Sustainable Transportation in Al Buraimi, Sultanate of Oman.
Analysis and Concepts for the city of Al Buraimi
Moving towards a more sustainable transportation mode
Thesis by: Pedro Becerra Rodriguez (Student Number: 0360189)
Supervision by: Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Prof. Sonja Nebel, TU Berlin
Technische Universität Berlin Fak VI Habitat Unit Urban Management Master Program 2013 /2015 Berlin, Germany
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 I Sustainable Transportation in Al-Buraimi, Sultanate of Oman Analysis and concepts for the city of Al-Buraimi
Moving towards a more sustainable transportation mode
Thesis by: Pedro Becerra Rodriguez (Student Number: 0360189)
Supervision by: Prof. Dr. Sonja Nebel, TU Berlin
Berlin, Germany 2015
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Urban Management
Technische Universität Berlin Fak VI Habitat Unit Urban Management Master Program 2013/2015 Berlin, Germany
Cover Image by the Author. Berlin, December 2014.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 II STATEMENT OF AUTHENTICITY OF MATERIAL
This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any institution and to the best of my knowledge and belief, the research contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference has been made in the text of the thesis.
Pedro Becerra Rodriguez
Berlin, the 31st of January 2015
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 III ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I want to thank the Governorate of Al Buraimi for the opportunity to carry out this research in Oman. Special thanks to His Excellency the Governor of Al Buraimi, Mr. Sayyid Ibrahim Bin al Busaidy, and the Municipal Councillor Mr. Mohammed Al Baddi. I am also highly thankful to Dr. Hamad Al Gharibi, Head of the Urban Planning Section of the Ministry of Housing in Al Buraimi, for his support during the field trip to Oman. I also want to thank all of the people that I met and interviewed during the field work for their valuable time and cooperation.
I wish to express my gratitude to Dr. Sonja Nebel for her valuable guidance and strong support with the supervision of this study. I also thank the administrative staff of the Urban Management Master Programme of TU Berlin.
Lastly, I would like to thank Colfuturo (Fundación para el futuro de Colombia) and my parents for its support during this period of studies.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 IV ABSTRACT
The city of Al Buraimi, located in the northwest of the Sultanate of Oman, has experienced a rapid urban growth characterized by patchy and unsustainable development over the last years. As a result of this process, the city is facing challenges in different dimensions of the urban structure. One of these problems is transportation, which is automobile dependent and road based. Additionally, Al Buraimi presents segregated land use patterns, low densities, reduced travel choices, considerable occupation of land for car facilities and high accidents rates, among other issues. Thus, the increasing transportation needs may lead to social, environmental and economical problems.
On the other hand, the transportation planning process is characterized by a lack of coordination among institutions and shortage of vision. Car dependency can be attributed to different reasons; firstly, the national transportation policy and legal framework are focused on roads development. Secondly, prices of cars and oil are relatively affordable in the Sultanate, and there is a car culture based on foreign auto models. Furthermore, the current strong top down approach does not facilitate the instruments necessary to implement a sustainable mode of transportation. A more balanced transportation system achieved via a more holistic, coordinated, and inclusive planning approach would provide many benefits to the city.
This research project firstly has the aim of analyzing the current transportation system in Al Buraimi, by comparing its performance with theoretical principles, concepts and definitions of sustainable transportation. Afterwards, this study intends to provide proposals which are based on criteria and concepts to switch into a more balanced/sustainable transportation mode in Al Buraimi.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 V TABLE OF CONTENTS
STATEMENT OF AUTHENTICITY OF MATERIAL ...... III ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... IV ABSTRACT ...... V TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... VII LIST OF TABLES ...... IX LIST OF BOXES ...... IX LIST OF FIGURES ...... IX ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ...... XII
1. REVIEW OF AL BURAIMI ...... 12 1.1. Geographical Location ...... 12 1.2. History ...... 13 1.3. Population ...... 15 1.4. Economy ...... 16
2. INTRODUCTION ...... 18 2.1. Al Buraimi urban development process ...... 18 2.2. Current mode of transportation in Al-Buraimi ...... 22 2.3. Impacts of road based mode of transportation ...... 24 2.3.1. Social Impacts ...... 24 2.3.2. Environmental Impacts ...... 25 2.3.3. Economical Impacts ...... 26
3. METHODOLOGY ...... 28 3.1. Rational for Study ...... 28 3.2. Research Objectives ...... 29 3.3. Research Question ...... 30 3.4. Secondary Questions ...... 30 3.5. Project Phases ...... 31 3.6. Techniques for Research ...... 33 3.6.1. Semi -Structured Interviews ...... 33 3.6.2. Community Questionnaires ...... 34 3.6.3. Direct Observation ...... 34 3.7. Limitations ...... 35 3.6. Expected Outcomes ...... 36
4. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ...... 38 4.1. Literature Review ...... 38 4.1.1. Sustainable Urban Development ...... 38 4.1.2. Literature review on Sustainable Transportation ...... 39 4.1.3. Transportation Planning ...... 41 4.1.4. Land Use Planning – Transportation ...... 44 4.2. Hypothesis ...... 46
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 VI 5. TRANSPORTATION GOVERNANCE IN AL BURAIMI ...... 47 5.1. Government Institutions Involved ...... 47 5.2. Transportation Planning Procedure ...... 49 5.3. Laws, Regulations and Strategies ...... 51 5.3.1. Oman Highway Design Manual Standards ...... 52 5.3.2. Omani Environmental Regulations ...... 53 5.3.3. Oman Planning Guidelines ...... 53 5.3.4. Development Control Plan Framework ...... 54 5.5.5. Oman National Spatial Strategy ...... 54 5.4. Transportation Planning Issues ...... 56 5.4.1 Governance / Procedures ...... 56 5.4.2. Legal Framework ...... 59
6. TRANSPORTATION AND MOBILITY IN AL BURAIMI ...... 61 6.1. Transportation Profile of Al Buraimi ...... 61 6.1.1 Choice of transportation mode ...... 61 6.1.2 Users Affordability ...... 62 6.1.3. Number of Vehicles ...... 65 6.1.4. Road Executed Lengths...... 66 6.1.5. Roads Expenditure ...... 67 6.1.6. Petrol Consumption ...... 68 6.1.7. Carbon Emissions ...... 69 6.2. Mobility Patterns ...... 70 6.2.1. Local Mobility Patterns ...... 70 6.2.2. Regional Mobility Patterns ...... 77 6.3 Evaluation of transportation facilities and mobility behaviour ...... 80 6.3.1. Roads Network ...... 81 6.3.2. Accidents ...... 85 6.3.3. Speed Control ...... 86 6.3.4. Parking lots ...... 87 6.3.5. Sidewalks ...... 90 6.3.6. Development of new roads ...... 93 6.3.7. Transport services in Al Buraimi ...... 95
7. ASSESMENT OF TRANSPORTATION IN AL BURAIMI ...... 97 7.1 Transportation performance in regards to sustainability ...... 97 7.1.1. Social Sustainability ...... 97 7.1.2. Environmental Sustainability ...... 98 7.1.3. Economic Sustainability ...... 99 7.2. SWOT Analysis ...... 102
8. RECOMENDATIONS ...... 105 8.1. Governance / Institutional Recommendations ...... 105 8.1.1. Integration and coordination in the planning procedure ...... 105 8.1.2. Change of land distribution system ...... 106 8.1.3. Integration of land use and transportation planning ...... 107
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 VII 8.1.4. Review of laws and regulations ...... 107 8.1.5. Monitoring and Enforcement ...... 110 8.1.6. Decentralization ...... 110 8.1.7. Public Involvement ...... 111 8.1.8. Public/Political Acceptability and Adaptability ...... 113 8.2. Technical Recommendations ...... 116 8.2.1. Facilities for walking and biking ...... 116 8.2.2. Landscaping ...... 118 8.2.3. Public Transportation ...... 119 8.2.4. Transit Oriented Development ...... 122 8.2.5. Alternative Energies ...... 125 8.2.6. Improvement of Regional Public Transportation ...... 126 8.3. Stakeholders………………………………………………………...………..130
9. CONCLUSIONS ...... 130
10. REFERENCES ...... 134
APPENDIX ...... 138 A - Interview Schedule ...... 138 B – Interview Ministry of Transportation and Communications ...... 139 C- Interview Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs ...... 141 D – Interview with the Governor of Al Buraimi ...... 142 E - Community Questionnaires...... 143 F - Plans, laws and regulations ...... 147
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 VIII LIST OF TABLES
Table 1– Existing and projected transportation impacts in Al Buraimi attributed to auto-based mode...... 27 Table 2– Summary of Laws, Regulations and strategies related to transportation ...... 56 Table 3 – Summary of Transportation Planning Issues in Oman ...... 60 Table 4 – Affordability of private transportation ...... 63 Table 5 – Road Executed Lengths in the Governorate of Al Buraimi per Year ... 67 Table 6 - Consumption of Barrels of Petrol in Al Buraimi in 2013 ...... 68 Table 7 – Carbon Dioxide Emissions in Oman ...... 69 Table 8 - Functional Route Characterization Description ...... 82 Table 9 – Operation of NOTC buses in Al Buraimi...... 96 Table 10 – Transportation performance in regard to sustainability ...... 101 Table 11 – SWOT Analysis ...... 104 Table 12 – Recommendations Action Plan………………………………………. 129 Table 13 – Stakeholders of the proposed action plan……………………………130
LIST OF BOXES
Box 1 – Research Process ...... 37 Box 2- Transportation Governance Structure in Al Buraimi ...... 48 Box 3- Transportation Planning Procedure in Al Buraimi ...... 51 Box 4 - Governance/Institutional Recommendations Summary ...... 115 Box 5 – Public Transportation Plan ...... 121 Box 6 – Technical Recommendations Summary ...... 128
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 - Al Buraimi Geographical Location, ...... 12 Figure 2 - Map of Al Buraimi Urban Area ...... 13 Figure 3 – Al Buraimi Population Growth ...... 15 Figure 4 – Al Buraimi Omani Population Growth ...... 15 Figure 5 – Al Buraimi Expatriate Population Growth ...... 16 Figure 6 - Map of Al Buraimi in 1986 ...... 18 Figure 7 - Expansion Plan of Al Buraimi 1986-1996 ...... 19 Figure 8 - Al Buraimi Plan 1996 ...... 20 Figure 9 - Al Buraimi Master Plan ...... 21 Figure 10 - Choice of transportation mode in Al Buraimi ...... 61 Figure 11 - Transportation mode in Al Buraimi ...... 62 Figure 12 - Percentage of Car Ownership by Nationality in Al Buraimi, ...... 64 Figure 13 - Percentage of Car Ownership by Nationality and Age Group in Al Buraimi, ...... 65
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 IX Figure 14- Number of cars registered and driving licenses issued by year in Al Buraimi ...... 66 Figure 15 - Roads Expenditure in Oman by Year ...... 68 Figure 16 - Mobility attracting points in Al Buraimi ...... 70 Figure 17- Local Souk (Market)………………………………………………………71 Figure 18 - Commercial Street in Al Buraimi ...... 71 Figure 19 - Photo of the Bank of Oman building in the bus terminal ...... 71 Figure 20 – Photo of Buraimi Park…………………………………………………..72 Figure 21 - Lulu Shopping Center, ...... 72 Figure 22- Photo of the Sultan Qaboos Mosque of Al Buraimi ...... 73 Figure 23 - Photos of an international border cross point in Al Buraimi ...... 74 Figure 24 - Frequency to cross the border with Al Ain (Omani Nationals) ...... 74 Figure 25 - Frequency to cross the border with Al Ain (Foreign Nationals) ...... 75 Figure 26 - Percentage of time spent to commute per activity in Al Buraimi ...... 77 Figure 27- Main destinations within Oman for residents in Al Buraimi ...... 78 Figure 28 - Map of the main destinations within Oman for residents of Al Buraimi ...... 78 Figure 29 - Reasons of regional mobility for Al Buraimi residents ...... 79 Figure 30 - Choice of mode of transportation for regional mobility within Oman . 80 Figure 31 - Map of roads network hierarchy in Al Buraimi ...... 81 Figure 32 - National Route in Al Buraimi……………………………………………83 Figure 33 - Green area alongside the highway ...... 83 Figure 34 – Photos of Secondary roads in Al Buraimi ...... 84 Figure 35 – Photo of distributor and access routes ...... 84 Figure 36 - Accidents, Injuries and Deaths per year in Al Buraimi ...... 85 Figure 37 - Percentage of accidents and safety perception of residents in Al Buraimi ...... 86 Figure 38 – Photos of speed bumps in the roads of Al Buraimi ...... 87 Figure 39 – Photos of parking lots in Al Buraimi ...... 88 Figure 40 - Sample area in Al Buraimi for parking lots analysis, ...... 89 Figure 41 - Sidewalks in Al Buraimi ...... 90 Figure 42 - Sidewalks in Al Buraimi ...... 91 Figure 43 - Walking time per week of residents in Al Buraimi ...... 92 Figure 44 - Walking time per week by nationality ...... 92 Figure 45 - What people consider as public spaces ...... 93 Figure 46 - Aerial photography of a newly built road in Al Buraimi ...... 94 Figure 47 – Photos of new roads in newly developed areas in Al Buraimi ...... 94 Figure 48 - Taxi of Al Buraimi………………………………………………………...95 Figure 49 - School Bus of Al Buraimi ...... 95 Figure 50 - NOTC bus in Al Buraimi ...... 96 Figure 51 - Omani Native Trees Species, Source ...... 118 Figure 52 – Sample of pergolas on paths and sidewalks ...... 119 Figure 53 – Transit Oriented Development Concept ...... 123 Figure 54 – Potential Activity Centres in Al Buraimi for TOD Implementation ... 124 Figure 55 – Potential Activity Centres in Al Buraimi Projected Areas for TOD Implementation ...... 127
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 X ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
GCC Gulf Cooperation Council HDMS Highway Design Manual Standards MoECA Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs MOTC Ministry of Transport and Communications MoH Ministry of Housing (Oman) MRMWR Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water Resources NCSI National Center of Statistics and Information OCCI Oman Chamber of Commerce and Industry ONSS Oman National Spatial Strategy ST Sustainable Transportation SWOT Strengths-Weaknesses-Opportunities-Threats TOD Transport Oriented Development UAE United Arab Emirates UN-HABITAT United Nation Human Settlement Programme
Translation of Arabic Terms
Souk ‘market’ Wadi ‘valley’ Wilayats ‘districts’
At the time of writing, the value of the Omani Rial (O.R) was as follows: 1 O.R = 2 Euro (Monthly average during December 2014)
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 XI 1. REVIEW OF AL BURAIMI
1.1 Geographical Location
Al Buraimi is a Governorate in The Sultanate of Oman, located in the northwest region of the country. It has a strategic geographical position due to its location on the border with the city of Al Ain (U.A.E), which links it internationally. The Governorate is located 341 kilometers away from Muscat, the capital of Oman, and 113 kilometers away from the port of Sohar, in the Gulf of Oman (Google maps, 2014).
Figure 1 - Al Buraimi Geographical Location, Source: Google maps, 2014
Furthermore, the Governorate of Al Buraimi shares limits with the region of Al Batinah in the east, and the region of Ad Dhahirah in the south. It has 3 wilayats – Al Buraimi, Mahdha and al Sunainah. Moreover, it is estimated that Al Buraimi has an area of 7,000 square kilometres (Oman Information Centre, 2012). The
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 12 landscape of the Governorate is very different to that of Al Ain; it consists mostly of wide open gravel plains and sharp jutting rocks, it is common to find native trees on the plains as well (Wikipedia, 2014). Additionally, Al Buraimi has an altitude of 299 meters above the sea level and the climate is classified as hyper arid with low humidity (Wikipedia, 2014).
Figure 2 - Map of Al Buraimi Urban Area, Source: Wikimapia, 2014
1.2. History
Historically, Al Buraimi has been part of Oman since early times. Circa 600 C.E, the oasis was occupied by the Azd tribes of Oman, then in the 700s it was abandoned (Wikipedia, 2014). From 1800 to 1950, the area was ruled by the Al Nuaimi tribe. Al Buraimi became an important point of trade as well as significant producer of wheat, dates and other fruits. Moreover, its position above the sea level and the abundant water supply from irrigation channels and wadis contributed to the historic role of the oasis as a trading center (Oman Information Centre, 2012).
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 13 However, in the early 1950s, a jointly owned Saudi American oil company believed that there was commercial oil in the territory of Al Buraimi and Abu Dhabi. As a result, Saudi Arabia claimed sovereignty over the Buraimi oasis in an incident known as the “Buraimi Dispute” (Meagher, 1985). The Saudis stated that the oasis had been occupied by ancestors of the Saudi king Andul Aziz bin Saud. Therefore, in 1952, a group of 80 Saudi Arabian guards crossed the Abu Dhabi region and occupied Hamasa, which is one of the three Omani villages in the oasis (Wikipedia, 2014). The Sultan of Muscat and Imam of Oman tried to defend the territory from the invasion by gathering their forces to repel the Saudis.
Nevertheless, the British Government persuaded them to take military action. Instead, Great Britain, acting on behalf of Oman and Abu Dhabi, challenged the actions of the Saudis (Quentin, 2013). In 1954, there was an agreement to settle the dispute by an international arbitration tribunal. The arbitration procedure began in Geneva in 1955, however, Saudi Arabia wanted to bribe the tribunal to obtain declarations in this case and attempts for arbitration failed (Wikipedia, 2014). Consequently, the British encouraged the Sultan of and Ruler of Abu Dhabi to occupy Hamasa (Meagher, 1985). Finally, the Trucial Oman Levies, a group supported by Great Britain, expelled the Saudis from the territory. The dispute over the oasis continued on for years and only in 1975, the agreement, known as the Treaty of Jeddah, between the president of U.A.E and the king Faisal of Saudi Arabia, settled the tense situation in the oasis (Quentin, 2013).
On the other hand, for many decades there was an open border between Al Buraimi and Al Ain City (U.A.E). Nonetheless, the border was relocated 8 kilometres from the traditional open border on the 16th of September of 2006. As a result, the border is now closed and it is necessary to get a visa for non 1GCC nationals in order to cross it.
1 GCC: Gulf Cooperation Council. It is a regional intergovernmental political and economic union consisting of Arabs States of the Persian Gulf. Its member states are the Islamic monarchies of Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 14 1.3. Population
The current population in the Governorate of Al Buraimi is 96.613 inhabitants, according to the Statistical Year Book (2014). This represents only 2.5% of the 3.855.206 inhabitants in the country. The number of Omani nationals in Al Buraimi is 47.747, whereas the number of foreigners is 48.866 (Statistical Year Book, 2014). Annual population growth was estimated at 7,87% in 2013.
Figure 3 – Al Buraimi Population Growth, Source: Author, 2014
Furthermore, there is currently migration of Omani nationals from other regions of Oman to the Governorate of Al Buraimi, since it offers better services than other places within the country. The population growth from Omani Nationals in the Governorate was estimated in 3,78% in the year of 2013.
Figure 4 – Al Buraimi Omani Population Growth, Source: Author, 2014
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 15 On the other hand, the number of expatriates living in Al Buraimi has increased significantly over the last few years. The population growth of non Omanis was 12,18% in 2013. According to the official statistics of Oman (2014), the majority of migrants come from India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sudan, The Philippines, and other Arabic countries.
Figure 5 – Al Buraimi Expatriate Population Growth, Source: Author, 2014
Moreover, 22.135 inhabitants in Al Buraimi are under 20 years old, which represents 22,7% of the population. The biggest age group is between 20 and 40 years old with 53.310 residents, which is 55% of the Governorate population. Meanwhile, the number of people between 41 and 60 years old is 17.729; this corresponds to 19%. Finally, the elderly population (over 60) makes up 3,3%, which is all in all a total of 3.439 inhabitants (Statistical Year Book, 2014).
1.4. Economy
The Governorate of Al Buraimi has suffered an economic decline after the establishment of the border restrictions with Al Ain in 2006 (Atkins, 2010). Nevertheless, the strategic location is very important for commerce and it facilitates the connection with other regions in Oman and the United Arab Emirates. The regional linkages with the ports of Sohar (Oman) and Dubai (U.A.E) are very important for the imports of goods into the Governorate.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 16 On the other hand, Al Buraimi provides goods and services such as car maintenance, hotels, food, oil, among others, which are less expensive than Al Ain and attract people to visit the city. Additionally, small and medium companies do not have to pay taxes in the Governorate; only the large ones have to pay them. Currently, 90% of the companies in Al Buraimi do not pay any taxes (Oman Chamber of Commerce and Industry, 2014).
According to the estimations of the Oman Chamber of Commerce and Industries Al Buraimi Branch, it is ten times more economical to establish businesses in Al Buraimi than in Al Ain. Therefore, this situation has led to the attraction of companies, which see an opportunity to invest in the Governorate. All commercial actors take advantage of the government facilities as well as the availability of capitalization and easier marketing and availability of goods.
The Governorate of Al Buraimi produces mostly construction materials such as marble, aggregate and cement. These construction products are mostly exported to the U.A.E. Moreover, it produces dates and other regional fruits, which play an important role in the local economy as well (Oman Chamber of Commerce and Industry, 2014).
