Pvt. Uc!. (BID) 110 8. Balaju Yantra Shala Pvt. Ltd. (BID) 60-75 9. Hulas Steel Industries Pvt. Ltd. (Simra. Bara) 95- 10S Cement: 10. Himal Cement Co. Ud. (Kalhmandu) BO - 100 11 Hetaucla Cement Industries Ltd. (Hetauda) BO -106 Leather Tanning: 12. Bansban Leather and Shoe Factory Ltd. (Kathmandu) 75 - 87 Pulp and Paper: 13. Bhrikuti Paper M1Is (Gaindakot, NawalparasQ 80-85 Food and Beverage: 14. Dairy Development Corporation (BID) 85 15. Bottlers Nepal Pvt. Ltd, (BID) go 16. Nepal Biscuit Co. (Nebico) Pvt. Ltd. (BID) 60-70 40 NOISE POLLUTION Industry and Location Noise LOI/el (dBA) 17. Nepal Vanaspati Ghee Industries (Hetauda) 85-90 18. Nepal Brewery Co. PV1 Ltd. (Hetauda) 80 19. Kl'ladya Udyog Pvt. LICI. (Flour Mill} (He1auda) 90 - 100 20. Birgunj Sugar Mills and DJStJllery (BirgunO BO 21 Gandak1 Noodles Pvi_ I.Id (Pokhara) 60-70 Chemical: 22. Nepal Polylhene and Plastic Ind. Pvt. Ltd. (BID) 60 75 23. Nepal Battery Co. Ud (BID) 85 24. Mahashai 25. Asian Paints (Nepal) Pvt Ltd. (Hetauda) 80· 90 26. Juddha Match Factory Ltd. (Birgunj) 80 27 Nepal Lube Oil Ud. (Amlekhgunj. Parsa) 80 28. Nepal WOod and Allied Industry (Pa1wanipur, Parsa) 70 Source. Shrestha and Shrestha (1985) M1yo~t11 (1987). Table X: Maximum Limits for Community Nols~ Level (dBA) In Japan Maximum Noise Limits (dBA} Type of Area Morning Atu~tnoon Evening Night Hospital area 40 45 40 35 Pnrnanly reSldennal area 45 50 45 40 Resldont1al area near shops and factories 55 60 55 50 Sourctl; Environment A ~ 1981 _ 41 CONCLUSIONS he majority of pollution·related studies exception or some groundwater supplles. The conducted in Nepa! have focused on results show that priority should first be given to T drinking water quality in the Kathmandu addressing the bacteriological problems noted valley. These studies, and similar ones above. conducted in Pokhara and Biratnagar, point to serious coliform bacteria contamination in However, there Is evidence that Nepal's rivers urban areas, especially during the rainy season, are becoming Increasingly contaminated by This problem is so well documented that run her chemicals from industrial effluents. To the extent study appe11rs unnecessary. Rather, serious that these rivers are being, or will be, used as effons are needed to reduce ;ind eventually drinking and washing water sources, chemical eliminate bacteriological contamination of water contamination or public water supplies could supply systems. become a problem In the not too distant future. The initial emphasis should be placed on Many studies are available concerning the upgrading the water supply distribution quality of the Bagmali river and its major systems to prevent the intake of sewage. This tributaries. These waters exhibit a high degree means re.laying water supply and sewage of pollution from untreated sewage and pipelines so that the water supply lines are well industrial effluents In the greater Kathmandu above, and not adjacent to, the sewage lines In area. Sewage treatment and industrial pollution the trenches. Leaking sewage would then flow control measures are clearly needed to prevent downward by rorce of gravity, away from the further degradation and to restore the river to water supply distribution lines. At the same time, the upstream water quality. The elfluents of leaks in both types ofpipes should be repaired. tanneries, carpet factories, distilleries and Judging from the literature reviewed, these industrial districts In the Kathmandu valley have actions would greatly reduce the faecal colnorm been studied. However, more quantrtalive worl< counts in the public water supplies. Attention on the sources of industrial water pollution are could then be given to Improving water quality needed before remedial action priorities can be monitoring systems at the water treatment set. plants. Outside or the Kathmandu valley, paper mill Fewer quantitative studies were found deallng eflluents, In addition to the Industrial effluents with the chemical q1Jality of drinking water. cited previously, are degrad1ng the quality of Those reviewed, however, do not indicate that Nepal's rivers. this is a serious problem, with