Finally, the tourism sector is considered as one of the potential economic activities in Al Buraimi. The presence of affordable hotels and hotel apartments as well as the low prices of goods and services can contribute to a significant flow of tourists. Furthermore, the 3 wilayats of the Governorate have archeological sites, castles, forts, and traditional markets, which can be exploited as tourist attractions to increase the number of visitors (Oman Chamber of Commerce and Industry, 2014).
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 17 2. INTRODUCTION
2.1. Al Buraimi urban development process
The Al Buraimi urban area has been planned and developed with segregated land uses throughout the last 30 years. The Buraimi Expansion Plan, which was the Master Plan designed by the Regional Development Committee for the development of the city between 1986 and 1996, established specific uses in different areas for the expansion of Al Buraimi in this period of time.
Al AIN
Figure 6 - Map of Al Buraimi in 1986, Source: Regional Development Committee, 1986
The Master Plan considered the expansion of the residential areas along the highway to Sohar as well as in the plots located in front of the international border with Al Ain. The plan also considered the development of a commercial/industrial area, a light industrial area and a regional sports complex along the existing road to the wilayat of Mahdah. Finally, the plan established a protection zone of 3,5 kilometres in the east, as a limit of the urban expansion with the intention to protect the channel from the development process.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 18
Figure 7 - Expansion Plan of Al Buraimi 1986-1996 Source: Regional Development Committee, 1986
Nevertheless, throughout the years, the Buraimi Expansion Plan was not implemented exactly as it was planned and some of the new developments had different uses. Additionally, some of the areas which were planned to have industrial and industrial/commercial use were not developed during the decade 1986 – 1996 and these plots of land remained empty.
On the other hand, in the year 1996, a new plan for the expansion of the city was created. The plan did not include any protection zone and those areas were intended to be urbanized. Significant plots of land were projected for government use, mostly those located along the highway. However, the development of the city in the coming years did not fully implement this plan. The areas along the highway were mainly developed with commercial use and other plots of land were simply not urbanized.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 19
Figure 8 - Al Buraimi Plan 1996, Source: Ministry of Housing, 1996
Additionally, in the year 2006, crossing of the international border with the city of Al Ain was restricted and two check points were established to control the transit of non GCC nationals between Oman and U.A.E. This circumstance considerably affected the structure of the city as the borderline had always been open and Al Buraimi and Al Ain have had strong historical and economical ties.
The city has been suffering a significant urbanization rate over the last years, due to the natural growth and immigration of foreigners and Omanis from other regions, who feel attracted by the opportunities of Al Buraimi. Nevertheless, the urban development process has not been planned efficiently and lacks coordination among ministries. Al Buraimi is facing challenges in terms of transportation, environment, and infrastructure, among other issues. The disconnection between the Ministry of Housing, the Ministry of Transportation and Communication, and the Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water Resources has affected the sustainable growth of the city. There is neither a balanced nor compact development due to the lack of vision and integration in
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 20 the planning process. This process states that the Ministry of Housing allocates plots of land to the Omani residents according to the land law Oman 2008. Furthermore, the process is not coordinated with the transportation infrastructure or with the public services. Additionally, not all plots of land that are distributed are built on. This situation has led to patchy developments with low densities and urban sprawl. Additionally, land use planning is not tied with transportation planning.
Figure 9 - Al Buraimi Master Plan, Source: Ministry of Housing Al Buraimi, 2014
According to the Ministry of Housing (2014), the Al Buraimi Master Plan is prepared to cope with the demands for residential land for Omani nationals in Al Buraimi. The plan does not have a clear date of development; it depends on the quantity of applicants who intend to get a plot of land for housing, as stated in the national policy of land tenure. The different areas pointed out in the map (see Figure 9) indicate the areas of land projected to be built on. It is important to mention that once the land is allocated it is not immediately built on and the development process is not compact.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 21 On the other hand, local and regional transportation are car dependent and the strategies are focused on developing more facilities and infrastructure for motorized transport. The Central Government in Muscat has a development plan for the coming 5 years; however, the current planning approach requires reviewing and reformulation. Moreover, the strategies and decisions are centralized in the capital and there are no efficient mechanisms for implementation of the plans. As a result, the city development has been disorganized and Al Buraimi has a tendency towards inadequate growth.
2.2. Current mode of transportation in Al-Buraimi
The transportation system, not only in Al-Buraimi, but also in the whole Sultanate of Oman, is road based. This situation represents a threat for environmental degradation and high rates of accidents. Additionally, it leads to high emissions of green house gases which affect the public health and climate stability.
The use of private cars has been significant during the development of the city. The reason is that the prices of vehicles and oil are low; in addition, there is limited choice of modes of transportation. This car dependent system has led to a high use of urban areas for parking lots, roads and other cars facilities. The lack of green areas and public spaces with good standards of quality is evident.
The city of Al Buraimi does not have a public transport system operating in the urban area. There are also taxis operating in the city as a complementary mobility service, the operation is controlled and managed by the police. Additionally, private buses provide the service of transportation for schools and companies, these buses operate only during the peak hours when children and workers need to commute for their daily activities.
Meanwhile, facilities for walkability are limited because they have not been properly introduced during the development of the urban area. The current regulation for road design in Oman considers the facilities for pedestrians,
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 22 however, in the case of Al Buraimi the network for walking and biking is inadequate in certain areas and in others such facilities simply do not exist.
Moreover, the regional connections for passengers and goods are also road based. The Oman National Transport Company, which operates with buses, provides the service to connect Al Buraimi with Sohar, Muscat and Nizwa. Nonetheless, most of the trips for regional linkages are made by private cars. Furthermore, transportation of goods is facilitated utilizing commercial trucks and also private cars; there are currently around 50 private companies which provide the service of connection between Al Buraimi and the ports of Sohar and Dubai. However, the regional linkage for goods is neither efficient nor sustainable despite the strategic geographical location of the city. This situation has slowed down the economical growth and competitiveness of the city, which is in urgent need of improvement with regards to its regional connections by developing a better public transport service and facilities for trading.
Consequently, the action of transportation planning and the networks in the Governorate of Al-Buraimi need to be modified, in order to be more environmentally, economically, and socially sustainable. In addition, there is a segregation of land use within the city, which forces citizens to use private motorized modes of transportation to commute for daily activities. Even though the city is not so large yet and citizens currently do not have to travel long distances to commute, it is important to reconsider the land use plan in parallel with the transportation planning in order to achieve smart growth. Thus, further mobility problems such as long time consuming transit, congestion and pollution will be minimized. Moreover, the transportation planning in Al-Buraimi should ensure the right of accessibility in equal terms for all the citizens. Thereby, it is essential to set up models that prioritize pedestrians and physical activity instead of car dependent models which entail high costs, social segregation and pollution (Newman & Kenworthy, 1999).
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 23 2.3. Impacts of road based mode of transportation
Road based transportation modes have negative impacts in the urban and rural areas. These impacts affect the social, environmental, and economical sustainability (UN Habitat, 2013). In the case of Al Buraimi, the urban area is small considering that only 96.613 inhabitants live in the city. Therefore, problems such as social segregation, inaccessibility, inequality, pollution, high noise level, congestion, among others, are not very significant yet and do not represent an urgent challenge for the city at the moment. Nevertheless, if the urban area keeps growing at the pace of the previous years and the new developments continue with the same urban planning system, the city may suffer the aforementioned issues in the short and medium term.
2.3.1. Social Impacts
The transportation planning system is separated from land use planning, as a result, urban activities are segregated. As a consequence, in the near future, when the city expands, the citizens will have to travel long distances to commute for different activities and time consumption is going to be long due to congestion. Thereby, the right to accessibility for goods, services and activities would not be equally distributed, which leads to exclusion, social segregation and isolation (Litman, 2002). Moreover, there would be no social cohesion and the lack of access to opportunities would create inequality. In addition, high speed traffic creates barriers which reduce the ease for active transport, which entails a disadvantage for children, elderly people, and people with special needs (Hillman, 1993).
On the other hand, Al Buraimi is hostile towards pedestrians and other forms of urban pleasantness, as the city gives cars priority and provides limited facilities for physical activity and enjoyment. The lack of facilities for non motorized transportation does not support the physical fitness of the community. As a result, the transportation system may not fulfill a good standard of community
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 24 cohesion and inclusiveness by encouraging walkability and bikibility (Litman, 2002). Finally, large roadways and parking facilities tend to degrade the cultural heritage and local landscape. These effects may threaten the traditional community and the historic structure and sites (Fausold, 1996). Consequently, automobile based transport might threaten the historical heritage and identity of Al Buraimi, which is a city with potential of exploiting tourism activities through traditional heritage sites.
2.3.2. Environmental Impacts
As mentioned, the urban area of Al Buraimi is still small and environmental problems related to transportation are not an urgent issue yet. Nevertheless, with the city growing fast and the potential use of cars being massive, the environment would be seriously affected due to high levels of greenhouse emissions and noise (UN Habitat, 2013). This problem will worsen in the short and medium term if the transportation planning is not reoriented into a more environmentally friendly focus.
Moreover, in order to build roads and infrastructure for motorized transportation, it is necessary to use significant areas of land which will expand the urban fringe. The sprawl implies high quantities of asphalt for cars and hence there is more potential for water pollution (Newman & Kenworthy, 1999). As a result, the ecosystem in Al Buraimi may be at risk of damage, threatening the local natural resources by this urbanization rate. An additional impact is created by oil vulnerability, according to the estimations of the peak oil production forecast; the global oil production is projected to decline after 2020 (Miller, 2014). Thereby, there will be increasing vulnerability to diminishing oil supply, which would need to be overcome with the implementation of alternative energies and updated technologies (Newman & Kenworthy, 1999). Thus, even though the Sultanate of Oman currently has significant oil resources, in the long term the country can face a shortage of petroleum when this non renewable resource is exhausted.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 25 The international and national oil crisis will obviously affect the local context of the Governorate of Al Buraimi. Furthermore, public health would also be badly affected because the air would become polluted and the quality reduced. Generally, car based cities have excessive smog lowering the quality of life (Newman & Kenworthy, 1999). Finally, automobile based transportation consumes considerable quantities of fuel, which is a non renewable source of energy that emits considerable levels of CO2 into the atmosphere; this situation would threaten the climate stability in the region and globally (UN Habitat, 2013). Consequently, ignoring the protection of the ecosystem by use of more sustainable transportation may result in significant and irreversible environmental issues for the city of Al Buraimi.
2.3.3. Economical Impacts
Road based modes of transportation require high costs of operation, infrastructure, and maintenance in addition to the environmental risk and social issues (Newman & Kenworthy, 1999). It also entails costs for externalities such as accidents, injuries, and fatalities. In addition, the citizens do not exercise by walking or biking because they do not have the facilities which support these activities. As a result, the levels of health issues such as obesity, respiratory problems, stress, among others, may increase and the treatment can represent considerable costs for the health care system in the long term (Litman, 2002). Currently, the prices of oil and cars are affordable for almost all society groups in Al Buraimi. Therefore, accessibility does not represent an immediate transportation problem as the urban area is small and private transport is obtainable for citizens. However, the economical costs of building new infrastructure for cars and maintenance for roads represent a meaningful amount of the budget for development. As a result, reducing car dependency and encouraging affordable public and non-motorized transportation would minimize the external and direct costs of mobility. Thusly, the significant financial resources that are currently invested in the expensive road system could be invested in other dimensions of urban development in the city of Al Buraimi. On
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 26 the other hand, with the expansion of the city in the coming years, if this situation does not change and new transport alternatives are not created, congestion and traffic will increase. As a result, the reduction in the urban quality will translate automatically to a decrease of economical performance (Newman & Kenworthy, 1999).
The following table summarizes the existing and projected transportation impacts in Al Buraimi attributed to the auto-based mode of transportation:
Social Impacts Environmental Impacts Economical Impacts
- Exclusion of elderly • Degradation of biodiversity • High costs for new people, children and and local ecosystem infrastructure, maintenance people with special and operation needs • High costs for accidents, EXISTING - Inequality injuries and fatalities - No physical fitness - High rates of accidents
- No Accessibility for • High greenhouse emissions • High costs for the healthcare functional • Low air quality system - activities • Pollution • Decrease of economical
- Segregation • High levels of noise performance PROJECTED - No community cohesion • Low public health • Lack of competitiveness due - Degradation of historical • Oil vulnerability to lack of efficient accessibility heritage and local identity
Table 1– Existing and projected transportation impacts in Al Buraimi attributed to auto-based mode, Source: Author, 2014.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 27 3. METHODOLOGY
3.1. Rational for Study
The urban area of Al Buraimi has experienced a rapid growth over the last years, due not only to the natural growth, but also to the immigration of foreigners and nationals from other regions of Oman, who see in the city opportunities relevant to their needs. As a result, the process of fast growing has presented the typical problems of unsustainable urban development and, specifically for this research, unsustainable transportation. Additionally, the city of Al Buraimi is a special case with particular conditions, due to its location in the border with the city of Al Ain, which historically and economically have held strong ties. Therefore, further investigation in the Al Buraimi area is urgently needed in order to provide effective strategic plans with vision for the coming years.
Current transportation planning in Al Buraimi and urban development planning in general are not well coordinated and lacks vision, integration, and enforcement of plans and regulations. Consequently, the planning process is not well implemented and has no long term projection. In addition, no attention has been placed on sustainable transportation and only in recent years has awareness about sustainable development increased slightly. There is not significant integration of social, environmental, and economical impacts in plans and strategies designed for transportation. Therefore, if the planning approach is not reformulated and the situation does not change, the negative consequences in terms of accessibility, ecological preservation, and social cohesion will be soon evident given the current urbanization rate.
The focus of this study is the development of criteria and concepts for sustainable transportation in the city of Al Buraimi. The topic of research was selected because the impacts that transportation has on different urban dimensions are relevant and planning needs to be seriously reconsidered in order to meet the needs of the community preserving the future stability of Al
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 28 Buraimi. Another reason for selecting this topic of study is the concern about the need to switch to a more sustainable mode of transportation. The current transportation planning approach has prioritized the use of automobiles as a mean of mobility. Generally speaking, motorized transportation entails numerous problems which may threaten the social cohesion, public health, balanced development, among others. As a result, research on how to adopt more sustainable transportation practices is needed. The integration of transportation planning with the other urban planning dimensions such as land use planning, housing, services etc, is a requirement that must be fulfilled to guarantee organized and reasonable urban growth.
Furthermore, the rationale of the study includes the theoretical framework on sustainable transportation and planning. The discussion of academic references and the literature review will provide various concepts about sustainability, mobility, accessibility, equity etc. On the other hand, it is important to analyze the current transportation facilities and their relation with the mobility behavior of the community. The citizen’s needs for mobility and the challenges that transportation pose for the city can be identified by evaluating the mobility patterns in the local and regional context. The study includes the analysis of the existing policies and regulations related to transportation and the current management structure. Therefore, the research integrates all the aspects of transportation planning in order to come up with new concepts and proposals for sustainable and locally adapted transportation in Al Buraimi. Finally, the purpose in this research is that even though the city has experienced rapid inappropriate urbanization over the last years, there is still potential for promising and beneficial urban development.
3.2. Research Objectives
The aim of this research is to analyze the current modes of transportation and the mobility patterns in the Governorate of Al-Buraimi in order to propose recommendations. Its purpose includes the evaluation of the transportation
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 29 planning approach in comparison to the theoretical principles of sustainable transportation as well. Moreover, in order to fulfill the above mentioned it is important to include the following sub objectives:
- To construct a conceptual framework by reviewing theoretical concepts and definitions on sustainable transportation in order to compare them with the transportation performance in Al Buraimi. - To analyze the mobility patterns in Al-Buraimi by identifying the factors which influence urban and regional transportation. Furthermore, the study also aims to evaluate the existing transport facilities and mobility behavior in Al Buraimi. - To review the current transportation laws, regulations, strategies, planning procedures, and how they are implemented in practice in Al Buraimi - To identify the problems and challenges that the current transportation system entails and propose ideas on how to switch to a more sustainable mode of transportation in Al Buraimi. - To establish criteria on sustainable transportation in order to address the dimensions of rapid uncontrolled growth in Al Buraimi.
3.3. Research Question
In order to focus and develop the research on sustainable transportation in Al Buraimi, it is important to formulate a general question which will orientate the study. Therefore, the formulated primary question is:
How to switch to a more sustainable mode of transportation in Al-Buraimi?
3.4. Secondary Questions
As a complement of the primary question, it is important to formulate secondary questions around the topic, which will support the definition of the specific area of
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 30 the research. Consequently, in order to fulfill the aforementioned, the following questions arise:
- How does the current mode of transportation sustain the residents’ needs of accessibility for the local and regional activities Al-Buraimi? - How environmentally sustainable is the current mode of transportation in Al- Buraimi? - How to improve the transportation planning process in Al Buraimi? - How to reduce the current level of automobile dependency in Al Buraimi? - What type of transportation is needed in Al Buraimi in order to achieve sustainability?
3.5. Project Phases
The research was divided into four phases in order to conduct the study. Thus, the strategic approach of this research is described in this section:
Phase 1: (Mid July 2014 – August 2014) The introductory step of the research was based upon gathering information about Oman and, specifically Al Buraimi. Consequently, in this process it was possible to define the area of study and review the general essence of Oman. Thus, the research topic, objectives, primary question, and secondary questions were determined. This phase was essential to define the focus of the topic.
Phase 2: (August 2014 – mid October 2014) The preparation of the field work defined the data that was necessary to be collected in Al Buraimi in order to develop the research. At the same time, the preliminary planning phase of the trip to Oman, determined the program for the interviews on site, which included the main actors and institutions to be contacted in Al Buraimi. In addition, community questionnaires were designed to interview different groups of the society. On the other hand, the theoretical framework also
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 31 provided concepts and definitions which helped to gain an insight of the problems to be addressed. The aforementioned framework was basically a literature review where the opinions of experts, academics and organizations were discussed in order to establish an overall theoretical approach of the topic of this study.
Phase 3: (18th of September 2014– 18th of October 2014) The field trip in the Governorate of Al Buraimi was carried out in order to collect data and assess the problems by becoming familiar with the place. The process of data collection was divided into: (1) Semi Structured interviews with ministries and institutions related to transportation in Al Buraimi, in order to obtain official information and statistics; (2) Community questionnaires to identify mobility patterns and quantitative data; and (3) direct observation, which included photographic documentation and mapping, which support the qualitative evaluation in site. Finally, the process of literature review continued as it was relevant to compare the theoretical principles on sustainable transportation with the current transportation system in Al Buraimi.
Phase 4: (Mid October 2014 – Mid December 2014) Finally, after collecting all data and information, the next step is to analyze them and evaluate the findings in order to come up with proposals to switch to a more sustainable transportation mode in Al Buraimi. The evaluation was made through indicators, which showed the transportation performance in Al Buraimi, in comparison with the principles of sustainable transportation. Additionally, the researcher analyzed the mobility patterns in Al-Buraimi by identifying the factors which influence urban and regional transportation. The analysis encompassed a review of the existing transport facilities and mobility behavior in addition to a review of the laws, regulations, and transportation planning. This phase also included a SWOT analysis. Finally, the proposals were divided into governance and technical recommendations. The final stage included the elaboration of the final paper of this Master Thesis.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 32 3.6. Techniques for Research
As described above, primary data collection was the main reason of the field trip to Oman. The work in situ provided the primary data in addition to a familiarity with the place of study. The methodology to collect this information had 3 components:
3.6.1. Semi -Structured Interviews In the preliminary steps before the trip the target list and questionnaires for interviews were defined. Afterwards, during the filed trip to Oman, the researcher interviewed experts related, either directly or indirectly, to the topic of transportation in Al Buraimi. This process was supported by the Head of the Urban Planning Section, who works in the Ministry of Housing in Al Buraimi, and coordinated the majority of meetings. Other appointments in Al Buraimi were set up by the researcher through phone calls or e-mail. As Arabic is the official language in the Sultanate of Oman, the Head of the Urban Planning Section accompanied the researcher to translate the questions and answers when it was needed. However, it is important to mention that some of the interviewed were able to speak English.
The meetings were held in-person during office hours. During the meetings in Al Buraimi, all the conversations were recorded in order to capture the entire interview. Additionally, some of the questions formulated before the field trip were reconsidered, modified and/or complemented once the field trip started, as it was not possible to foresee aspects difficult to predict without familiarity of the place. Other new questions arose in this process of meetings and interviews depending on the information found during the field work. It was possible to hold 16 interviews during the expedition to Al Buraimi, the detailed schedule of this itinerary and the questionnaires for the semi-structured interviews can be found in the appendixes A-D. Finally, this methodology was essential to discover relevant information on urban/transportation planning, regulations, statistics, priorities, needs, problems, and challenges in the Governorate of Al Buraimi.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 33 3.6.2. Community Questionnaires A questionnaire provides a tool for finding information that you can tabulate and discuss (Program Development and Evaluation, 1998). As a result, multiple option and open-ended response community questionnaires were formulated in order to identify mobility patterns and trends in Al Buraimi (see appendix E). The questionnaires were addressed to the different groups of the society, which included students, workers, immigrants, etc. Furthermore, through these surveys it was intended to find information on how people move; mobility behavior, transportation performance, needs, priorities, limitations, and regional linkages. Before going on the field trip the researcher wrote the questionnaires in English, however, they were translated into Arabic by the Head of the Urban Planning Section during the work in situ. Additionally, the surveys had to be modified during the trip because new questions arose and others did not make much sense in practice. The surveys were carried out first by interviewing people on the street and secondly, by going to the Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs and the Municipal Council of Al Buraimi, who were willing to disseminate them taking into account the language and cultural barriers. Thus, the researcher was supported to reach the required number of community surveys. Eventually, 64 questionnaires were conducted and they proved relevant to find the required information. The information found on the questionnaires was tabulated to generate statistics and indicators which provided an overview of the transportation performance in Al Buraimi.
3.6.3. Direct Observation This technique was employed for further contextualization of the place of study. The aim of the direct observation was to identify the existing transportation facilities in Al Buraimi. This included stations, road networks, sidewalks, facilities for pedestrians, areas used for cars, parking lots, speed controls, et al. Additionally, it was relevant to identify the critical points of transportation planning and infrastructure. Moreover, this technique was essential to reveal the main local destinations where citizens commute to more frequently. Meanwhile, by
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 34 exploring the area it was also possible to detect the quality of regional connections and the current situation in the international border with Al Ain. The assessment was supported by photographic documentation and mapping. Thus, direct observation was an additional technique which provided relevant basis for the qualitative assessment of the research.
3.7. Limitations
The process of investigation is vulnerable to limitations to find the requested information needed to develop the study. Therefore, in the specific case of this research, different limitations appeared during the field work due mostly to the unavailability of official statistics and data, language barrier, duration of time of the field study trip, and cultural issues. Firstly, the ministries and institutions in Al Buraimi lack of official documentation and information. It was evident during the field trip that the information is either very confidential or not well recorded. It also seems that there is little or no coordination to include the information in a common data base and the procedure is disorganized.
Secondly, the language barrier is a relevant limitation for efficient communication. It was not possible to have the cooperation of a professional translator to translate the questions from English into Arabic and the answers from Arabic into English. As a result, many details in the conversation could not be obtained despite the cooperation of the person who was doing the translation task. Thus, it was difficult to delve more deeply into the underlying information during the interviews. Thirdly, the field trip to the Sultanate of Oman was for one month. Nevertheless, there was a festivity in the Muslim countries for one week within the time of the field work. Consequently, during this week it was not possible to have official meetings with the ministries or institutions. Fortunately, even though the time was tight, the researcher found sufficient information to fully develop the study. Finally, the cultural issue plays an important role in the limitations of this research. As mentioned, community questionnaires had to be conducted
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 35 according to the methodology of this study. Nevertheless, it was very difficult to approach the local people to carry out the community surveys because this is not common in the Omani society in addition to the language barrier. As a consequence, it was necessary to find a contingency plan for the surveys, the Municipal Council and the Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs offered support to disseminate the questionnaires among students and workers. Finally, thanks to this cooperation it was possible to reach the number of surveys necessary for the purpose of the study.
3.6. Expected Outcomes
This research proposes possible outcomes for the transportation planning in Al Buraimi. After collecting and analyzing the data needed for the study, a general understanding of the current transportation planning and structure defined essential points for the research. Therefore, the next step after the general review is to propose recommendations to switch into a more sustainable transportation mode in Al Buraimi. These proposals are basically guidelines to reform the transportation planning process taking into account governance and technical perspectives. In addition, the particular situation of Al Buraimi and the Sultanate of Oman are also considered in order to propose feasible recommendations according to the context. The expected outcomes are listed below:
- General review of transportation planning in the Sultanate of Oman and the city of Al Buraimi - General review of mobility patterns and mobility behavior in Al Buraimi - Transportation performance in regard to sustainability in Al Buraimi - Proposals to improve transportation governance in Al Buraimi - Proposals to reduce car dependency in Al Buraimi - Recommendations for the implementation of a more sustainable mode of transportation in Al Buraimi
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 36 The research process is illustrated in the box below:
Research Topic: Sustainable Transportation in Al Buraimi, Sultanate of Oman
Rational for Study: - Need for further study in Al Buraimi regarding to sustainable transportation - Transportation in A.B is facing challenges that affect the city structure/identity
Research Objectives: - To identify problems and challenges of transportation in Al Buraimi - To establish criteria on sustainable transportation
Research Question: How to switch into a more sustainable mode of transportation in Al-Buraimi?
Oman and Al Buraimi
Literature Review Theoretical Framework Sustainable Transportation (Concepts and Principles)
Field Trip Transportation Planning Procedure Preparation Semi -Structured Interviews Transportation Legal Framework
Field Trip to Al Community Questionnaires Official Statistics and Information Buraimi (Oman)
Direct Observation Mobility Patterns
Transportation Facilities Limitations COLLECTED/ DATA FINDINGS • Language Barrier • Cultural Issue
Comparison of transportation performance (indicators) with Criteria on how to switch into a more concepts on S.T sustainable transportation mode Analysis of Findings SWOT Analysis Governance and Technical
PROPOSALS Recommendations Identify problems, needs challenges and priorities
Box 1 – Research Process, Source: Author, 2014
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 37 4. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
4.1. Literature Review
4.1.1. Sustainable Urban Development
Firstly, it is important to review the concept of sustainability according to the definitions stated by different researches studies that have been carried out by experts and organizations. According to the 2 Brundtland Commission Report (1987):
“Sustainable development should meet the needs of the existing community without compromising the future generation’s ability to meet their own needs”.
The focus of this definition was modified in the so called “Agenda 21” of Rio de Janeiro (1992), a conference organized by the United Nations in order to address the problem of sustainability. In this conference, the international community emphasized the need to expand the definition in the environmental sector. Thus, sustainability was directly related to climate change, green house gases, and pollution (Hutton, 2013). Meanwhile, the Center for Sustainability (2004) stated that:
“Sustainability is the capacity for continuance into the long term future. Anything that can go on being done on an indefinite basis is sustainable. Anything that cannot go on being done indefinitely is unsustainable”.
Moreover, sustainable development was framed in a triple bottom line concept defined as the protection of the environment ensuring economical stability and social equity (Willetts et al., 2010). In the majority of sustainability definitions the environmental dimension has been highlighted over the economical and social ones, the reason is that the economic and social terms have been considered
2 Formally known as the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), the Brundtland Commission's mission is to unite countries to pursue sustainable development together.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 38 sub systems of environment (Weerakoon & Kumar, 2013). In this context, sustainability is “equity and harmony extended into the future, a careful journey without an endpoint, a continuous striving for the harmonious co-evolution of environmental, economic and socio-cultural goals” (Mega et al., 1998, p.18). Likewise, the Institute for Sustainable Communities (1997) pointed out that a sustainable community is resilient and healthy in terms of economy, social issues, and environment. Thereby, meeting the present needs and holding a long term perspective with integrative vision instead of fragmented approaches. Finally, the term livability has been linked to sustainability in the urban development context; however, the definitions of these two terms must be differentiated. Livability refers to conditions that affect directly the community members – e.g. local air and noise pollution -whereas sustainability focuses on climate change (Litman, 2008).
4.1.2. Literature review on Sustainable Transportation
The principles and definitions presented above provide a broad perspective regarding sustainable urban development. Next, it is important to focus the discussion on sustainable transportation according to the definitions of academics and experts. The Transportation Research Board (1997) stated:
“Sustainability is not about threat analysis; sustainability is about systems analysis. Specifically, it is about how environmental, economic, and social systems interact to their mutual advantage or disadvantage at various space- based scales of operation.”
Moreover, other experts state that sustainable transportation avoids the use of significant areas of lands designated to build roads and cars infrastructure, which pollutes the ecosystem and destroys the natural resources (Newman & Kenworthy, 1999). Additionally, 3UN Habitat (2013) affirms that the current rates
3 United Nations Habitat, Global Report on Human Settlements 2013, “Planning and Design for Sustainable Urban Mobility”. 2013
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 39 of greenhouse emissions and global temperatures changes confirm the urgency to separate the transportation sector from auto and oil dependency.
Nevertheless, sustainable transportation is not limited only to the environmental responsibility; the discussion has been lately related to the economic and social roles that transportation plays. In 2004, the European Conference of Ministers of Transport defined sustainable transportation as a system which is accessible, safe, environmentally friendly, and affordable. Additionally, the Center for Sustainable Transportation (2005) indicated that sustainable transportation is a system which supports a vibrant economy by offering choice of transport modes and operating efficiently. It is evident that cities which have implemented innovative transportation systems are more competitive and efficient (Litman, 2002). The construction of roads, parking lots, and infrastructure for cars demand expenditures of significant portions of wealth in addition to the costs of accidents and public property damage (Litman, 2002). According to Aschauer (1991), investing economic resources in public transportation has more returns and profit than investing in highways. Additionally, roads construction does not necessarily represent a considerable amount of employment in comparison with other activities (Litman, 2002).
In a recent study, Kenworthy, Schiller and Bruun (2010) state that the aim of sustainable transportation is to meet mobility needs of individuals and community, reducing the social and environmental impacts of transportation practices. Additionally, they point out the importance of minimizing resource inputs and waste outputs which have negative effects for the public. The Global Report of Sustainable Settlements (2013) indicates that cities would become more sustainable if they were more compact, implementing mixed land uses and prioritizing public and non-motorized transport. Furthermore, sustainable mobility needs an alternative approach, which establishes land use policy measures to reduce distances, car dependency, and needs to travel (Banister, 2007). It is also important to value the role of technological innovation in terms of engine
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 40 design, alternative fuels, and use of renewable energy sources in order to reduce levels of noise and emissions (Banister, 2007).
According to Newman & Kenworthy (1999), economic efficiency, social equity, and human livability are also components of sustainable transportation planning. They also indicate the need to overcome automobile dependence to minimize the infrastructure, transportation, and time costs involved. The reduction of inefficient land use also needs to be addressed. Furthermore, low quality of mobility, unequal opportunity to commute, lack of public safety, loss of community structure, and urban livability would be drastically reduced by adopting non car dependent models and public transportation (Kenworthy et al., 2010). Automobile dependency dominates resources such as budget, land and roadway design; segregating urban activities. Furthermore, it discourages non-motorized transportation because high speed traffic creates hostility against waking and biking (Litman, 2002). It is demonstrated that cities, which provide suitable facilities for non motorized transportation, decrease the automobile domination and encourage citizens to exercise. People want to walk and bike; nonetheless they feel limited by car dominance and traffic (Handy and Niemeier, 1997). In addition, in order to reduce car volume is necessary to encourage car sharing and public transportation. Cervero (2002) studied travel behavior influenced by the built environment, the findings of the study demonstrated that areas developed with high quality sidewalks encourage commuters to take a bus, ride sharing, or carpooling. It also shows that the pedestrian environment shapes the quality of the public space and supports community cohesion; as a result, walking should be put in the spotlight of transportation planning (Kenworthy et al., 2010).
4.1.3. Transportation Planning
Different theoretical concepts on sustainable development and sustainable transportation were reviewed above. Further discussion regarding planning is needed in order to understand the principles of good management for
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 41 transportation and how planning is linked to the sustainability issue. According to the experts and academics, a new planning paradigm is necessary in order to address sustainable transportation. This new paradigm is based on: (1) The interaction and integration of policies and mobility management; (2) Relevant background factors that guide planning and policy; and (3) Development of suitable techniques, infrastructure and technology (Kenworthy et al., 2010). Sustainable mobility is an alternative paradigm which strengthen the links between land use and transportation planning in addition to the investigation of the city’s complexity (Banister, 2008). Moreover, empirical studies have concluded that sustainable cities should be preferably over 50.000 inhabitants in population, with densities over 40 persons per hectare, with mixed land use, and developments for public transportation (Banister, 2005, 2006).
Additionally, it is important to reduce travel demand and increase accessibility by planning cities with mixed developments, which reduce automobile dependency to commute (Newman & Kenworthy, 1999), thus distances are shorter and reachable for walking and biking. Reducing the need to travel needs substitution, this means that a trip is no longer necessary because it has been replaced either by a non travel activity or by technology (Banister, 2008). Furthermore, the author also points out that transport policy measures can reduce private car use by implementing parking controls and road pricing, facilitating the use of public transportation at the same time. The modal shift can be achieved by considering the street not only as a road, but also as a space for people encouraging new uses such as street markets and play zones (Banister and Marshall, 2000).
According to Banister (2008), car ownership will become more affordable in the coming years; as a result, a strategy to reduce car use is to increase the cost of insurance and stricter procedures to pass the driving test. Moreover, the key point to reduce car use and encourage walking, biking, carpooling and public transportation is the use of “push and pull” measures (4OECD, 2004). The criteria
4 Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, “Environmental Strategy”, 2004.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 42 for the selection of these measures are: (1) Easy to implement; (2) Highly Efficient; and (3) High level of acceptance (Mobility Management Measures, 2013). As a result, the new transportation paradigm requires raising public acceptance and engagement in actions to support sustainable transportation. (Banister, 2008). Consequently, public acceptability will lead to political acceptability, which in the end will change the situation. The UN Habitat (2013) highlights in its report for Sustainable Urban Mobility that the main challenges to reach the sustainability goals are the acceptance and adaptation of the governments to change institutions, administration, and governance.
Thus, transportation policies and regulations should be inclusive of and integrated with land use planning, which requires structural changes in institutions and governance (UN Habitat, 2013). Meanwhile, Banister (2008) affirms that it is important to understand the expectations of individuals to succeed in the implementation of actions for sustainable transportation. Therefore, he points out two key elements in the individual dimensions. The first is that there is acceptance to the proposed policy and efficiency in its implementation. Secondly, that the policy is fair for the individual and the society. Furthermore, Banister assures that it is only through new attitudes and the engagement of users of transport that changes can be achieved. Finally, it is relevant the interagency collaboration among the organizations responsible for transportation planning, management, and operation in addition to the integration with the responsible agent for land development (UN Habitat, 2013). On the other hand, according to Litman (2000) sustainable transportation demands a more comprehensive analysis of impacts and broad solutions. The principles for good sustainable transportation planning also include the active involvement of the public to consider alternatives and evaluate criteria (Litman, 2000). The strong involvement of the stakeholders through an interactive and participatory process to commit themselves to the sustainable transportation paradigm is essential (Banister, 2008). Additionally, participative policies play an important role in citizen’s engagement; educating the public and creating
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 43 awareness (Laing et al., 2012). As a result, the new transportation planning approach should recognize the integrated importance of robust policy, community participation in the design and strategy development, user’s behavioral change, and the provision of appropriate infrastructure for sustainable transportation (Laing et al., 2012).
4.1.4. Land Use Planning – Transportation
Special attention should be drawn to the direct relation between land use planning and transportation. The UN Habitat (2013) argues about neglecting the relation between land use and mobility, which has led to urban sprawl in many urban areas. Compact cities with high densities and mixed use, which also have high quality of infrastructure for non-motorized modes combined with policies that minimize car based modes, represent a more sustainable mobility approach (Newman & Kenworthy, 1999). According to Banister (2008), the continuous growth of car dependency can be attributed not only to the increase of individual ownership, but also to the dispersion of activities in the city-region. The increased spatial separation of residential areas, workplaces, commercial areas, and schools causes the rise of travel distances and time, especially in cities with urban sprawl and low densities (Scott et al., 2005). In Addition, urban population density is one of the indicators that affect transportation. High densities facilitate accessibility by reducing distances and complement mixed land use, as a result, lower trip durations and short distances enhance the possibilities of non motorized transportation such as walking and biking (Kenworthy & Laube, 1996). The land use objectives are more transit-oriented, focused on higher density, with mixed land uses which interrupt the growth of car-based development (Banister, 2008).
Furthermore, car dependency has a number of negative land use impacts because it requires a significant amount of land paved for roads and parking areas (Litman, 2002). Different studies have shown that automobile oriented cities require three times more land for roads and parking than traditional,
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 44 pedestrian-oriented cities (Litman, 2002). The land is an essential resource which should be regulated to avoid land waste generated by excessive roads and parking space (Newman & Kenworthy, 1999).
At the same time, transportation planning and land use need to consider accessibility and proximity as their first planning principles for sustainable transportation. (Kenworthy et al., 2010). Additionally, Integration of land use and transportation planning is necessary to ensure the efficiency of urban mobility systems (UN Habitat, 2013). In contrast, the Transportation Research Board (2000) disagrees with the emphasis in the integration of land use and transportation as the key factor to reduce automobile dependency and increase non motorized modes. In addition, the publication points out that transportation planning should be refocused by implementing policies which are intended to influence travel behavior using the existing facilities rather than constructing new capacity.
Additionally, Banister (2008) indicates that land and transportation planning parallel to the implementation of policies to change behavior are complementary actions to adopt a more sustainable mode of transportation. This implies the improvement of facilities for non motorized, and establishment policies, regulations and awareness raising. Moreover, many agencies that regulate land use have no responsibility for mobility policies resulting in a serious institutional disconnection with no opportunity for integrated actions (UN Habitat, 2013). According to the UN Habitat report, this tendency of disconnection among institutions is especially evident in cities which have a weak tradition of urban land-use planning and control.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 45 4.2. Hypothesis
At the beginning of this research, the preliminary answer was that affordability in prices of cars and oil has led to car dependency as a predominant mode of transportation in the Sultanate of Oman. At the same time, Al Buraimi has been developed with segregated land uses and there is a disconnection between transportation planning and land use because there is not enough coordination amongst institutions to integrate them, which has led to urban sprawl. Additionally, all the policies and strategies for transportation are focused on auto- based modes, which have entailed unsustainable practices that threaten the public health. Therefore, factors such as accidents, pollution, inefficient accessibility and other issues may result in serious environmental, social, and economical problems.
Nevertheless, policy makers and planners have not taken effective action to transform the transportation planning procedure in order to achieve sustainability. The current national policy, regulations, strategies, and plans are designed to develop urban transportation based on private cars. Consequently, it is important to reconsider the transportation planning processes on the national, regional, and local level. It is also assumed that public awareness and adaptation are needed in order to switch to a more sustainable mode of transportation. This process of consciousness and adaptability includes institutions, governance, decision makers, and the community.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 46 5. TRANSPORTATION GOVERNANCE IN AL BURAIMI
5.1. Government Institutions Involved
The government in the Sultanate of Oman is centralized in the capital Muscat. The Royalty is the main authority in the country; beneath the monarchy, the Supreme Committee for Planning is the responsible party for policy making at all levels of urban planning and the preparation of the urban development strategy (Al Gharibi, 2013). Moreover, there are 12 different ministries responsible for making and implementing decisions on policies. Additionally, Oman is divided in 11 governorates which have to adopt and apply all the decisions made in the Central Government. Each governorate has a governor, a municipal council and departments from the 12 different national ministries (Governorate of Al Buraimi, 2014).
The Ministry of Transport and Communications is one of the 12 national ministries in Oman. It is responsible for the planning and implementation of transportation infrastructure and maintenance. The Ministry of Transportation and Communications also defines the general guidelines, plans, budget, regulations, strategies, and decisions for transportation in the whole Sultanate. As a result, the Governorate of Al Buraimi has to consider all the official guidelines and regulations established by the Ministry in the Central Government.
On the other hand, there are 2 departments in charge of transportation in the Governorate of Al Buraimi. The first one is the department of the Ministry of Transport and Communications, which is the responsible for the construction and maintenance of highways and regional roads. This department also applies for budget allocation from the Central Government. Secondly, the Office of Technical Affairs, which is a department of the Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water Resources in Al Buraimi and is the responsible party for the local transportation network in the city. In this case, the allocation of financial resources is made by the Buraimi Municipality, which at the same time gets its
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 47 budget from the Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water Resources of Oman. The municipalities in the Sultanate were created in 2011 with the aim of strengthening the local level. The allocation of a budget to the municipalities depends on the percentage of their population compared to the total national population. On the other hand, the Municipal Council of Al Buraimi has elected and appointed members who represent the people and support the Governor of Al Buraimi. The Governor is responsible for the decisions in the Governorate, which includes the 3 wilayats: Al Buraimi, Mahdha and Al Sunainah. The governance structure for transportation described above is illustrated in the graph below:
Royal Authority
NationalLevel
Supreme Council of Planning
Agency responsible for planning Agencies responsible for transportation Ministry of Housing Ministry of Transport Ministry of Regional (Responsible for and Communication Municipalities land administration and of Oman and Water Resources Master Plans)
Regional
Level
Governorate of Al Buraimi Department of the Ministry of (makes decisions for the 3 wilayats) Transport and Communication in Al Buraimi (Responsible for highways and Municipal Council of Al Buraimi regional roads in the Governorate) (supports the Governor in decisions)
LocalLevel Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water Resources in Al Buraimi (Al Buraimi Municipality)
Municipality Office of Technical Affairs (Responsible for local transport network)
Box 2- Transportation Governance Structure in Al Buraimi, Source: Author, 2014
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 48 5.2. Transportation Planning Procedure
The Supreme Council for Planning produces a planning framework for the organization of the physical development in the Sultanate of Oman. Within this framework, the Ministry of Housing develops Regional Plans for all regions of the country (MOTC, 2013). Based on these Regional Plans, the Supreme Council for Planning designs 5Town Structure Plans. The aforementioned plans are the base for the development, which includes the transportation infrastructure. As mentioned before, in the specific case of Al Buraimi, the implementing agencies are: The Department of the Ministry of Transportation and Communications in Al Buraimi, responsible for the highways and regional roads, and the Buraimi Municipality, which is the branch of the Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water Resources in Al Buraimi and has an office for technical affairs regarding to the local road network.