the possible 43 Environmental Pollution In NeJN"J/: A Aevfaw The studies reviewed on air pollution provided While studies on pesticides raise alarming little quantitative data on ambient air quality. concerns about the types currently 1n use and Indeed It appears that air sampling and the way they are handled, there is no .aqtual chemical analysis capabilities in Nepal are documentation of the impacts on the Inadequate, limiting resea(ch efforts inthis area envlronmenl. This is clearly an area where further study Is required. There is little doubtthat The sour.ces of air pollution In Nepal are quite withQ'utimprovements ln the way pesticides are varied, indicating that the problem must be produced, imported, stored, applied and addressed on a number of different fronts. For marketed in Nepal, more serious environmental example, more widespread use of wet and public health Impacts can be expected. scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators, filters, Both FAO and ADB have proposed methods for and tall stacks ls needed to reduce dust and improved pesticide management in Nepal, and particulate emissions from cement factories, both agencies stress the need for establishment brick and tiie factories, pulp and paper mills, of a pesticide regulatory and enforcement distilleries, and texllie mills. lnstltutional authority. controls, on the other hand, are required 10 improve vehicle maintenance and fuel supply Studies of noise pollution In Nepal show that q uaiity control, which are major iactors In ndise levels In some urban areas are above automotive v.ehlcle pollutlon. Technology h'ltematlonal standards. Indoor noise pollution innovation and behavioural changes afe· is also a problem In seme factories. Solutions to necessary to solve the problem of Indoor air the noise problem are not so much pollution from traditional cookstoves, Where all technologi<:al as cultural and educational. three types of air pollution are present. as In the Teaching workers the Importance or wearing Kathmandu valley, the problem is serious ear prete1:tl0n when working with loud enough to require immediate attention. machinery, and making such salety equipment readily available, are slmple examples of Studies show that most land pollution in Nepal p0sslble oerre<:tlve actions. Improved traflic stems from mismanagement of solid wastes, In control measures in ctties, such as restricting both urban and rural seulngs, and the access to trucks and buses on small roads, mishandling or pesticld~ and fertlliser in increased use of traffic signals, and 0reater agricultural areas. The urban solid was1e separation of pedestrians and bicycles from situation is partie!:ularly Sl;!rious because of the. automotive vehicles could reduce the noise high population density. Even where sotld associated with h!;!avy use of horns. wastes are collected and landfilled, researchers Enforcement or requirements fo r vehicle found the collection systems to be inadequate maintenance would also help. and the landml operation to be poorly managed. For example, at the Gokarna landfill, strong From this review of pollutlon studies, it can be odours, methane gas and contaminated seen that NeJ>a l's environment is being leachate were all polluting the local degraded and efforts to reverse this trend ·are environment. inadequate. Awareness ora problem Is the first step 1n formulating a solution. However, limited The rural situation is less critical, with the most management structure, technical capacity, and offensive solid waste problems occurring along regulatory and lns1itutlonal frameworks hinder major trekking routes such as the Everest Base the study ol, and responses to, pollution Camp route. The Annapurna Conservatlon Area problems In Nepal. Project (ACAP) has been fairly successtul in controlling solid waste disposal 1n the WhTle these technisal and infrastructural Annapurna Range and c0uld be used as a problems are being addressed, scope exists for model In other problem areas. further Improvement in ·governmental and private sector Investment in this field. Since CONCLUSIONS mos! development 1niliatives in Nepal