The Supreme Council for Planning and the Ministry of National Economy coordinate a 20 Year Development Plan for each region in Oman. From this development plan, a 5 year plan is designed for the whole Sultanate and a budget is produced by each ministry, defining priorities and programs at the same time. The Ministry of Transport and Communications determines the priorities and schemes, thus, works such as roads improvements and roads reconstruction are usually considered because of poor safety conditions, congestion, and infrastructure failure (MOTC, 2013). Furthermore, the development of new areas requires building more roads and transportation facilities. The regional initiatives in the form of GCC proposals for international road networks influence identification of the schemes as well (MOTC, 2013).
The Department of the Ministry of Transportation and Communications in Al Buraimi and the Office of the Technical Affairs of the Municipality have to coordinate the new road developments, concerning the existing and proposed services which could be affected. Therefore, they need the information from the
5 Town Structure Plans are also known as Master Plans for the development of the cities/towns
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 49 agencies in charge of public services such as the Public Authority for Electricity and Water, oil and gas companies, telecommunication companies, waste water companies, among others. It is important to mention that the Ministry of Housing of Oman is in charge of land use planning, mapping, and lots allocation. According to the Omani legal framework, each national citizen has the right to receive a plot of land to build a house (Land Law of Oman, 2008). Consequently, the Ministry of Housing allocates residential plots of land to the Omani nationals above the age of 23, including women. The process of plot allocation is made by draw. At the time that the land is allocated, there is not infrastructure of transportation or public services. Thus, after a considerable area has been developed then the roads and service infrastructure are built. This is the process of urban development in the urbanized areas. Moreover, the Ministry of Housing is also responsible for the land acquisition of the new projects for transportation. However, there is no connection between land use and transportation planning because they are the responsibility of separated ministries which find it difficult to coordinate in these two dimensions.
According to the transportation planning procedure, in theory there is inter- governmental consultation to coordinate the process among agencies. Moreover, the procedure also states that there should be public consultation through the local representatives, who are members of the Municipal Council. Nevertheless, this process is only to inform and explain proposals to the community, regarding the impacts of the new transportation projects (MOTC, 2013).
The conventional stages used for transportation proposals consist of feasibility study, preliminary design, and final design. At the stage of design, the Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs assesses the environmental risk and, if the project complies with the regulations, the ministry issues the permission to build new roads and/or transportation infrastructure (MOTC, 2013). Additionally, traffic demand predictions, economic benefits, alternative routes, and topographical surveys are also considered during the planning process.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 50 The transportation planning procedure stated in theory is illustrated in the diagram below:
Supreme Committee for Planning Town Structure Plans Regional Plans Ministry of Housing (Master Plans)
Urban Planning Planning Framework
Ministry of Regional Municipalities Ministry of Ministry of Environment and Water Resources through Transport and Communications and Climate Affairs the Office of Technical Affairs (Regional Network) (Issues environmental (Local network) permissions for new roads)
Implementation Agencies Ministry of Housing (Land acquisition, land - Construction of new regional administration) •Construction of new local roads roads and highways •Improvement of local network - Improvement of existing Agencies in charge of public •Reconstruction of local roads regional transportation facilities services: Public Authority - Regional roads reconstruction for Electricity and Water, oil and gas companies, Priorities and schemes telecommunication companies, waste water companies (assessment of existing
Community Feasibility Study Preliminary Design Final Design and proposed services) (Public Consultation) Coordination / Permissions Conventional Stages for Transportation Proposals
Box 3- Transportation Planning Procedure in Al Buraimi, Source: Author, 2014 (based on the planning procedure stated in the Oman Highway Design Standards)
5.3. Laws, Regulations and Strategies
The Omani legislation contains 4 regulations related to transportation. The most important regulation for transportation planning is the Oman Highway Design Manual Standards, which comprises 2 documents with guidelines for transportation planning, design, and implementation. These standards were made by a committee lead by the Ministry of Transportation and Communications and they take into account the national, regional, and local level. In addition, the Omani Environmental Regulations is another legal document concerning transportation. This regulation is divided into Royal Decrees, which contain
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 51 specific standards for environmental preservation by preventing pollution, degradation and ecosystem damage. Furthermore, the Oman Planning Guidelines, which is a document of the Ministry of Housing of Oman, defines among other things, guidelines and codes for roads and accessibility in the rural and urban areas. Finally, the Development Control Plan Framework, which is a document prepared by the Ministry of Tourism, contains a summary of various policies, guidelines, and standards for the planning and development of Integrated Tourism Projects (SCTP, 2010).
Additionally, the Oman National Spatial Strategy highlights the socio economic and environmental sustainability issues for the national and regional development. (Schrenk et al., 2012). The objective of the ONSS is to propose policies for the physical planning and implementation, while considering the long term strategy Oman Vision 2020.
Thusly, the components of the legal framework and the ONSS are described in the following paragraphs:
5.3.1. Oman Highway Design Manual Standards
This manual provides broad guidelines for the responsibilities of particular authorities and organizations involved in transportation. This document does not only include design standards, but also planning and implementation procedures, which should be applied in all levels of government. These standards have been established by a Technical Committee, which had representation from the Ministry of Transportation and Communications, the Royal Police, the Supreme Council for Planning, the Muscat Municipality, the Municipality of Dhofar, and the Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water Resources (MOTC, 2013). This regulation has been developed based on previous legal frameworks for transportation design and implementation. The standards were meant for the design of highways, arterial, secondary, distributor, and access routes, which in other words, means the hierarchy of national and local roads. In addition, the
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 52 regulation considers the facilities for pedestrians in the urban areas, the mitigation of possible negative impacts on the environment, and landscaping (MOTC, 2013). This regulation establishes some technical codes that must be followed in the design and implementation stages. Additionally, it states the planning procedures for national and regional strategies, according to the Oman Planning Guidelines (SCTP, 2010). Finally, the Oman Highway Design Manual refers to the 3 stages of the roads project scheme, which are the feasibility study, preliminary study, and final project. The traffic flows, capacities, and levels of service of the new transportation projects must meet the standards’ criteria.
5.3.2. Omani Environmental Regulations
This set of laws was created by the Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs in order to prevent pollution, environmental degradation, chemicals hazards, and damage to the ecosystems in the Sultanate of Oman (MOECA, 2013). The law is mainly addressed to the industrial activities which handle hazardous chemicals. In addition, it includes the control of emissions and noise levels, which indirectly refers to transportation activities as well. Through this regulation, the Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs issues permissions for all activities that represent a risk to the environment. Furthermore, it declares the mandatory fulfillment of the codes and it establishes procedures for inspection and enforcement. The planning process also states that all new roads projects need a license which certifies that they comply with the environmental requirements.
5.3.3. Oman Planning Guidelines
The guidelines were issued by the Ministry of Housing; they established planning definitions and standards for the development in the urban and rural areas. The document is also related to transportation as it states standards for road networks and accessibility (MoH, 2014). Furthermore, the guidelines determine the land uses permitted along the highways and the distances between the roads and buildings. Moreover, the master plans must establish the limits of the
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 53 projected areas which will be urbanized, the projected roads, and protection areas. It also complements some of the standards that have been established by the Oman Highway Design Manual. The guidelines are directly linked to the building codes and they state the number of required parking lots per project, depending on the built area, land use, and density of the project. Finally, they determine the minimum distances between residential areas and service facilities.
5.3.4. Development Control Plan Framework
The DCPF is a document which contains guidelines and standards for the development of integrated tourism projects (MOT, 2010). Consequently, the framework encompasses standards of transportation facilities for accessibility to tourism complexes such as hotels, clubs, restaurants, and tourist attractions. The standards define the number of parking lots for these facilities, the type of roads and streets to access, and traffic impact assessments according to the traffic volume. Additionally, the standards recommend implementing facilities such as sidewalks and bikeways in the tourist areas, where people can explore the places by walking or cycling. Finally, the framework also considers the preservation of the local landscape.
5.5.5. Oman National Spatial Strategy
The ONSS was prepared by a group of international experts in order to assess further development strategies and design the national vision of spatial strategy, which includes medium and long term objectives (Schrenk et al., 2012). It is a response to the Omani Government’s intention to promote balanced development through a National Strategy and it is based on the Oman Vision 2020. The ONSS, which was launched in 2010, considers proposals and instruments for implementation of holistic planning approaches on the national and regional level. The fields included are: Geographic Information System for a common data base, environmental resources, cultural heritage, social
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 54 development, economic sectors, transport and mobility, land use, institutional and legal affairs, and capacity building (Schrenk et al., 2012).
The strategy emphasizes the importance of sustainability and environmental preservation in Oman through integrative spatial planning. This includes the optimization of land use, natural resources consumption, protection of cultural heritage, preservation of biodiversity, and reduction of impacts and hazards. Additionally, the ONSS states the importance of socio-economic development by upgrading social services and facilitating the development of different enterprises. Thus, the ONSS should bring better job opportunities, better education and training for manpower, and better quality of life (Schrenk et al., 2012).
Furthermore, the ONSS identifies strategic needs for infrastructure and services in the urban and rural areas within the country. In the meantime, the implementation of the ONSS Information System intends to assess and monitor environmental, socio-economical, infrastructural, and other spatial regulations. The Oman Geographic Information System is a data base that provides relevant data required for various purposes in different fields.
Currently, the ONSS does not have a legal status and is not confirmed as a strategy yet. The first stage of feasibility and assessment is done; however, the second stage of assessing implementation is on the way. So far, the companies which will implement the strategy have been hired; however, no further decisions have been made in the process. The strategies on transportation are included in the current implementation assessment of the ONSS.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 55 The laws, regulations, and strategies are summarized in the table below:
Oman Highway Design Manual Standards Omani Environmental Regulations
• Design standards for transportation facilities • Prevention of pollution, environmental • Transportation planning and implementation degradation and destruction of local ecosystems. procedures • Control of emissions and noise levels • Technical codes for transportation infrastructure • Licenses and permissions for industrial, • General scheme for transportation projects commercial and transportation activities and • Mitigation of environmental impacts infrastructure • Landscaping • Monitoring, inspection and enforcement of environmental regulations
Oman Planning Guidelines Development Control Plan Framework
• Standards for the development of urban and rural • Standards of transportation facilities for areas accessibility to tourism complexes • Master Plans must establish the limits of the • Number of parking lots for tourism facilities projected areas which will be urbanized, the • Types of roads for tourism facilities REGULATIONS LAWS AND projected roads and protection areas • Traffic impact assessment for tourism projects • Standards for accessibility in urban and rural • Recommendation of sidewalks and bikeways in areas depending on land use and location tourism areas • Distances between residential areas and services • Preservation of local landscape in the new facilities tourism projects • Number of parking lots depending on density and size of the facilities
Oman National Spatial Strategy
• Balanced urban and rural development based on Oman Vision 2020 • Proposals and instruments for the implementation of integrated planning approaches • Geographical Information System for a common data base for planning • Socio economic development • Environmental and cultural heritage preservation STRATEGIES • Infrastructure and services in the urban and rural areas
Table 2– Summary of Laws, Regulations and strategies related to transportation, Source: Author, 2014 (based on the legal framework of Oman)
5.4. Transportation Planning Issues
5.4.1 Governance / Procedures
The review of the laws and regulations has summarized the current legal framework related to transportation, which is applicable to the whole country. As it was described, in theory the planning procedure states the coordination and integration of the planning process. Nevertheless, in practice the procedure lacks
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 56 coordination among ministries. For instance, in Al Buraimi the activities among the Ministry of Housing, the Office of Technical Affairs of the Municipality, and the Ministry of Transportation and Communications are not coordinated. There is disconnection between land use and transportation planning which has led to segregation of urban activities and car dependency. As it was described in the planning procedure, the Ministry of Housing decides the Master Plan for the development of Al Buraimi through the Supreme Council for Planning. It establishes the projected areas to be urbanized and later on, the residential lands are allocated to Omani nationals who start building their houses. The Ministry of Housing, as a land administrator, allocates the residential lands to Omani nationals. Nevertheless, not all plots of land are built on at the same time because it is not mandatory under the national land distribution policy. As a result, the urbanization process is characterized by patchy unsustainable growth. On the top of that, when the new areas are developed, there are neither roads nor public services functioning within. Only when there are a considerable number of houses built in an area, the Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water Resources builds the local roads and the services infrastructure. It is problematic that the fact is that the urbanization process is not simultaneously integrated with infrastructure and transportation facilities in Al Buraimi.
Additionally, there is a gap in the local government structure of Al Buraimi regarding who has the responsibility of the local network. Currently, the responsibility for the local transportation network lies with the Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water Resources in Al Buraimi through the Office of Technical Affairs. The separation of the local transport network from the Ministry of Transportation and Communications is not appropriate. The Highway Design Manual is mostly focused on the inter regional roads network. However, there are standards for the local level which have not been implemented in Al Buraimi. The Office of Technical Affairs finds challenging the implementation of the national regulation and the Ministry of Transportation and Communications is disconnected from the local transportation in the city. Furthermore, the procedure
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 57 is problematic considering the centralized structure of governance in the Sultanate of Oman. The Central Government in Muscat decides the plans, regulations, and strategies for the entire country, perhaps ignoring important facts in the local context. There is not autonomy in the Governorate of Al Buraimi or the Municipality to make decisions focused on the priorities and needs of the city/region. In addition, according to the planning procedure there is meant to be public consultancy in Oman. However, in practice this process does not include the community members of Al Buraimi, who are not aware of participation. The planning process is completely top down and centralized in the capital, Muscat.
One of the issues in the Sultanate of Oman is that information is neither available nor accessible to those affected by the decisions made in the Central Government. Such information is not provided and it is not possible to become informed about new plans and strategies. Moreover, there is not a strict enforcement of the legal framework through efficient monitoring tools. In addition, processes are bureaucratic and do not serve efficiently all stakeholders within a reasonable timeframe. On the top of that, the decisions made in the country are not subject to review to make sure that all the initiatives target the common interest and meet their objectives. Additionally, the planning process in Oman is not effective in terms of environmental sustainability because the natural resources are not optimized and the ecosystems are not always protected from the impacts of development. Furthermore, some of the projects and developments in Al Buraimi do not meet the needs of the community. The lack of vision for medium and long term impacts, accompanied by the scarce consensus in the society to determine the common interest for the community, limits the good governance capacity in the country. Lastly, there is lack of monitoring systems which track the institutions activities and responsibilities, thus disclosing the results of the implementation process.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 58 5.4.2. Legal Framework
The Office of technical Affairs of the Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water Resources does not build the local network projects with the standards of the Ministry of Transportation and Communications (see examples in the next chapter). Therefore, it is evident that the implementation of the legal framework is not fully complied with and disconnection is evident between the national, regional, and local levels. As mentioned, all the plans, regulations, and strategies are decided by the Central Government in Muscat. Consequently, there are not strong instruments or mechanisms for the implementation of the legal framework in Al Buraimi.
In addition, the Oman Highway Design Manual does not state a clear procedure for monitoring or inspecting the implementation stage. The responsibilities at the different levels of government and institutions are not defined, thus, the regulation does not specify clear roles regarding the authorities involved in transportation. The imprecise definition of responsibilities is another reason why the local level does not fulfill the national regulations in Al Buraimi.
Furthermore, the Oman Highway Standards Manual and the Law for Oman Planning Guidelines are evidently focused on road based transportation and facilities for automobiles. Additionally, the standards consider neither the design nor the implementation of public transportation in the urban areas. Meanwhile, facilities for pedestrians are slightly included in the regulations, but the implementation is not clear on the local level. As a result, Al Buraimi does not provide solid infrastructure for walking and biking. Finally, even though the Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs issues permits for new transportation projects, the Omani Environmental Regulations do not encompass limits for the urban development and its role in protection is not relevant in terms of sustainable planning. These regulations are mostly focused on reducing the industrial activities impacts. They do not include a reduction of urbanization process impacts in its legal framework. For instance, the law states the
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 59 environmental procedures for the process of building roads. Nevertheless, it does not go further in protecting the ecosystems by reducing the areas allowed for new developments. Consequently, it is not completely preventing all environmental risks that transportation entails. The laws are mainly focused on emissions; however, transportation entails more environmental issues than the law is currently addressing.
The planning issues are summarized in the table below:
Government/Procedure Issues Legal Framework Issues
• Lack of coordination among ministries and • No enforcement of legal framework institutions • No monitoring • No integration between land use and • No strong mechanisms for implementation transportation planning • No clear definitions of responsibilities of the • No vision in planning institutions of the different levels of the • Centrality government • No public participation • Regulations and laws made for car facilities and • No public consensus road based transportation • information is neither available nor accessible to • No considerations for public transportation those affected by the decisions • Regulations not fully implemented in the local • Bureaucracy and long time to implement level • Sustainability is not considered • Lack of regulation for walking and biking • lack of monitoring systems which track the • Environmental regulation focused more on institutions activities and responsibilities industrial activities than integrative urban development
Table 3– Summary of Transportation Planning Issues in Oman, Source: Author, 2014
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 60 6. TRANSPORTATION AND MOBILITY IN AL BURAIMI
6.1. Transportation Profile of Al Buraimi
6.1.1 Choice of transportation mode
As mentioned in the introduction of this study, the affordable prices of oil and cars in addition to the road based transportation policy of Oman, has led to automobile dependency in Al Buraimi. As a result, the vast majority of residents use car to travel. 6 It is estimated that 90% of citizens move by private car, whereas 5% travel by taxi, which is the only complementary mean of transport available for the citizens. Furthermore, 2% of the residents travel by private bus; this number only includes certain students and workers, who use the service provided by their schools and companies. Meanwhile, only 2% and 1% of the residents commute by walking or biking respectively. The information on choice of transportation in Al Buraimi is illustrated in the graph below.
90 90
80
70
60
private car 50 taxi
Percentage bus 40 walking biking 30
20
10 5 2 2 1 0 private car taxi bus walking biking
Figure 10 - Choice of transportation mode in Al Buraimi, Source: Author, 2014
6 Estimation of the choice of transportation mode based on community questionnaires. Field trip in Al Buraimi (Oman), September - October 2014.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 61 The indicator on choice of transportation in Al Buraimi reveals that transportation in Al Buraimi depends on the motorized mode, which is not efficient in terms of sustainability. According to the field surveys, 97% of the transportation in Al Buraimi is motorized, while only 3 % is non-motorized.
Al Buraimi Non-Motorized (Bikes / Walking) 3% 3% Private Car 90% Motorized Taxi 5% 97% Bus 2%
Figure 11 - Transportation mode in Al Buraimi, Source, Author, 2014
6.1.2 Users Affordability
The city of Al Buraimi does not provide a diversity of means of transportation. There is no public transportation system and 90% of residents use private cars to commute. As a result, special attention should be drawn to private transportation to analyze the affordability. Considering indicators such as residents’ income per month and prices of cars and oil, it is evident that private transportation in Al Buraimi is affordable for residents. For instance, in the automobiles’ market, new cars are available from 500 7Omani Rials, which is 1.000 Euros approximately. Additionally, prices of fuel are very low due to the fact the Sultanate of Oman is an oil producing country. The price for one litre of oil is normally 0.12 O.R (NCSI, 2014), approximately 0.24 Euros. Meanwhile, the average minimum wage in
7 O.R: Omani Rials is the currency of the Sultanate of Oman
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 62 Oman is 325 O.R per month 8 (Zawya, 2013), which is 650 Euros/month, approximately. Additionally, the costs of car insurances and maintenance are not expensive.
On the other hand, the Oman National Transport Company, which is the national company operating regional buses, provides the public service for connections with other regions in Oman for the price of 4 O.R (8 Euros approximately). Thus, the price of public inter-regional transportation is affordable as well. The transportation affordability is summarized in the table below.
Minimum Wage Average Price of oil / litter Minimum price of a new car in Oman
325 O.R 0.12 O.R 500 O.R (650 Euros) (0.24 Euros) (1.000 Euros)
Table 4 – Affordability of private transportation, Source: Author, 2014
On the other hand, the situation of car ownership in Al Buraimi presents a contrast between Omani nationals and expatriates. 9It is estimated that 62% of Omani residents in Al Buraimi own a car, whereas 38% do not own any car. By contrast, only 24% of the expatriate residents in Al Buraimi have a car, while approximately 76% do not have a car. The reason of this difference is that migration in Al Buraimi is a phenomenon which started becoming significant only 5 years ago. Thus, the foreigners who arrive in the city have other priorities over buying a car such as sending revenues to their countries, among others. Nevertheless, owning a vehicle is affordable for expatriates as well.
8 Minimum Wage Average is applicable only for Omani Nationals 9 Estimation of car ownership based on community questionnaires carried out during the field trip to Al Buraimi.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 63 The graphs below illustrate the estimation of the percentage of the residents’ car ownership according to the nationality.
Omani Citizens Foreign Citizens
80 76 70 62
70 60
60 50 50 38 40 40 30 30 24 20 20
10 10
0 0 Car Ownership No Car Ownership Car Ownership No Car Ownership Figure 12 - Percentage of Car Ownership by Nationality in Al Buraimi, Source: Author, 2014 (Based on the Community Questionnaires)
Furthermore, if the car ownership indicator is focused on the different age groups, it shows that the majority of residents, Omani or foreigners who own a car, belong to the age group between 20 and 40 years old. Beneath this group, Omani residents under 20 years old have a considerable percentage in car ownership. It shows that even for the younger people, prices, and regulations on car ownership facilitate the availability for all groups age. This information also confirms that cars owners and drivers are mostly young people. Additionally, only a small number of Omani people between 40-60 years old have a car.
Based on the percentage of car ownership by nationality, the indicator related to the age groups is illustrated in the next graphs.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 64 Foreign Citizens Omani Citizens
80 80 70
70 70 60 3
60 60 50 50 50 64 40 37 40 64 40 30 30 20 30 20 20 5 5 20 5 5 22 10 10 18 14 10 12 14 12 0 0 Car Ownership No Car Ownership 0 Car Ownership No Car Ownership Under 20 20-40 40-60 Over 60
Figure 13 - Percentage of Car Ownership by Nationality and Age Group in Al Buraimi, Source: Author, 2014 (Based on the Community Questionnaires)
6.1.3. Number of Vehicles
The number of cars in the Sultanate of Oman and, consequently, in the city of Al Buraimi has increased progressively over the last years. The tendency has kept pace with the population growth; in addition, the city has raised the number of driving licenses issued. According to the General Directorate of Traffic (2014), there were 22.034 registered vehicles operating in the city in 2011; this number rose to 24.684 and 27.037 registered vehicles in 2012 and 2013 respectively. On the other hand, there were 24.732 driving licenses issued in the Governorate of Al Buraimi in 2011. The number of licenses increased to 26.838 in 2012. Later in the year 2013 the number arose to 27.075 (General Directorate of Traffic, 2014). Therefore, considering that Al Buraimi has 96.196 inhabitants, the indicator estimates that for each 1.000 inhabitants in Al Buraimi there are 281 vehicles.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 65 Consequently, it is evident that the affordability of cars and lack of diversity of modes of transportation will keep the constant growth in the number of vehicles in Al Buraimi and, in the Sultanate of Oman in general. The information described is illustrated in the graphs below:
Number of cars registered by year Number of driving licenses by year 30000 30000
25000 27037 25000 26838 27075 24684 24732 20000 22034 20000
15000 15000
10000 10000
5000 5000
0 0 2011 2012 2013 2011 2012 2013
Figure 14- Number of cars registered and driving licenses issued by year in Al Buraimi, Source: Author, 2014 (Based on information of the General Directorate of traffic of Oman)
6.1.4. Road Executed Lengths
Over the last 3 years, there has been a considerable increase in road building in the Governorate of Al Buraimi. This is attributed to the urban growth of the city and new infrastructure built for regional linkages. According to the National Center of Statistics and Information of Oman (2014), only 15 kilometers of roads were built in 2011. However, in 2012 the road length increased sharply and 103 kilometers of new roads were laid. Afterwards, 113 kilometers of new roads were executed in 2013 in Al Buraimi. There is a tendency of building more roads for transportation. As a result, more environmental impacts should be expected in the coming years if this rate keeps up the current pace of roads building. As mentioned before, using significant
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 66 areas for road based transportation is not a sustainable practice because it entails negative environmental impacts.
The information is summarized in the table below
2011 2012 2013 Graded Dual Single Graded Dual Single Graded Dual Single Kilometer Kilometer Kilometer 106 4.0 3.0 100 3.0 ـــ ـــ ـــ 15.0 Total: 15 Kilometers Total: 103 Kilometers Total: 113 Kilometers
Table 5 – Road Executed Lengths in the Governorate of Al Buraimi per Year Source: National Center of Statistics and Information, 2014
6.1.5. Roads Expenditure
Specific information of the expenditure on roads in Al Buraimi was not available. Nevertheless, the total expenditure in roads in Oman can provide an overall idea of the economic costs attributed to the infrastructure for road-based developments in the Sultanate. According to the National Center for Statistics and Information (2014), the Oman Government Development Expenditure for roads was 384.9 Millions in O.R in 2011. This expenditure decreased slightly to 373.3 Millions of O.R in 2012. Afterwards, it increased again and the cost was 424.3 Millions of O.R in 2013 (approximately 848.6 Millions of Euros). Furthermore, according to the Department of the Ministry of Transport and Communications in Al Buraimi (2014), the budget allocated for maintenance in the highways and regional roads is 100.000 O.R per year, which is 200.000 Euros per year approximately.
Thereby, the information on road expenditure shows a significant amount of the development budget invested on car-based transportation infrastructure.
The described above is illustrated in the next graph.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 67
430
424.3 420
410
400
390 384.9
Millions of Rials Omani Millions 380
373.3 370
360 2011 2012 2013
Figure 15 - Roads Expenditure in Oman by Year Source: Author, 2014 (Based on the information of the NCSI)
6.1.6. Petrol Consumption
The consumption of petrol has risen in Al Buraimi as a consequence of the increase in number of vehicles, new roads for transportation, and affordable prices. According to the National Center of Statistics and Information (2013), the petrol consumption in 2010 was 1.194.000 Barrels. In the year 2011, the consumption was 1.560.000 Barrels, whereas in 2012 it increased to 1.826.000 Barrels. There is a tendency in the growth of petrol consumption in Al Buraimi, which entails emissions of carbon dioxide in the environment. The information indicates that the transportation mode is not efficient in terms of reducing emissions and pollution.
Governorate Al Buraimi
2010 1.194.000 BBL
Total 2011 1.560.000 BBL
2012 1.826.000 BBL
Table 6 - Consumption of Barrels of Petrol in Al Buraimi in 2013, Source: NCSI, 2014
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 68 6.1.7. Carbon Emissions
On the other hand, the activities related to transportation contribute to carbon emissions depending on how sustainable they are. In the case of the Sultanate of Oman, the transportation is road based, which entails carbon footprints in the atmosphere. According to the World Bank (2014), the carbon dioxide emissions in Oman increased significantly over a period of only 20 years, measuring such emissions from 1990 to 2010. The number of metric tons in 1990 was 6.3 per capita, which rose to 20.4 per capita by the year of 2010. Furthermore, the total number of thousand metric tons produced in the Sultanate of Oman in the year of 1990 was 11,386, whereas in 2010, the production of thousand metric tons grew by 57,202. The increase in carbon emissions entails negative impacts in the environment; it affects the air quality and contributes to global warming. In the case of Al Buraimi, transportation is not environmentally sustainable because it is automobile dependant, thus it emits greenhouse gases which pollute.
The information described is depicted in the table below.
Carbon Dioxide Emissions in Oman
TOTAL CARBON INTENSITY PER CAPITA
Kilograms per kilograms Thousand metric tons Metric tons of oil equivalent energy use
1990 2010 1990 2010 1990 2010
11.386 57.202 2.7 2.5 6.3 20.4
Table 7 – Carbon Dioxide Emissions in Oman, Source, World Bank, 2014
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 69 6.2. Mobility Patterns
This section aims to focus on the aspects which characterize mobility in the city of Al Buraimi and the region. It is important to understand the aspects that influence why, where, and how individuals in Al Buraimi commute to their destinations either in the city or in other regions of the Sultanate of Oman. Therefore, in order to itemize the analysis, the section is divided between local and regional mobility patterns.
6.2.1. Local Mobility Patterns
As described in the transportation profile of Al Buraimi, the vast majority of residents travel by car as the city is based on an automobile model. Thus, it is important to focus on the places within the city where people commute more often for different urban activities. The identification of such areas is based on the community questionnaires and direct observation on the field. The points that create local mobility are indicated in the map below:
1- Shops/Commercial 2 – Souk (Market) 3 - Bus Terminal 4 – Sports Club 5 - Al Buraimi Park AL AIN 6 - Sports Complex 4 7 - Hospital 5 8 - Shopping Mall 11 10 9 – Buraimi University 10 - Mosque 3 6 11- Border Cross Point 10 International Border 7 10 1
2 8 9
11
Figure 16 – Mobility attracting points in Al Buraimi Source: Wikimapia, 2014 / Modified by: Author
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 70 The commercial activities such as shops, restaurants, markets, and other services generate considerable demand of mobility in Al Buraimi. These activities are located in the main arterial roads of the city, where density is higher. It is important to mention that these commercial points are located close to the international border with Al Ain (U.A.E). Moreover, residents from Al Ain frequently cross the border to go to Al Buraimi where they can find more affordable prices of goods and services, increasing the flow of traffic.
Figure 17- Local Souk (Market) Figure 18 - Commercial Street in Al Buraimi Source: Author, 2014 Source: Author, 2014
In addition, the bus terminal of Al Buraimi concentrates, in its surrounding area, not only the facilities of the Oman National Transportation Company, but also commercial and financial activities. This is a strategic point in the city where a considerable number of people commute.
Figure 19 - Photo of the Bank of Oman building in the bus terminal, Source: Author, 2014
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 71 On the other hand, the leisure activities influence mobility in Al Buraimi as well. The facilities for sports are the Buraimi Sports Club and the Sports Complex, which attracts significant number of people during sports events generating high traffic flows on the access roads. Additionally, the Buraimi Park, which is the only public green area for recreation in the city, is another point where people commute frequently during the evenings and weekends. Moreover, the Lulu Shopping Centre, located on the highway to Sohar, is the largest mall in the city and attracts a significant number of people everyday.
Figure 20 – Photo of Buraimi Park Figure 21 - Lulu Shopping Center, Source: Author, 2014 Source: Author, 2014
Furthermore, the health care facilities such as hospitals and medical centers and education facilities such as schools and the Buraimi University generate high demands of mobility. There is a main hospital in Al Buraimi located on the highway and a secondary hospital as well. Additionally, there are 27 public schools and 8 private schools in Al Buraimi. According to the National Center for Statistics and Information (2014), it is estimated that there were 8.918 students in Al Buraimi in 2013. As previously mentioned, the schools and the Buraimi University provide bus transportation service for the students.
Moreover, the mosques in Al Buraimi are essential points for the Muslim residents, who are the majority in the city. They are an important mobility generator within the urban area; the largest mosque is the Masjid Sultan Qaboos,
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 72 which is located in front of the main roundabout of Al Buraimi. There are many mosques located in different parts of Al Buraimi and easy to reach by walking in the residential areas.
Figure 22- Photo of the Sultan Qaboos Mosque of Al Buraimi, Source: www.Buraimi.net, 2013
On the other hand, the crossing points of the international border between Al Buraimi and Al Ain are critical points of traffic flow, due to the considerable number of people crossing the border everyday. There are two crossing points and they present congestion mostly during the peak hours. The Omani residents in Al Buraimi go to Al Ain attracted by the shopping facilities, relatives living there, schools, and services not available in their city, whereas the residents of Al Ain go to Al Buraimi because prices of goods and services are lower. As a result, the demand of mobility from one place to another and the restriction by immigration control in the border generate high volumes of vehicle flows.
According to the community questionnaire outcomes, 50% of the Omani residents in Al Buraimi cross the international border more than once per week. It means than approximately 23.873 people cross the border frequently during the week. In addition, taking into account the number of residents of Al Ain and the number of foreigners and tourist who cross the border per day, the traffic volume is even higher.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 73
Figure 23 - Photos of an international border cross point in Al Buraimi, Source, Author, 2014
The restriction at the international border has the aim of controlling the transit of non GCC citizens. As a result, the Omani residents in Al Buraimi can cross the border anytime. However, the non GCC foreigners have to get the permission to go to Al Ain, which limits them in crossing the international border. Consequently, analyzing the outcomes of the field surveys, this demonstrates the difference in the mobility patterns between Omani and expatriates going to Al Ain. The information collected indicates that 27% of Omani residents in Al Buraimi cross the border daily, 23% cross the border more than once per week, 13% once/ week, 16 % more than once per month, 14% once/month, and 7% never.
30 27
25 23
20 16 15 14
13 Percentage 10
7
5
0 Daily More than Once per More than Once per Never once per week once per month week month Figure 24 - Frequency to cross the border with Al Ain (Omani Nationals), Source: Author, 2014
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 74 In contrast, only 20% of the foreign residents in Al Buraimi cross the international border with Al Ain daily and 20% more than once per week. In addition, 10% of expatriates go to Al Ain once per month and 50% never do it because they are not allowed.
50 50
45
40 35
30
25
Percentage 20 20 20
15 10 10 5
0 Daily More than once Once per month Never per month Figure 25 - Frequency to cross the border with Al Ain (Foreign Nationals), Source: Author, 2014
Time spent to commute:
The traffic volume in Al Buraimi is not high and does not represent an urgent problem for the city nowadays. The average time to commute is between 20 and 30 minutes and there are not important delays in time travelling. Nevertheless, the city is growing fast in terms of area and population and density is low. Consequently, problems in congestion and long time to commute may appear in the coming years if the city keeps the current development trend.
Furthermore, the peak hours in Al Buraimi are: from 7:00am to 7:30am, which is the period of time when students and workers commute to schools, university and working places. From 2:00pm to 2:30pm students finish their activities and return home, at the same time, there is a midday break for workers. From 6:00pm-6:30pm is the last peak road use period when workers commute home.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 75 According to the surveys carried out during the field trip, 35% of the workers take between 10 and 20 minutes to commute, 25% take between 20 and 30 minutes, and 16% take less than 10 minutes. Meanwhile, 24% take more than half an hour in order to reach their working place.
Moreover, 50% of the students take between 20 to 30 minutes to commute, whereas 40% need more than half and hour and 10% take less than 20 minutes to reach either the schools or the Buraimi University. The reason why a considerable number of students need more than 30 minutes is that the university is not located in the urban area as it is 20 Kilometers away on the way to Sohar. Another reason is that some of the students who live in Al Buraimi study in Al Ain and cross the border everyday, which is time consuming.
Additionally, 50% and 45% of the residents take between 20 and 30 minutes to commute for shopping and leisure respectively. Meanwhile, 25% of the citizens need less than 20 minutes and 40% need more than 30 minutes to travel for shopping. Finally, 18% of the citizens take less than 20% to travel for leisure activities while 37% need more than half an hour. The residents who need more than 30 minutes usually go to Al Ain and need to cross the border.
It is relevant to mention that the time spent is only for one trip, according to the surveys, people need 2 trips per day on average for their main activities (working and/or studying). Other activities such as shopping and leisure present an average of 4 to 6 trips during the week.
On the other hand, crossing the border with Al Ain takes around 20-minutes for Omani residents, whereas for foreigners it takes longer due to the office procedures of getting the visa to the U.A.E and passports control at the crossing points.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 76 The information on time to spent to commute in Al Buraimi is illustrated in the graph below.
50
45
40 50 50 45
35
30 35
25
Percentage Percentage 25 20
20 20 15
16 15 15 20 14 10 10 15 10 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 5 3 3 0 5min-10min 10min-20min 20min-30min 30min-40min 40min-50min 50min-60min Working Studying Shopping Leisure
Figure 26 - Percentage of time spent to commute per activity in Al Buraimi Source: Author 2014 (Based on the community questionnaires)
6.2.2. Regional Mobility Patterns
Special attention should be placed on the characterization of the regional linkages between Al Buraimi and other regions of Oman. Thus, during the field surveys, it was intended to identify the places in Oman that generate mobility from Al Buraimi. Additionally, it was important to find out the reasons for travelling and the choice of modes of transportation to other regions. Consequently, according to the field surveys, 40% of residents in Al Buraimi travel more to the capital Muscat and the port of Sohar. In contrast, only 10% of the citizens travel to Nizwa as a main destination, while 6% go to Ibri, 3% to Salalah, and 1% to other regions. The information is displayed in the next graph.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 77 40 40 40
35
30
25
20
Percentage Percentage
15
10 10
6 5 3 1 0 Muscat Sohar Nizwa Ibri Salalah Others Figure 27- Main destinations within Oman for residents in Al Buraimi Source: Author 2014 (Based on the community questionnaires)
The geographical locations of the aforementioned places are indicated on the map below
Al Buraimi
Figure 28 - Map of the main destinations within Oman for residents of Al Buraimi Source: www.ezilon.com, 2013 / Modified by: Author
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 78 On the other hand, the reasons of regional mobility for the residents in Al Buraimi are mostly for tourism and leisure. According to the field surveys, 60% of residents travel to other regions for tourism. There are two reasons why people travel to the Port of Sohar: it is the closest beach within Oman and the port is a strategic point for transportation of goods. Thus 15% of people travel for activities related to work and business; these destinations are mainly Sohar and Muscat. Additionally, 15% of the residents travel to visit relatives. Meanwhile, only 7% of people travel for shopping, and 3% for other reasons.
60 60
50
40
30 Percentage Percentage
20 15 15
10 7 3
0 work/business tourism shopping family others
Figure 29 - Reasons of regional mobility for Al Buraimi residents Source: Author 2014 (based on the community questionnaires)
On the other hand, the means of transportation for regional linkages are dominated by cars as well. According to the field surveys, 85% of the residents travel to other regions within the country by private car, whereas only 10% travel on the buses of the National Oman Transportation Company. Moreover, 5% travel by taxi.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 79 It is evident that there is an inefficient public transport system for regional transportation in Al Buraimi. The service provided does not meet the needs of the residents in terms of comfort, punctuality, and frequencies.
90 85
80
70 60
50 private car bus 40 taxi
30
20 10 10 5
0 private car bus taxi Figure 30 - Choice of mode of transportation for regional mobility within Oman Source: Author, 2014 (based on the community questionnaires)
6.3 Evaluation of transportation facilities and mobility behaviour
The aim of this section is to describe and link the current transportation facilities in Al Buraimi with the mobility behaviour. In other words, it means to explain how the transportation infrastructure provided is related to the manner how residents move in the city. The transportation facilities include roads, means of transportation, sidewalks, parking lots, terminals, speed controls, etc. Meanwhile, the mobility behaviour considers the accidents rates, walkability, and use of public space, among others. The analysis considers the relationship between transportation and public space quality in addition to the evaluation of the existing facilities from the sustainability perspective.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 80 6.3.1. Roads Network
According to the Highway Design Manual of the Ministry of Transport and Communications, the roads network in Oman is structured in different levels depending on the accessibility, speed, distance, and traffic flows. As a result, it is possible to categorize roads in Al Buraimi with the national standards hierarchy. Al Buraimi has a national route, which is the only highway in the city, which connects it with Sohar-Muscat and Ibri-Nizwa. This national highway is linked to two secondary routes in Al Buraimi, which connect the wilayat of Mahdha and the two international border crossing points. Additionally, the accessibility from the highway to the other areas of the city is based on distributor roads that play an essential role for the local network. Finally, the access routes connect individual settlements and residential areas with the distributor network. These routes are low speed and low traffic volume roads for local mobility.
The roads network in Al Buraimi is illustrated in the map below.
Figure 31 - Map of roads network hierarchy in Al Buraimi, Source: Wikimapia, 2014 / Modified by: Author
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 81
Road Classification Functional Description
Specialist long distance highway route with National Routes high speeds Regional or area networks made up of links Secondary Routes between towns and national routes. They provide some access to local areas Local networks which link identifiable traffic Distributor Routes generators such as urban zones with secondary routes.
Access Routes Routes to individual settlements
Table 8 - Functional Route Characterization Description, Source: MOTC, 2013
The highway in Al Buraimi, which is a national route that connects the city with the highways to Sohar and Ibri, presents high traffic flows and a speed limit of 120km/hour. Additionally, facilities such as the Sport Complex, the main hospital, the Police Department, the bus terminal, hotels, the Buraimi University, and the Lulu Supermarket are located along this route. In the local context, it functions as an axis in the urban structure as it connects not only Al Buraimi, but also Al Ain with the rest of Oman, playing an essential roll in the international linkage with the U.A.E.
On the other hand, parallel to the highway there is a local route which separates the high speed traffic with the access for the buildings located along the national route. Moreover, there are green areas between the highway and the local roads located alongside. These are the only green spaces provided for pedestrians in Al Buraimi and are designed with the purpose of creating a barrier between the highway corridor and sidewalks. The highway fulfils all the standards included in the regulation for national roads; it has a high quality and good performance in regard to traffic flow and low congestion.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 82
Figure 32 - National Route in Al Buraimi Figure 33 - Green area alongside the highway Source: Author, 2014 Source: Author, 2014
The secondary routes in Al Buraimi connect the highway with the international cross points and the wilayat of Mahdha. According to the regulation of the Ministry of transportation and Communications, the speed limit on this type of road is 40km/hour in the urban areas and 80km/hour in the rural roads. Nevertheless, in reality the speeds driven are higher than allowed. The secondary route to Mahdha functions as a main entrance to the industrial area of the city and other facilities such as the waste treatment plant and the dumping site. The facilities for waste are located approximately 10 kilometers away from this route. This road is for trucks and heavy traffic due to the activities located in this area. Moreover, it is also the access to the Buraimi Park and the residential areas in the west of the city. According to the MOTC (2014), there is a project plan for the dualization of the road to Mahdha, which would increase the traffic flow. On the other hand, the secondary roads that connect the highway with the international border concentrate the most important commercial areas of the city alongside them. Facilities such as restaurants, shops, the souk (market), hotels, retailers, and other businesses are located along the secondary routes. The traffic is usually congested during the peak hours, thus increasing likelihood of accidents. Other critical points in this network are the two international crossing points which gather a considerable number of cars and traffic. The secondary roads in Al Buraimi have good conditions and high standards of quality.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 83
Figure 34 – Photos of Secondary roads in Al Buraimi, Source: Author, 2014
The distributor roads in Al Buraimi connect the highway and the secondary roads with the local access routes. They typically do not have high traffic flows and the speed limit is 40km/hour, which actually is higher than allowed in the regulation. These roads facilitate access to residential areas, schools, mosques, small shops, and businesses, and institutional facilities. The regulation also states considerations for facilities for pedestrians along the distributor routes. However, provisions for sidewalks are not well implemented in the low hierarchy roads of Al Buraimi. Additionally, the access routes are roads for the access to properties, this type of road has less traffic flow and the speed limit is 40km/hour. Congestion and traffic are not an immediate challenge for the city as distances are short and time spent to commute is reasonable.