are !he long term systematic environmental project-led, good environmental impacl planning a1 bolh national and local levels, assessment procedures would go a long way incorporation of practical standards and towards minimising future problems. Many mutti guidelines based on studies, and monitoring or and bilateral aid agencies now require existing industries are also essenllal to environmenial Impact assessment of their aid minimising the degradation of Nepal's resource projects, but much greaiercollaboration of effort base through pollution. is needed 10 lnlegra1e these activities with government decision-making procedures. In 45 Annex I WHO lnterna1lonal Standards for Drinking Water Parameters Desllable Level Permissible Level Colour ('Hazen) 5 so Turbldrty (Jackson Unhs) 5 25 Tas1e and odour unobjectionable Total solids (mgJl) 500 1,500 pH 7-8.S 6.5-9,2 Anionic detergents (mg/I) 02 1.0 Mineral oil (mg/l) 0.01 0.3 Phenol (mg/I) 0.001 0.002 Total hardness (mg/I as CeCO>) 100 500 Calcium (mgll) 75 200 Chlorlde (mg/I) 200 600 Copper (mg/I) 0.05 1.5 Iron (mg/I) 0.1 1 Magnesium (mg/Q 30 150 Sulpha1e (mg/Q 200 400 Zinc (mgµ} 5,0 15 Ammonla-N (mg/I) 0.5 Nitrate (mg/I) Fluo1tde (mg/I) Arsenic (mg/I) 0.05 Cadmium (mg/I) 0,01 Cyanide (mg/Q 0.05 Lead (mg/I) 0.1 Mercury (mg/I) 0.001 Selenium (mg/I) 0.01 Coldoon Bacteria 1, Colrtorm bacteria should no1 be present In 100 ml of any rwo consecU11ve samples of drln~lng water; 2. No sample should contain more than 10 coliform bac1eria per 100 ml; 3. Throughout any year, 95 percent samples should not contain any coliform bacteria In 100 ml; and 4 No 100 ml samples should con1ain E.coll. Source: WHO (1971) 47 Annex II Tolerance Limits for Inland Surface Waters Receiving Industrial Effluents In Nepal Parameters Unit Ambient Standard 1.Total suspended solids mg/I 30-200 2.pH 5.5-9.0 3.Temperature •c 40 (within 15 m downs1ream) 4.BOD, 5 days at 20•c, Maximum mg/l 30 5.0lls and grease, Maximum mg/1 10 6.Phenollc compounds, Maximum mg/1 1.0 7.cyanldes, Maximum mg/I 0.2 8.Sulphldes (as S), Maximum mg/1 2.0 9.Total residual chlorine mg/I 1.0 10.Fluorldes (as F), Maximum mg/I 2.0 11.Arsenlc (as As). Maximum mg/I 02 12.Cadmlum (as Cd). Maximum mg/I 2.0 13.Hexavalenl Clvomlum (as Cr). Maximum mg/I 0.1 14.Lead (as Pb), Maximum mg/] 0.1 15.Mercury (as Hg), Maximum mg/I 0.01 I 16.Zlnc (a5 Zn). Maximum mg/I 5.0 17.Copper (as Cu), Maximum mg/I 3.0 18.Silver (as Ag), Maximum mg/I 0.1 19 Ammonlaca1. nrtrogen , Maximum mg/1 50 20 coo. Maximum mg/1 250 Soorce HMG/NBSM (1987) . 48 Annex Ill Ambient Air Quality Standards in the USA ~cim~01 Sta[]dard ~e"img1101 S1angard Pollutant Average Time g{m ppm ugjm P.P!')_ Carbon monoxide 1 h 40,000' 35' 40,000' 35' 8h 10.000' g' 10.000· g' Nitrogen dioxide Annual mean 100 005 100 0.05 Sulphur dioxide Sh . 1,300° o.so· 24 h 365' 0.14 260° 0.10' Annual mean 80 0.03 60 0.02 Photochemical oxidants 1 h 160' 0.08' 160° 0.08' Hydrocarbons 3h (6-9am) 160° 0.2• 160' 024° Susponded 24 h 260 150 paMlculates Annual 75' oo· geometric mean • Not to be exceeded mote lhan once a year Source: Jain et al (1981), Lohanl (1984). 49 Annex IV Maximum Permissible Noise levels in the United Kingdom Noise Levol Situation (dBA) Road traffic near residential areas 70 Noise on building and constructlon s11es 70 Ear pco1eell0n should be worn es Factory work for an 8 hour day, 5 days per week 90 Prolonged noise causing permaneni damage 100 Tl1reshold or paln··duratfon ol 30 seconds maximum 120 Absolute maximum w11h ears unp101001ed 135 Maximum for Impulse noise 135 Maximum lor lnS\antaneous noise 150 Absolute hm11 w11h ears protected 150 Ear drum rupture 180 Lung damage 194 Source Dix, (1981). so Annex V Noise Limits and Dally Exposure In the United Kingdom Noise L1m1t (dBA) _o_u_ra_t_io_n~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~--'d~a~il~y~e""'xp~o~s~ur~e'--~~~~~~~ 8 hours 90 4 hours 93 2 hours 96 1 hour 99 30 mlnu1es 102 1Sminu1es 105 7 mlnu1es 108 4 minu1es 111 2 minutes 114 1 mlnu1e 117 30seconds 120 Source: Dix, (1981). 51 REFERENCES 1.ADB, 1985: Nepal Water Supply and Sanitation 1 o. 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