Figure 35 – Photo of distributor and access routes, Source: Author, 2014
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 84 6.3.2. Accidents
The most urgent problem that transportation presents for Al Buraimi is the high rate of accidents. According to the Royal Oman Police (2014), in the year 2013 the city recorded 325 non serious traffic accidents, 381 injuries, and 42 deaths due mostly to high speeds and drivers misbehaviour. The situation has not been effectively controlled by the Transit Department of the Royal Oman Police and the accident rates have increased slightly over the last years. The situation is not only that drivers do not respect the speed limits or misbehave, but also that automobiles are available for almost everyone. There is a car based culture influenced by foreign tendencies and low sense of community awareness for safety. Therefore, high accident rates can be attributed to the car based mode of transportation in Al Buraimi, which threatens the public health and creates hostility in the city. Furthermore, the situation can worsen in the future when more areas are urbanized and more cars are operating in the city.
The statistics of numbers of accidents, injuries, and deaths per year in Al Buraimi are illustrated in the graph below.
400
381 350 360
325 300 318 315 310 250 Accidents 200 Injuries Deaths 150
100
50 42 27 32 0 2011 2012 2013
Figure 36 - Accidents, Injuries, and Deaths per year in Al Buraimi Source: Royal Oman Police, 2014
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 85 On the other hand, according to the community questionnaires, it is estimated that 56% of the residents in Al Buraimi have suffered a car accident whereas 44% have not had any car accident. These numbers are directly related to the perception of safety on the streets, regarding to the risk of having an accident. According to the surveys, 58% of the citizens think that it is not safe and 42% believe that it is safe.
60 60
58 50 56 50
40 44 40 42
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0 Citizens w ho have not Citizens w ho have had a Safe Unsafe had a car accident car accident Figure 37 - Percentage of accidents and safety perception of residents in Al Buraimi Source: Author, 2014
6.3.3. Speed Control
In order to control the speed of vehicles using the roads, the Office of Technical Affairs in Al Buraimi and the Royal Oman Police have implemented actions to regulate and enforce the limits and reduce the number of accidents. In the local roads, speed bumps have been installed with the purpose of slowing down the vehicles. They are located regularly in the internal road network. Additionally, the police have installed cameras on the highway and secondary roads to monitor the traffic. Nevertheless, these actions have been ineffective in achieving a significant reduction in the accident rates. In addition, the speed bumps are not a good solution in terms of aesthetic. On the other hand, the Royal Oman Police have started doing campaigns to raise community awareness and reduce driving
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 86 misbehaviour throughout the country. The problem of accidents is not only a local issue in Al Buraimi and the numbers indicate that the Sultanate of Oman is suffering of an increasing road accident rate per year.
Figure 38 – Photos of speed bumps in the roads of Al Buraimi, Source: Author, 2014
6.3.4. Parking lots
Car dependency in Al Buraimi entails the demand for significant urban areas for parking lots. The transportation mode has favoured the cars instead of the pedestrians, thus, it is more common to find parking places than sidewalks or green areas. It is possible to find either formal or informal parking lots; the city has built considerable areas for car facilities. However, it seems that the demand for parking is higher than the supply of available places to park. It is common to find empty plots of land which have not being built on within the city, these places are usually used as parking lots when all the other facilities are occupied. Therefore, there is a lack of regulation to avoid the occupation of these plots of land by cars. The transportation mode is not compatible with the balanced use of land. Areas which could be used as public spaces with possibilities for community interaction, enjoyment, and cohesion are being wasted to accommodate the high number of vehicles. Furthermore, parking in Al Buraimi is free, lacking of regulation and control which affects traffic congestion. Moreover, parking lots have environmental and aesthetic impacts which need
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 87 innovative solutions through a better parking management. The problem of parking lots in Al Buraimi is illustrated in the photos below.
Figure 39 – Photos of parking lots in Al Buraimi, Source: Author, 2014
On the other hand, as part of the direct observation in the field trip, a specific area of four blocks in Al Buraimi was selected, in order to measure the area and percentage of land used for parking lots. The analysis indicated that 15% of the areas was used for parking lots and 25% were empty plots, which were also occupied by cars. It also showed that densities are very low and land is not being used efficiently. Only 60% of the selected area is built up, additionally, there are not sidewalks because the areas are used by cars. The analysis of the sample urban area is illustrated in the map below with the details of square meters and percentages.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 88
Area m2 Percentage
Selected Area 76.829 100%
Blocks 73.362 95%
Access Routes 3.467 5% Built Areas 44.017 60%
Parking Lots 11.004 15%
Empty Plots 18.341 25% (used as parking lots)
Figure 40 - Sample area in Al Buraimi for parking lots analysis, Source: Wikimapia, 2014 / Modified by: Author
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 89 6.3.5. Sidewalks
Many of the urban areas of Al Buraimi have been developed without considering pedestrians facilities. Others have either poor quality of sidewalks, reduced space for walking, or only segments of pavement. It is evident that Al Buraimi does not support physical activity; moreover, the city has not built facilities for the mobility of elderly people, children, and people with special needs. Furthermore, the building codes are not enforced to maintain the distance between buildings and roads. There is lack of spatial justice in the distribution of urban spaces in the city because there is no equity for accessibility. The existing facilities are not fair with people with disabilities and disadvantage certain age groups. Additionally, prioritizing cars create hostility against pedestrians and discourage the option for non-motorized transportation.
As a result, the transportation mode in Al Buraimi does not provide accessibility in equal terms, ignoring the importance of providing a good environment for the community. The description of the sidewalks situation is illustrated in the photos below.
Figure 41 - Sidewalks in Al Buraimi, Source: Author, 2014
In the picture on the left, two situations can be seen: the poor quality/bad condition of the sidewalk and reduced space for pedestrians. The majority of space is occupied by parking lots, which disadvantage walking. In the picture on
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 90 the right there is not space for pedestrians and there is an insufficient distance between the buildings and the road. There is no possibility to walk in an exclusive space created only for pedestrians.
Figure 42 - Sidewalks in Al Buraimi, Source: Author, 2014
In these examples, we can see in the left photo that there is no sidewalk and the space, which should be for pedestrians, is occupied by cars. In the picture on the right, the sidewalk is narrow and with no continuity. Thus, people do not walk because Al Buraimi does not provide the appropriate facilities.
According to the field surveys, the average walking time per week is very low. The outcomes of the questionnaires show that approximately 15% of the residents never walk, whereas 65% of them walk below than 2 hours per week. Moreover, 15% walk between 2 and 4 hours per week, while only 5% walk more than 4 hours per week. These numbers show the lack of physical activity in Al Buraimi and the strong car dependency of the society for transportation. In addition, specifying the percentage of walking time between Omani and foreign residents in Al Buraimi, it is evident that the Omani nationals walk less than the foreigners because they typically own a car. The indicator shows that Omani people walk fewer than 2 hours per week and foreigners walk more. The information described is depicted in the graphs below.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 91 70 65
60
50
40
Percentage 30
20 15 15
10 5
0 Never Below than 2 hours Between 2 and 4 More than 4 hours hours Figure 43 - Walking time per week of residents in Al Buraimi, Source: Author, 2014
70
60
50 30
40 Foreigners Percentage Omani 30
20 35
10 15 15
5 0 Never Below than 2 hours Between 2 and 4 hours More than 4 hours Figure 44 - Walking time per week by nationality, Source: Author, 2014
On the other hand, the community surveys showed that only 2% of the residents in Al Buraimi bike and the 98% never do it. There are no facilities in the city for biking and they have not even been considered in the development of public spaces. The inadequate facilities for pedestrians are directly related to the scarce public urban spaces in Al Buraimi. There are only few green areas and one park in the city, there is a need of more quality open spaces which provide a friendlier environment for the citizens. According to the community questionnaires, 85% of
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 92 the interviewed people think that public spaces in Al Buraimi have low quality whereas only 15% perceive that public spaces have good standards. Additionally, the surveys had the aim of identifying what areas people considered as public spaces. Thus, 46% pointed out parks, 34% green areas, 11% sidewalks, and 9% roads respectively.
50
45 46 40
35 34 30
25
Percentage 20 15 10 11 9 5
0 Roads Parks Green Areas Sidewalks Figure 45 - What people consider as public spaces, Source: Author, 2014
6.3.6. Development of new roads
New internal roads have been developed over the last years in disperse/patchy developed areas of Al Buraimi. The city has spent significant amounts of financial recourses in roads located in the outskirts. The new infrastructure entails high economic costs and it does not compensate for the low benefits that it represents for Al Buraimi. The decision makers are not considering a balanced development and are sacrificing significant areas of land. This is not sustainable in terms of environment and economy because it destroys the local ecosystem, investing high amounts of money without meeting the needs of the city. Therefore, the budget for development could be invested in a more reasonable manner. The problem of the unsustainable development and new roads is illustrated in the photos below.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 93
Figure 46 - Aerial photography of a newly built road in Al Buraimi, Source, Wikimapia, 2014
As shown in the picture, this is an area which has been slightly built up and has a very low density. There are widely dispersed and isolated housing units, as a result of the inadequate land distribution policy. In this example, it can be seen that some of the residential plots of land have not been developed by the owners, the development is not compact and there is not a balanced growth in the new urbanized areas. Additionally, the new road built is benefiting only a few residents and it is considerably affecting the local ecosystem.
Figure 47 – Photos of new roads in newly developed areas in Al Buraimi, Source, Author, 2014
In these pictures, two new developed areas can be seen with new roads for the accessibility of only few housing units, the urbanization of these lands does not follow a coherent process. The current policy of the Ministry of Housing allocating plots of land, which are not built homogenously, is negatively affecting the smart growth pattern of Al Buraimi.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 94 6.3.7. Transport services in Al Buraimi
There are limited choices of modes of transportation for local mobility in Al Buraimi. The few available services provided are private transport such as taxis, school buses, and buses for workers. The operation of taxis is controlled and regulated by the Royal Oman Police. There are no taxi companies in charge of the service and there is not informal transport. Moreover, the bus service for public schools is managed by the local government. In contrast, the bus service for private schools, Buraimi University, and workers is managed directly by the education institutions or by the companies. The buses do not operate with defined stops or routes, they are allowed to travel and stop everywhere.
Figure 48 - Taxi of Al Buraimi Figure 49 - School Bus of Al Buraimi Source: Author, 2014 Source: Author, 2014
Furthermore, the National Oman Transportation Company provides public bus services to travel from Al Buraimi to Sohar-Muscat and Ibri-Nizwa. The NOTC is the only transportation company in the Sultanate and operates throughout the country. However, the service does not match the demand of regional linkages in Al Buraimi. Finally, there is an ongoing plan in the Ministry of Transportation and Communications of Oman in order to build a railway to link Al Buraimi with Sohar and Muscat. The project is still not official, but is being seriously considered as one of the priorities for the regional transport in the north of Oman. In the long term, the intention is to develop the railway system to connect Oman with the
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 95 Emirates (MOTC, 2014). The summary of the operation of the National Oman Transport Company is described in the table below
Figure 50 - NOTC bus in Al Buraimi, Source: Author, 2014
Al Buraimi – Sohar - Muscat Al Buraimi – Nizwa Characteristics Muscat – Sohar - Al Buraimi Nizwa – Al Buraimi
7:00am
Timetables 1:00pm 5:00pm
5:00pm
Price 4 Omani Rials 4 Omani Rials
-No punctual -Uncomfortable Service Quality -Low Frequencies - Poor quality of buses (outdated)
Table 9 – Operation of NOTC buses in Al Buraimi, Source: Author, 2014
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 96 7. ASSESMENT OF TRANSPORTATION IN AL BURAIMI
7.1 Transportation performance in regards to sustainability
The aim of this section is to analyze the transportation performance of Al Buraimi in comparison with the principles of sustainable transportation, according to the theoretical framework previously reviewed. The description and evaluation of the research findings have provided a holistic overview of the subject of study. Therefore, the exercise to assess the transportation sector in Al Buraimi needs to be considered an integrative approach, which includes the social, environmental, and economic dimensions. This analysis will provide basis for the recommendations, as it will show the specific factors of transportation that need improvement in order to be more sustainable.
Consequently, the key findings were analyzed in relation to the concepts, criteria, definitions, and ideas on sustainable transportation, discussed in the theoretical framework through the literature review.
7.1.1. Social Sustainability
In order to assess the transportation performance in terms of social sustainability, it is necessary to identify if it fulfils the principles of equity, fairness, security, health, community development, and inclusiveness.
As it was described in the previous chapter, the transportation mode of Al Buraimi has favoured cars as a main mean of transport. Thus, cars dominate the spaces, which in theory should be for pedestrians. The transportation facilities for cars have invaded the space for people, disadvantaging the most vulnerable groups of the society such as children, elderly, people with disabilities, and immigrants. As a result, by excluding these groups transportation does not meet the principle of equal accessibility. Furthermore, there is not diversity in the transport system in Al Buraimi. The domination of cars in addition to the lack of
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 97 public and non-motorized transportation, have led to car dependency. The study has demonstrated that private car use dominates over other means. Thereby, there are mostly automobiles as the choice of mode of transportation. The principles of fairness and equality are not complied with the transport system of the city. This is another indicator of inadequate performance in regard to social sustainability.
On the other hand, the transportation mode in Al Buraimi represents a constant risk of accident for the residents. The high accident rates (325 accidents, 318 injuries, and 42 deaths) indicate that there is a lack of physical safety in Al Buraimi. Additionally, it does not support physical activity because there are limited facilities for non motorized transportation and there is hostility against pedestrians. Therefore, transportation performance in Al Buraimi does not match the principles of security and health.
Furthermore, the quality of the street environment is very low and the city does not provide appropriate conditions for community inclusiveness and cohesion. There is no infrastructure to enjoy the city in terms of friendly urban spaces free of hostility, as a result, the residents of Al Buraimi feel intimidated to walk and bike. Thereby, transportation does not meet the needs for community development.
7.1.2. Environmental Sustainability
Generally, ecological sustainability is considered the main dimension for balanced development. Nevertheless, it must be considered in equal terms with relation to the other dimensions, which are components of the holistic approach of sustainability. The assessment of the transportation performance in regard to environmental sustainability is based on the comparison with the principles of climate stability, air pollution, biodiversity, and natural resources protection. It is evident that the emissions of carbon dioxide in Oman have increased over the last 20 years. This situation considerably affects the climate stability because it
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 98 worsens global warming and climate change. As a result, the transportation performance in Al Buraimi, and the whole country, does not fulfil the principle of climate stability. The high amounts of auto emissions in the atmosphere affect the environment because it increases the levels of pollution and exposure to harmful pollutants. Since there are no standards to limit emissions from automobiles there is no prevention for air contamination, which is one of the principles for environmental sustainability. The situation of emissions in Al Buraimi does not represent an urgent problem so far. However, actions should be taken in order to prevent future negative and irreversible impacts.
Furthermore, the transportation mode in Al Buraimi has used considerable areas of land for its infrastructure and facilities. The indicator of roads executed lengths demonstrates that Al Buraimi built 98 kilometres of new road in only two years. Moreover, Al Buraimi uses extensive urban areas for parking lots and fuel consumption is constantly going up (1.826.000 BBL in 2013). Additionally, the city does not have a compact development with high densities and mixed land use. This process of development is not efficient in terms of biodiversity protection because the policies do not maximize the efficient use of resources such as land and energy. Consequently, there is not preservation of high quality habitat. This assessment indicates that transportation performance in Al Buraimi is not sustainable in terms of environmental sustainability.
7.1.3. Economic Sustainability
This dimension is assessed according to the economic principles of affordability, operation costs, and transportation to support economic development and productivity. Firstly, by measuring the transportation performance in regard to affordability, it is evident that prices of cars and oil are affordable for the residents. The residents of Al Buraimi need to spend less than 20% of their salary for transportation, which is the indicator that measures the affordability. It is important to point out that affordability in transportation has positive and
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 99 negative aspects. It is positive because residents can afford motorized access to basic services and activities. In contrast, it is negative because it encourages more resource consumption and increases in the number of cars, which in the end affects social and environmental sustainability. On the other hand, the operation costs indicate that the maintenance of highways in Al Buraimi is 100.000 O.R/year. In addition, the new roads and facilities for transportation entail significant expenses for development. It was reported that Oman invested 424.3 Millions of O.R in 2013, which is 51 O.R more than the previous year. On the top of that, costs of accidents and externalities represent high expenses for the city. Therefore, transportation performance does not fulfil the principle of efficient operation.
Furthermore, the lack of more efficient facilities for transportation of goods slows down the economic productivity in the city. According to the Chamber of Commerce and Industry branch in Al Buraimi (2014), the existing interregional transportation structure is not suitable for the efficacy of trading and economic competitiveness. The strategic location of Al Buraimi gives high potential for economic development; nevertheless, it is necessary to improve the transportation of goods to and from the port of Sohar. The inefficiency in the regional linkages in terms of trading has not encouraged the growth of local businesses. Consequently, transportation performance does not meet the criteria in order to support the local economic development and productivity. In conclusion, the assessment of the transportation performance in Al Buraimi indicates that it is not sustainable in comparison with the theoretical principles of sustainable transportation. Therefore, the current transportation planning requires review and reformulation in order to switch into a more sustainable mode. The transportation performance in regard to sustainability is summarized in the table below. The assessment shows in green the principles of sustainable transportation which are fulfilled and in red the principles that do not match the theoretical criteria.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 100 Principles of Sustainable Components S N.S Reason Transportation I. Social Limited choice of modes of transportation. Transport System Diversity No public transportation system. No non-motorized transportation Equity / Fairness Children, elderly and people with disabilities are excluded. Lack of Accessibility by most vulnerable dedicated pedestrian paths. groups of the society Domination of automobiles and no spatial justice. Minimize risk of accidents High rates of accidents
Security and health limited facilities for non motorized Support physical fitness transportation Low quality of public spaces Limitations for walking Community Walkability and Bikability Development No facilities for biking (Support community Low quality of street environments. cohesion and No green areas inclusiveness) Quality of street environments Physical segregation due to cars and high speeds. II. Environment Reduce global warming emissions Increasing emissions of greenhouse Climate Stability gases Mitigate climate change impacts
Reduce air pollution Increasing automobile exhaust Reduce exposure to harmful emissions in the Sultanate of Oman. Prevent Air Pollution pollutants Reduce level of noises Increasing number of cars Minimize transport facility land Significant areas used for use transportation facilities Resources and Encourage more compact Dispersed and low density biodiversity development development protection Destruction of ecosystems for Preserve high quality habitat transportation infrastructure III. Economic Economic Accessibility / Transport of Productivity goods Insufficient facilities for trading and Economic Economic and business transportation of goods Development development Energy costs Affordable prices of oil and petrol
Affordability All Residents can afford access Affordable prices of cars and to basic (essential) services and regional public transportation activities Maintenance costs High costs of maintenance
Externalities costs (accidents, Efficient transport High costs for accidents operation pollution) High costs of new roads and Building of new infrastructure facilities for cars Table 10– Transportation performance in regard to sustainability, Source: Author, 2014 (based on Developing Indicators for Sustainable and Liveable Transportation Planning. Littman, 2008)
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 101 7.2. SWOT Analysis
The SWOT analysis is a planning method used to assess an environment considering the internal and external issues (Humphrey, 2005). The internal issues are the strengths and weaknesses whereas the external issues are the opportunities and threats. Therefore, in order to implement this method in the analysis of transportation in Al Buraimi, these issues will be evaluated according to the findings of this study. Once the analysis is completed, it determines how transportation planning may improve in order to accomplish the objective of sustainable transportation.
Strengths
According to the information found through the interviews and meetings with the ministries in Al Buraimi, there is an increasing awareness about environmental sustainability among the government institutions. Additionally, the Governorate of Al Buraimi and ministries are seriously considering the improvement of citizens’ quality of life. The local government is open to new ideas and paradigms for urban development, protecting the local identity, and cultural value. Another strength is the high quality national road system of the Sultanate.
Weaknesses
The centralized governance structure of Oman, the inadequate coordination and integration, and the lack of public participation are weaknesses of the transportation planning. There is no autonomy in the local government to make decisions on plans or strategies. Moreover, there is neither integration nor coordination among ministries which leads to fragmentation in the planning and implementation process. There is not public participation and the transportation planning performance indicates that it is disconnected with the principles of good governance and sustainability. Additionally, road based modes of transportation and low prices of cars and fuel have lead to automobile dependence, minimizing the chances of non motorized transportation. Furthermore, there is no diversity of
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 102 modes of transportation and the public transport system in Al Buraimi has not been considered. Finally, the transportation facilities have absorbed significant areas of land, in addition, densities are low and there is a lack of mixed land use.
Opportunities
The strategic geographical position of Al Buraimi provides potential for the economic and urban development of the city. The closed relationship with Al Ain and the role that the city plays in the regional and international context provides unique opportunities. Additionally, the Sultanate of Oman has enough financial resources from the oil production activities, which could be invested in innovative sustainable transportation. The implementation of updated available technologies in addition to the implementation of alternative energies, are opportunities which may represent significant benefits for the city in terms of sustainability.
Moreover, Al Buraimi is still in process of development. It means that there is still time for smart growth by reformulating the current planning processes. The city has just started suffering the typical difficulties of early development and this gives the opportunity to switch to a more sustainable mode of transportation. Al Buraimi has potential for economic competitiveness through activities such as tourism and trading. The cultural value and the strategic location place the city in a privileged position for development. Lastly, there is an important opportunity to recover the local identity and sense of pride through sustainability and smart urban growth.
Threats
The social, environmental, and economic impacts described are threats for the sustainability in Al Buraimi. Inequality and unfair accessibility for vulnerable groups are threats for community development and cohesion. In addition, the public health and security is permanently threatened by the automobile based mode of transportation. Furthermore, this mode entails ecological threats such as
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 103 pollution, contamination, high levels of noise, climate instability, and destruction of the local ecosystems. On the other hand, the threats also include economic impacts attributed to high costs of operation, externalities, and infrastructure. Finally, urban sprawl and continuous fast growing may affect the compact and balanced development.
The SWOT analysis is summarized in the table below
STRENGTHS OPPORTUNITIES
• Government awareness regarding environmental • Strategic location of Al Buraimi sustainability • Financial resources • Willingness to improve the life of the citizens • Alternative energies for transportation • Local government open to new ideas for urban • Implementation of updated technologies development • Still in early phase of development process • Cultural values and sense of identity • Potential for economic competitiveness through new • High quality national road system activities such as tourism and trading • Recovering local identity and pride trough sustainability
WEAKNESSES THREATS
• Centralized government hierarchy • Pollution/Contamination • Bureaucracy in the planning process • Cheap prices of cars and oil • Bad decisions for transportation facilities • High levels of noise • Transportation policies and regulations designed for • High levels of accidents car use • High temperatures • Lack of community awareness and participation • Destruction of the local habitat • Bad governance • High costs of infrastructure for cars • Lack of coordination among the different government • Lost of public health agencies • Urban sprawl • Car dependency • Social Segregation / Unfairness • Poor facilities for pedestrians • No facilities for biking • Lack of quality public spaces and green areas • No public transportation system • No mixed land uses • Low density land use • Significant urban areas for parking lots • Inefficient regional linkages by public transportation • No railway
Table 11 – SWOT Analysis, Source: Author, 2014
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 104 8. RECOMENDATIONS
The research process carried out during this study has provided a broad panorama of transportation in Al Buraimi, identifying the key issues and challenges. As a result, the analysis of findings and the review of the theoretical framework set the bases for the proposals to switch to a more sustainable transportation mode. Consequently, with the aim of classifying the proposals, this section is divided into governance / institutional and technical recommendations.
8.1. Governance / Institutional Recommendations
In this part of the section the aim is to provide proposals from the governance perspective. It includes the reformulation of the current transportation planning procedure. In addition, the recommendations are given with the purpose of creating more public inclusiveness and integration into the process.
8.1.1. Integration and coordination in the planning procedure
In order for them to contribute to a more effective planning procedure, it is essential to integrate and coordinate activities among the ministries and government institutions. Thus, the Ministry of Transportation and Communications, the Ministry of Housing, and the Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water Resources should function using a holistic approach. By coordinating activities, the urban development would be implemented in a more balanced and sustainable manner. Consequently, it is needed to establish efficient mechanisms and instruments for the integration of development activities. This means that plans and decisions on housing, transportation, infrastructure, public services, and environment should be taken as an integrative process. Moreover, it includes establishing a common data base for all ministries to keep all the needed information readily available. The planning procedure suggests the coordination among ministries; nevertheless, in practice it does not
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 105 function holistically and it is also necessary to create management tools for a more efficient implementation stage.
Therefore, the Ministry of Housing in Al Buraimi, which is the responsible for land use administration, should integrate the land use plan with the responsible for local transportation network in Al Buraimi in order to ensure more compact development. Additionally, it is not appropriate that the Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water Resources is the responsible for the local road network in Al Buraimi. There is a disconnection of the Ministry of Transportation and Communications at the local level and this is one of the reasons for the failure in the implementation of transportation regulations. As a result, the Ministry of Transportation and Communications branch in Al Buraimi should take the responsibility of the transport network in the urban area.
8.1.2. Change of land distribution system
The national land distribution policy should be reformulated with the aim of using the land more efficiently and create higher proximity. The current system of allocating lands randomly has led to patchy developments, wasted land, and urban fragmentation. The Omani nationals get the land by draw; however, in many cases those lands are not built on. As a result, the process of distribution should also enforce the construction on the plot of land and the simultaneous development of urban facilities and services for those plots. This process should lead to compact and balanced urbanization, by ensuring useful occupation of land. It is important to consider mechanisms that compel people who receive plots by draw to build on them. It would help guarantee a sustainable and homogeneous urban development process. Therefore, by refocusing the land allocation on people who are really determined and financially able to build, the urban areas would have higher densities, better access to services, and quality of public spaces. It would also increase the accessibility for the local community as a result of creating proximity and reducing travel times.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 106 8.1.3. Integration of land use and transportation planning
The integration of land use and transportation planning is a key recommendation in order to reduce the need of new roads and build infrastructure more efficiently. Additionally, it would reduce the current sprawl like development of Al Buraimi. Therefore, the Ministry of Housing should tie land use administration policies with transportation planning, coordinating the planning process by establishing strategies addressed to achieving this holistic approach. In addition to the integration of planning activities, three strategies are proposed:
- Nodal Development: Al Buraimi should concentrate high densities and mixed land uses in strategic points of the city, providing facilities for biking and walking as well. The urban areas located between nodes can be used for low densities and low traffic land uses. This is a key element to reduce distances and improve accessibility. It would play a main role in the reduction of automobile dependence and would facilitate non motorized transportation.
- Walkable Communities: Al Buraimi should provide the facilities for non- motorized transportation which encourage people to adopt a healthier life style. It is important to reduce car dependence and prioritize pedestrians and bikers.
- Strong leadership: In order to develop and implement new planning tools in Al Buraimi, it is important to have strong leadership at the institutional and individual level. Thus, the new ideas can obtain more credibility to be successfully implemented.
8.1.4. Review of laws and regulations
The overall national policy on transportation should be reviewed and reformulated in order to convert to a more transit oriented mode. Afterwards, the Oman Highway Design Manual Standards, the building codes, and the Omani
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 107 Environmental Regulations should be modified in order to adjust to the needs of sustainable development. Thus, the following proposals are made:
- Review of the Oman Highway Design Manual Standards: As mentioned, the national policy on road based transportation should be reconsidered. Therefore, the standards should be developed in more depth for the local transportation network, defining codes that minimize car dependency by providing facilities for walking and biking. The regulation should also establish clear responsibilities for the implementation of the local network and more efficient mechanisms for monitoring and enforcement.
- Review of the building codes: As a complement of the review of the Oman Highway Design Manual Standards, the building codes should support the allocation of the urban spaces for pedestrians. Therefore, the codes should consider the minimum distance between buildings and local roads and the obligation to build sidewalks. The building codes should also regulate the number of parking lots and reduce the occupation of public spaces by cars. In addition, the regulation should increase the densities in order to have more compact development with higher proximity and better accessibility.
- Introduction of parking fee: This proposal might work with the aim of regulating the use of public spaces for parking lots. It would also contribute to reduce car use due to the fact that it is currently free to park anywhere in the city and there is no regulation to control the situation. The first attempt to introduce parking fee could be done in the commercial areas which demand significant parking facilities, especially those located along the main roads of Al Buraimi. This initiative has been implemented in Muscat, where there was limitation of parking lots in the city centre. Thereby, priced parking was successfully established to reduce the demand of parking lots, discouraging car use, and reducing traffic.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 108 - Monitoring by the Royal Oman Police: In order to protect the public spaces and enforce the laws, the police should protect the sidewalks and public spaces from cars’ invasion. It means that once the parking areas have been clearly determined and regulated, the Royal Oman Police should monitor that vehicles are not parked in wrong areas. Thus, this authority would control the use of parking places.
- Regulations to reduce car use: The affordability of cars generates a challenging perspective in minimizing automobile dependency. Therefore, in order to reduce car use, urban hostility, and accidents rates, other actions beyond speed controls and cameras might be considered. The Royal Oman Police is currently doing awareness campaigns to encourage consciousness about driving behaviour. Nevertheless, this action should be complemented by adopting new measures. For instance, the age groups which can have access to owning a car can be modified. The statistics show that the younger age group is responsible for the majority of accidents. Currently, in Al Buraimi is possible to drive at the age of 21. Thus, the proposal is, that no one under the age of 25 can either own or drive a car. Furthermore, harder driving tests and procedures to receive a driving license should be established in Al Buraimi. Only people who demonstrate responsibility, ability, and good driving behaviour in the tests should be allowed to have a driving license. Consequently, by implementing these two actions, car usage and accidents rates may be reduced.
- Review of the Omani Environmental Regulations: This law should encompass the impacts of roads and transportation infrastructure on the environment. It is currently focused on emissions and the roads building process; nevertheless the regulation is not relevant in terms of protecting the ecosystems. Moreover, the law should limit the range of the extensions of lands that are meant to be developed, in order to integrate all the environmental issues. Additionally, with the aim of supporting environmental preservation, it is highly recommended to establish a branch of the Environment Society of Oman in the city.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 109 8.1.5. Monitoring and Enforcement
It is essential to establish more efficient and effective instruments and mechanisms to implement at the local level in order to comply with the national laws and regulations. Therefore, strict enforcement, controls, and inspections are needed in order to follow the legal framework. By increasing monitoring and inspections, compliance will also increase. Thus, the implementation process will follow the guidelines, standards and codes stated in the transportation legislation. The proposal is that for all new transportation projects in Al Buraimi, inspections by the Central Government and the Governorate should be made during the different stages of the project execution.
Consequently, the transportation implementation agencies are forced to know the legal framework and operate according to it. In the case of inspectors finding an abnormality or non conformity, the implementation agency should be made responsible to take the corrective actions. Furthermore, the proposal includes two stages in the permits/licenses approval process: the first stage is to get acceptance of the project proposal; once the project has been approved the agency can start execution. The second stage is to issue a certificate at the end of the building process after the authorities have inspected and verified that the project has fulfilled all the technical standards and codes.
8.1.6. Decentralization
More autonomy, in the Governorate of Al Buraimi to decide on transportation plans and projects in their city-region, is needed. The local government has more knowledge regarding the actual needs, priorities, problems, and challenges of its city-region than the Central Government of Muscat. The Governorate and the Municipality of Al Buraimi should have certain abilities to decide about local affairs, which would be more effective in terms of responding to the local needs in the proper time. The process of decentralization may take a long time due to the strong centralized structure of the Sultanate. Nevertheless, efforts have to be
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 110 made and there should be more flexibility for the governorates and municipalities in decision making. In the process of decentralization, it is essential to have political acceptance from the Central Government to transfer certain powers to the different levels. Additionally, the transportation legal framework should define the responsibilities among the different actors involved. The first step of decentralization was made in 2011 through the creation of the municipalities in the Sultanate of Oman. Therefore, the next step is that the National level considers distributing additional administrative, political, and fiscal autonomy to the regional and local levels with a long term projection. The process must be gradual in order to not disrupt the current governmental structure. For instance, the Governorate of Al Buraimi should have the autonomy to decide on regional new roads and linkages according to the priorities in terms of transportation of goods, tourism and residents mobility. Moreover, the Municipality of Al Buraimi should have the autonomy to make decisions on the local level regarding plans and strategies in the local context. They should also have the power to decide on new transportation modes in the regional and local context beyond the national policy based on cars. The proposal is to start transferring larger scale decisions to the Governorate and Municipality as an evolution of the process. The Municipal Council of Al Buraimi should play an essential role in strengthening the power in the regional and local level in transportation planning and decisions. Consequently, when the process takes place, the levels of public engagement and involvement will increase as well. Decentralization is a key tool to promote urban sustainable development by focusing more closely in the local community.
8.1.7. Public Involvement
In order to initiate a more integrative and holistic planning approach in Al Buraimi, it is important to increase the level of public engagement in planning and sustainability. Therefore, residents in Al Buraimi should get progressively more involved in urban planning procedures. The residents are a key player in identifying the real needs and priorities of the community and they should have the right to express opinions, ideas, and criticisms on the city’s transportation.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 111 Thus, the decisions would be more inclusive, and effective, in terms of benefiting the public. However, the local community of Al Buraimi is currently not involved in the planning process and degrees of engagement should increase by implementing strategies which make residents feel relevant in the procedure. This is a long process which could be started by involving the schools and university students with activities such as student proposals and competitions regarding transportation. In the beginning, the process might start in the academy by linking science with planning. Simultaneously, the residents could be consulted regarding mobility needs and demands. The city is a complex system that changes constantly and priorities of transport are part of those changes. Thereby, by uncovering people’s priorities, decisions are more focused on solving social needs rather than ignoring them. Afterwards, once the students and academy have got involved in addition to community consultation, the next step is to involve the society more actively in participatory processes. In the efforts to involve all groups of society, the Municipal Council of Al Buraimi should play a key role in attracting the residents to participate. As a result, new ideas, concepts, and proposals can arise from the citizens according to their needs.
Thus, decisions might be more orientated towards improving citizen’s quality of life. Furthermore, the process should integrate the expatriate residents, which count for around 50% of the total population in Al Buraimi. The immigrants are part of the city and need to be included and participate in planning as well. They also have needs for urban and regional mobility which represents transportation demand. According to the community surveys, the foreigners are the most disadvantage group in the city. Consequently, the process should not marginalize any group and should be fair and equal by providing the same conditions for everyone. Therefore, if the participatory process is structured in the aforementioned steps, it will extend the engagement to all the community at the end and the planning procedure can switch to a more integrative approach. Finally, public engagement would be a base for a more sustainable transportation planning.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 112 8.1.8. Public/Political Acceptability and Adaptability
In order to convert to a more sustainable mode of transportation it is also necessary to establish a process which includes: (1) Public and political acceptability for a new transportation paradigm, and (2) Adaptability for the implementation of a non car dependant mode. Thereby, these two key stages of the implementation process are described below:
- Public and political acceptability: The aim of reducing car dependency depends on the public support. Therefore, the community should be aware of sustainability and the negative impacts of the current car based mode of Al Buraimi. Firstly, the concepts of sustainability should be clearly conveyed to the residents through campaigns and programs. Secondly, creating awareness, consciousness, and education through campaigns can encourage people to adopt more sustainable practices. Consequently, such programs may change the current mentality of car dependency which leads to sedentary life style, high accidents, lack of urban enjoyment, and poor air quality. The campaigns can be carried out in cooperation with the media, schools, the Buraimi University College, the Royal Police of Oman, the Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs, and the Environment Society of Oman. Moreover, such campaigns should be addressed to lead to new attitudes towards automobile use and the recovery of public spaces to people. The active involvement of the community can make a difference for the implementation of new alternatives to the private car (Banister et al., 2007). As a result, the final outcome of the campaigns, hopefully, will be the general support and acceptance for new modes of transportation, which include public and non- motorized. Meanwhile, public support for change will lead to political acceptability because this is the main way to influence political thinking (Banister et al., 2007). Thus, policies and the legal framework should be reformulated to switch to a more sustainable transportation system. Additionally, it would lead to considering the implementation of alternative fuels and updated technology for transportation through the establishment of environmental standards.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 113 - Adaptability: Once public and political acceptability has been achieved, the implementation of a more sustainable transportation mode in Al Buraimi needs a complementary process of adaptability. This encompasses the residents and the government of Al Buraimi. On the one hand, the citizens need time and guidance to adapt to public transportation, walking or biking. It is challenging to persuade people to stop using private cars when they offer comfortable transportation at affordable prices. In addition, cars are a symbol of status and wealth in the society (Al Gharibi, 2013). Nevertheless, this process of change of behaviour is based on campaigns and educational programs for raising consciousness. Thus, people need to learn how to use the public transportation system, the facilities for non-motorized transportation, and how to respect the reallocation of sidewalks and public spaces to pedestrians. It is important to emphasize the benefits that this shift represents for individuals and the community in terms of health, accessibility, environment, etc. On the other hand, the government of Al Buraimi needs adaptation as well because it will be necessary to change institutions, administration, and governance. This is perhaps the most challenging aspect in the adaptation of sustainable transportation as it does not only depend on the local government of Al Buraimi, but also on the Central Government in Muscat, due to the strong centralized structure of the Sultanate of Oman. Nevertheless, restructuring the institutions and reviewing governance is needed as part of the process.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 114 The summary of the governance/institutional recommendations can be visualized in the box below.
PROPOSED GOVERNANCE/INSTITUTIONAL ACTIONS MINISTRY OF TRASNPORTATION AND COMMUNICATIONS RESPONSIBLE ACTION OUTCOMES FOR THE LOCAL NETWORK INTEGRATION OF LAND USE AND TRANSPORTATION PLANNING - BALANCED AND SUSTAINABLE MIXED LAND USES, HIGH CHANGE OF THE LAND THROUGH 3 STRATEGIES: URBAN DEVELOPMENT. DENSITIES, COMPACT DISTRIBUTION POLICY - EFFICIENCY IN TRANSPORTATION -NODAL DEVELOPMENT DEVELOPMENT PLANNING - WALKING COMMUNITIES INTEGRATION AND COORDINATION - NO URBAN SPRAWL -STRONG LEADERSHIP IN THE PLANNING PROCEDURE - ACCESIBILITY AND PROXIMITY
REGULATIONS TO REDUCE CAR USE AND PARKING LOTS - REFORMULATION OF THE LEGAL PROHIBITION OF CAR PARKINGS IN FRAMEWORK INTO A MORE NON AUTHORIZED AREAS SUSTAINABLE ORIENTED REVIEW OF THE LEGAL MECHANISMS/TOOLS FOR TRASNPROTATION FRAMEWORK PROTECTION OF PUBLIC SPACES MONITORING AND ENFORCEMENT - FULFILMENT OF THE LAWS AND FOR PEDESTRIANS REGULATIONS - REDUCTION OF ACCIDENTS ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
PROVIDE MORE AUTHONOMY TO AUTHONOMY IN DECISIONS FOR - DESCENTRALIZATION OF THE GOVERNORATE OF PLANS AND STRATEGIES IN DECISIONS AL BURAIMI THE GOVERNORATE - INCLUSIVE PLANNING - COMMUNITY ORIENTED PLANNING LINK BETWEEN ACADEMIA AND COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT IN COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN - GOOD GOVERNANCE URBAN PLANNING URBAN PLANNING DECISION MAKING
COMMUNITY CAMPAINGS ON SUSTAINABILITY AWARENESS PUBLIC ACCEPTANCE ADAPTABILITY TO A MORE COMMUNITY CAMPAINGS ON SUCCESFUL IMPLEMENTATION SUSTAINABLE REDUCING CAR USE OF NEW IDEAS TRASNPORTATION MODE POLITICAL ACCEPTANCE
Box 4 - Governance/Institutional Recommendations Summary, Source, Author 2014
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 115 8.2. Technical Recommendations
This part of the section is focused on the technical proposals which would complement the governance recommendations previously described. The proposals are made in order to reduce car dependency and provide sustainable choices of modes of transportation. Additionally, in order to contextualize the technical recommendations in Al Buraimi, it is necessary to consider the weather conditions, the local identity, and the local customs. These features will determine, technically, how to design and implement the facilities and infrastructure. The familiarization with Al Buraimi was essential to propose recommendations which take into consideration all issues involved in a more holistic manner.
8.2.1. Facilities for walking and biking
Al Buraimi should provide the facilities for non motorized transportation such as walking and biking. This effort aims to improve the local environment and it is focused on a small scale. The implementation of such facilities would bring relevant benefits to the community because the residents would have the opportunity to enjoy their city. Moreover, it would improve the public health, air quality, security, and overall spatial justice. As it was proposed before, by implementing mixed land uses there would be more proximity and reduced distances. Consequently, the urban activities would be more accessible in the neighbouring scale. Additionally, by the time public spaces have been reallocated to people and cars do not invade the pedestrian spaces any longer, the conditions would be more suitable for the use of non-motorized transportation. Therefore, the following points are proposed:
- Pedestrian facilities: It is challenging to propose pedestrianization in Al Buraimi due to the weather conditions and car based culture of the society. Nevertheless, efforts have to be made in order to provide quality public spaces to the residents, supported by the transportation and building regulations and guidelines. As it was
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 116 described, walking should be focused on the immediate local level. Thereby, through mixed land use and the proximity principle, the residents could reach their activities without using private cars. The benefits of the process of pedestrianization in Al Buraimi is that it would definitely improve the accessibility conditions of the community, including the most disadvantage groups such as people with special needs, children, elderly people, and immigrants as well. As a result, the city would be more inclusive for all society groups.
On the other hand, taking into account that Al Buraimi has high temperatures over the year and this condition might discourage walking, it is important to provide sidewalks and public spaces that are sheltered from direct sunlight. As a result, it is proposed to consider landscaping in planning and urban design with the purpose of creating comfortable places for walking. Additionally, the process of recovering the local identity could be tied with the reallocation of spaces to pedestrians. Thus, it is proposed that in commercial areas the public spaces can be reclaimed for pedestrians by introducing street markets which are traditional in the Omani identity. The street markets could be temporarily installed during the weekends, contributing to a more active social life and encouraging people to move around by walking.
- Biking facilities: The proposal of implementing bike lanes is also focused on the local level. The network of bike lanes could be distributed along the most important distributor routes of Al Buraimi. It is important to point out that the Omani society is not used to biking. Nevertheless, there is a significant number of immigrants who do not own a car and require mobility. Therefore, the bikeways strategically located in the urban areas may provide the facilities for this group. Additionally, a pilot project of renting bikes could be implemented. In many places of the world, renting bikes has been successfully adopted. Al Buraimi might set up this mode as an experiment at first, in the case that it works, it can be set up permanently. Additionally, Al Buraimi would become a pioneer as it would be the first city in the Sultanate of Oman in implementing bikeways. This
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 117 would increase the interest in other cities in the country to also adopt these kinds of networks. It would also raise the sense of pride of Al Buraimi, which would be moving forward towards more sustainable transportation practices.
8.2.2. Landscaping
As a complement of the implementation of sidewalks and bike lanes, landscaping should be considered in order to provide shade, road noise attenuation, separation between the car lanes and pedestrian paths, improvement of air quality, and better urban space aesthetics. Additionally, it would be an opportunity to recover the local identity through restoring the native species of plants, which are originally from the region and have been ignored and lost in the development process. Moreover, considering that Al Buraimi is a dry place with scarce water resources, the proposal focuses on the use of trees requiring less water which have a significant volume to provide shadows. This proposal would also complement the current initiative of the Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs in Al Buraimi, which has the aim of raising awareness of the importance of Omani native plants and biodiversity. According to the Environment Society of Oman (2010), there is a group of native trees proposed in order to conserve the traditional cultural landscapes. As a result, the proposed species from this group which meet the functional needs for sidewalks are: Ghaf (Proposis cineraria), Sidr (Ziziphus spina-christi) and Sherish (Azadirachta indica). The mentioned trees species are illustrated in the respective order in the photos below.
Figure 51 - Omani Native Trees Species, Source: (Environment Society of Oman, 2010)
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 118 Furthermore, in case there are sidewalks which are not suitable for trees or plants due to i.e. narrowness, another solution to provide shade is through the installation of pergolas. This is a traditional Omani architectural element which could be used for this purpose in addition to the identity value that it contains. The proposal includes building pergolas with regional materials translating the values and traditions of the Omani architecture into a modern style. The suggestion of linking landscape and traditional architecture with facilities for walking has the intention to improve public spaces quality while retrieving the sense of identity in Al Buraimi. Thus, the local community could feel more connection with the new proposals. In order to illustrate the idea of pergolas on paths and sidewalks, sample photos have been added below.
Figure 52 – Sample of pergolas on paths and sidewalks, Source: Coleman, 2012
8.2.3. Public Transportation
For a city such as Al Buraimi to achieve a real sustainable development, the first step is to break out of the current automobile dominated mode, and adopt an efficient public transportation system. In the near future, when the city has expanded its area and population has risen, the demand of transportation will rise significantly. As a result, it will be necessary to implement a public transportation network to avoid congestion, traffic, and pollution. Public transport systems provide the most efficient means of moving large numbers of people by
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 119 providing a flexible mode of meeting demands at various levels (Al-Rawas, 1989). Thus, the proposal is to implement a pilot project in order to test performance, evaluate feasibility, costs, and adversities. According to Cohn (2009), the duration of a pilot project should be between 9 and 12 months. This is a small scale experiment which would need to be adjusted if it proves functional during the test period. The pilot experiment proposed is the implementation of electric buses with dedicated lane. The buses should have specific stops strategically located in the places with higher volume of people in Al Buraimi. Additionally, the buses should operate on the main distributor routes of the city (see figure 32 to visualize the proposed route). The proposal includes that the buses should operate with electricity which is not a hazardous pollutant threat for the environment. Meanwhile, the local government should educate the residents on how and why to use the public transportation system through campaigns and programs. Furthermore, considering that Oman has traditionally strict rules in the relation between men and women, it is also proposed to provide separated areas in the buses for each gender. Thus, people would feel more comfortable when using the service.
The implementation of the public transport system in Al Buraimi could create conflicts with the current taxi service. As mentioned before, taxis are the only available service for local journeys and drivers would loose revenues in the event of having competition. Consequently, the proposal is to integrate the public transportation network with the taxi service. Thus, taxis could be rethought as semi public, sharing the bus stops and lines. The aim of the pilot plan is to integrate the different modes of transportation without excluding or compromising the existing services. In addition, the network could be linked with biking by installing bicycle parking racks in the bus stops. Thereby, people would feel motivated to bike to and from the stops. The previously proposed rental bike system could assist in the accessibility to the public transport system. On the other hand, it would be important to coordinate activities between the government and the public sector through partnerships in order to manage the
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 120 operation of the bus service. Thus, small and medium enterprises would have the opportunity to develop businesses with services that are efficient for the city and support the local economy. Another important aspect to be considered in the implementation stage is the service pricing. The cheap prices of oil and cars make private transportation very affordable for people. This would be one of the main challenges to be faced. Therefore, efforts have to be made in order to provide the public transportation service with affordable prices as well. The key point is to create awareness in the citizens on the importance to reduce car use and the benefits of using the public transport network in terms of efficiency and cost. Thus, unveiling the various advantages of public transportation, people would feel attracted to use the service and minimize the use of private automobiles. Finally, the implementation of the pilot plan should set the stage for a full scale public transportation network in the future. In other words, it is an attempt to prove the adequate design and performance of the service.
Box 5 – Public Transportation Plan, Source: Author, 2014
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 121 8.2.4. Transit Oriented Development
The TOD model could be implemented in Al Buraimi as a model for integration of land use and transportation. According to the experts, the concept of this model is to concentrate mixed land uses, dense areas, and pedestrian friendly developments around the main roads to provide walking, biking, and alternatives to the use of private cars (Cervero et al., 2009). Thus, TOD would be potentially suitable in the case of Al Buraimi, considering that the city has concentration of activities and densities in certain points. The current activity centers were indicated in the analysis of local mobility patterns of this study (See Figure 16 – Chapter 6). As a result, if these strategic points are focused on creating nuclei by increasing densities and mixed land use, in addition to the provision of facilities for non motorized and public transportation, Al Buraimi could adapt and implement this concept. Therefore, the development process would be more sustainable by creating a more compact city. It should be seen as a tool to slow down sprawl and reduce car dependency. Moreover, in these nuclei strategically located in the city, the bus stops proposed in the public transportation system should be placed. The concept includes the principle of proximity and accessibility by increasing densities in the nodes. Meanwhile, the densities decrease progressively, spreading outward from the centre of the nucleus.
On the other hand, it is essential to set a planning strategy to implement TOD model which responds to the local priorities. According to Curtis (2013), the strategy contains key principles that must be fulfilled to guarantee the implementation success: (1) Make full use of urban land, (2) Plan with communities, (3) Encourage public over private transport, (4) Strengthen local sense of place, and (5) Develop strategies to create local jobs. Thus, it is also relevant to include the concept of “complete neighbourhood”, which provides choices for housing and employment, as well as retailers, schools, medical centres, worship, public spaces and public, transportation (Cervero et al., 2009). Consequently, the TOD model implementation would bring better living conditions to the city residents by creating green corridors and more accessibility.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 122 The concept of TOD is schematically visualized in the graph below.
Figure 53 – Transit Oriented Development Concept Source: Institute for Transportation and Development Policy, 2013 / Modified by: Author, 2014
Consequently, in order to consider the implementation of TOD in Al Buraimi, it is necessary to identify potentially suitable activity centres in the existing urban area. Thus, there are currently two areas which concentrate more density and commercial activities with different land uses. On the one hand, the area where the market (souk) is located includes commercial corridors, hotels, restaurants and retailers in addition to heritage sites which will potentially become tourist attractions. On the other hand, the area located in the main roundabout which contains the main Mosque, bus terminal, Governorate office, commercial areas, health care facilities, among others, is another point of the city with densities and perspectives to become a node in the TOD model. The proposal is to densify these two areas, providing facilities for walking and biking, integrating residential use within the area of influence, as well as limiting the occupation of public spaces for parking lots, and using the node centres for the bus stops. Furthermore, there is a third area which has low density, but is strategically
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 123 located considering the proximity of different land uses such as commercial, residential, and recreational. This area contains the Buraimi Park, the Buraimi Sport Complex, the Buraimi Hospital, the Buraimi Hotel, shops, among others. Therefore, it could be developed as an activity centre by integrating more varied land uses and increasing densities, as well as linking it with public transportation. The three areas mentioned are indicated in the map below.
Figure 54 – Potential Activity Centres in Al Buraimi for TOD Implementation Source: Wikimapia, 2014 / Modified by: Author, 2014
Additionally, these three potential activity centres might articulate the pilot project for public transportation. The bus routes should operate in the densest areas of Al Buraimi where there is more compact development. At the same time, the public service operation should operate mainly along the main distributor routes and partly on the highway (see Figure 32). The implementation of TOD is
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 124 envisioned for the medium term if the planning structure is reformulated and actions are taken in the short term.
On the other hand, considering the projected urbanization growth of Al Buraimi, which has been planned by the Ministry of Housing, it is proposed to include activity centres in the new developed areas. The nodes should be located along the main distributor route, which according to the master plan, is proposed to be built when the area has been urbanized. Moreover, higher densities with mixed land use, public transportation network, and non motorized facilities should be established in the new urbanized areas. Thus, tying up land use with transportation would convert the current development process to a more smart growth. It is also important to ensure making more efficient use of land. The plan of the projected urbanized areas and activities centres is visualized in Figure 33.
8.2.5. Alternative Energies
In the medium and long term, Al Buraimi should implement alternative energies in the transportation sector. The availability of updated technologies and renewable sources of energy provide opportunities to reduce emissions and contamination of the environment. Consequently, the public transportation pilot project could be also used as the proof of concept for buses operating with electricity instead of fuel. Additionally, other sources such as solar and wind energy should be taken into account. These sources could be utilized for bus stop, road, and street lighting. The Sultanate of Oman has the potential to exploit these resources due to its advantageous geographical location and climate. Thus, it would be a big step in order to achieve environmental sustainability and energy efficiency. Additionally, alternative energies have been seriously considered by other countries in the region, foreseeing the long term oil depletion and lack of petrol. It is important that Oman starts taking into account the consumption of non renewable energies to face the challenges of oil dependency. On the other hand, the costs of implementing this kind of technology can be higher in the beginning in comparison with conventional
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 125 sources. Nevertheless, in the long term vision, the initial economical costs will be compensated with the reduction of externalities and environmental damage.
8.2.6. Improvement of Regional Public Transportation
The current interregional public transportation system is not operating efficiently and needs urgent updating. Therefore, the proposal is to improve the regional linkages by increasing coverage, frequencies, and punctuality through the operation of new updated buses which also provide better conditions for the passengers. The Oman National Transport Company should improve the quality and quantity of the bus fleet operating in the region. Moreover, it is advisable to improve the bus terminal facilities due to its size not being appropriate for high volume of passengers. There are no waiting spaces and the process of tickets purchase is chaotic.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 126
AL AIN
3 2
1
Existing Urban Area
Potential Activity Centers in the Existing Urban Area
Potential Activity Centers in the Projected Urban Area
Figure 55 – Potential Activity Centres in Al Buraimi Projected Areas for TOD Implementation, Source: Author,2014 / Based on the Project Plan of the Ministry of Housing (2014)
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 127 The summary of the technical recommendations can be visualized in the box below.
PROPOSED TECHNICAL ACTIONS ACTION OUTCOMES SIDEWALKS FACILITIES FOR WALKING AND - NON MOTORIZED TRANSPORTATION BIKING - REDUCTION OF CAR DEPENDENCY BIKE LANES - PHYSICAL FITNESS FOR THE COMMUNITY - IMPROVEMENT OF PUBLIC HEALTH - REDUCTION OF POLLUTION - REDUCTION OF NOISE LEVEL OMANI NATIVE TREES SPECIES - BIODIVERSITY PROTECTION - REDUCTION OF URBAN HOSTILITY LANDSCAPING - IMPROVEMENT OF PUBLIC SPACES TO CREATE SHADOWS PERGOLAS FOR PEDESTRIANS - SOCIAL COHESION - IMPROVEMENT OF COMMUNITY’S QUALITY OF LIFE - IDENTITY AND LOCAL VALUES ELECTRIC BUSES WITH INDEPENDENT LINE AND - CHOICE OF MODE OF PILOT PROJECT FOR PUBLIC SPECIFIC STOPS TRASNPORTATION TRANSPORTATION - ACCESIBILITY INTEGRATION WITH THE - EFFICIENT MOBILITY TAXI SERVICE - REDUCTION OF CAR DEPENDENCY
- COMPACT DEVELOPMENT FINAL PROJECT FOR PUBLIC - PROXIMITY AND ACCESIBILITY TRANSPORTATION - REDUCTION OF TRAVEL DEMAND - REDUCTION OF CAR DEPENDENCY - REDUCTION IN THE ECONOMICAL COST OF CAR’S INFRASTRUCTURE TRANSIT ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITY CENTERS (MIXED LAND USE, - REDUCTION OF ACCIDENTS HIGH DENSITIES, GREEN CORRIDORS FOR WALKING AND BIKING - NO OIL DEPENDENCY - REDUCTION OF EMISSIONS AND IMPLEMENTATION OF ALTERNATIVE CONTAMINATION ENERGIES IN TRASNPORTATION - CLIMATE STABILITY - ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
Box 6 – Technical Recommendations Summary, Source: Author, 2014
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 128 The recommendations summary divided by levels of government and terms of time is illustrated in the action plan below.
COORDINATION IN THE PLANNING PROCEDURE INTEGRATION OF LAND USE AND PROVIDE MORE AUTHONOMY TO DESCENTRALIZATION TRASNPORTATION PLANNING THE GOVERNORATE AND MUNICIPALITY OF AL BURAIMI COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN REVIEW OF THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK DECISION MAKING PUBLIC PARTICIPATION IN THE REGIONAL RAILWAY REFORMULATION OF PLANNING PLANNING PROCEDURE (AL BURAIMI-SOHAR-MUSCAT)
PROCEDURE National Level National IMPLEMENTATION OF ALTERNATIVE MECHANISMS/TOOLS FOR MONITORING ENERGIES IN TRASNPORTATION AND ENFORCEMENT
REGULATIONS TO REDUCE CAR USE AND PARKING LOTS IMPROVEMENT OF THE REGIONAL PUBLIC TRASNPORTATION AUTHONOMY IN DECISIONS FOR PLANS AND ACTIONS TO REDUCE ACCIDENT RATES COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT IN URBAN STRATEGIES IN THE GOVERNORATE Level PLANNING
Regional LINK BETWEEN ACADEMIA AND URBAN PLANNING
COMMUNITY CAMPAINGS ON ADAPTABILITY TO A MORE SUSTAINABLE SUSTAINABILITY AWARENESS TRASNPORTATION MODE PILOT PROJECT FOR PUBLIC COMMUNITY CAMPAINGS ON TRASNPORTATION / ADAPTABILITY FINAL PROJECT FOR PUBLIC REDUCING CAR USE TRANSPORTATION MIXED LAND USES, HIGH DENSITIES, MINISTRY OF TRASNPORTATION AND COMPACT DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATIONS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE LOCAL NETWORK TRANSIT ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT WALKING AND BIKING FACILITIES FINAL STAGE OF IMPLEMENTATION Local Level Local PROTECTION OF PUBLIC SPACES FOR PEDESTRIANS LANDSCAPING THROUGH NATIVE SPECIES AND LOCAL ARCHITECTURE PROHIBITION OF CAR PARKINGS IN NON AUTHORIZED AREAS REDUCTION OF CAR DEPENDENCY
Short Term Actions Medium Term Actions Long Term Actions
Table 12 – Recommendations Action Plan, Source: Author, 2014
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 129 8.3. Stakeholders
The actors that should be involved, play a role, or have a responsibility in the proposed action plan to establish a new mode of transportation in Al Buraimi are listed in the table below
Stakeholder Responsibility / Recommendation
• Integration and Coordination of the Planning Process in the National Level. • Change of the land use distribution policy Central Government • Reformulation of the transportation policy and legal framework (Ministries) • Decentralization, distribute power to the regional and local level • Promote public participation and public involvement in decisions • Establish efficient mechanisms and tools for monitoring and enforcement • Should be responsible for the transportation local network • Regulate parking lots • Link transportation planning with land use • Discourage car use and reduce accidents through regulations Ministry of • Implementation of public transportation system in Al Buraimi Transportation and • Implementation of facilities for walking and biking Communication in Al • Implementation of the national regulation in the local level Buraimi • Implementation of alternative energies in transportation • Reduction of land use for roads and parking lots • Campaigns for community awareness and consciousness on reducing car use
• Link transportation planning with land use • Reformulate building codes related to car facilities • Increase densities in the urban areas Ministry of Housing in Al • Encourage mixed land uses Buraimi • Ensure compact and balanced development through more efficient use of land • Allocation of plots of land that will be built • Coordinate development activities with the other ministries Ministry of • Fulfill the legal framework Municipalities and • Inspection and monitoring Water Resources in • Campaigns for community awareness and consciousness on Al Buraimi sustainability • Protection of the local ecosystem from transportation impacts • Encourage use of alternative energies in transportation Ministry of Environment • Campaigns for community awareness and consciousness on and Climate Affairs sustainability • Open a branch of the NGO Environment Society of Oman in Al Buraimi
Environmental Society of Oman • Landscaping and environmental protection
• Should have more autonomy in decisions • Strong leadership and acceptability of new ideas Colfuturo Scholarship Holder• Establish 2013 public involvement 130 • Support public transportation, walking, biking and reduction of car Governorate of Al use Buraimi • Coordinate actions for more sustainable transportation • Create partnerships with the private sector for transportation activities • Support the improvement of inter regional public transportation system with the Oman National Transportation Company • Support the Governor in decision making Municipal Council of Al • Work closely with the communities Buraimi • Public participation and engagement
University of Al Buraimi • Link academia/science with urban planning
• Control parking lots • More strict procedures to get the driving license • Parking pricing Royal Oman Police • Monitoring and enforcement (Department of Transit) • Campaigns for community awareness and driving behavior • Campaigns for reducing car use • Integration of taxi service with public transportation
Media • Campaigns for sustainability and reduction of car use
• Partnership with the Governorate and the Municipality for implementation and operation of public transportation Private Sector • Support the local small and medium enterprises with the new transportation system Oman National Transportation • Improve the public bus service of regional connections Company • Engagement to sustainability • Participation Local Community / • Awareness and consciousness Residents • Acceptance and adaptation to a more sustainable mode of transportation Stakeholder Responsibility / Recommendation
• Integration and Coordination of the Planning Process in the National Level. • Change of the land use distribution policy Central Government • Reformulation of the transportation policy and legal framework (Ministries) • Decentralization, distribute power to the regional and local level • Promote public participation and public involvement in decisions • Establish efficient mechanisms and tools for monitoring and enforcement • Should be responsible for the transportation local network • Regulate parking lots • Link transportation planning with land use • Discourage car use and reduce accidents through regulations Ministry of • Implementation of public transportation system in Al Buraimi Transportation and • Implementation of facilities for walking and biking Communication in Al • Implementation of the national regulation in the local level Buraimi • Implementation of alternative energies in transportation • Reduction of land use for roads and parking lots • Campaigns for community awareness and consciousness on reducing car use • Link transportation planning with land use • Reformulate building codes related to car facilities • Increase densities in the urban areas Ministry of Housing in Al • Encourage mixed land uses Buraimi • Ensure compact and balanced development through more efficient use of land • Allocation of plots of land that will be built • Coordinate development activities with the other ministries Ministry of • Fulfill the legal framework Municipalities and • Inspection and monitoring Water Resources in • Campaigns for community awareness and consciousness on Al Buraimi sustainability • Protection of the local ecosystem from transportation impacts • Encourage use of alternative energies in transportation Ministry of Environment • Campaigns for community awareness and consciousness on and Climate Affairs sustainability • Open a branch of the NGO Environment Society of Oman in Al Buraimi
Environmental Society of Oman • Landscaping and environmental protection
• Should have more autonomy in decisions • Strong leadership and acceptability of new ideas • Establish public involvement • Support public transportation, walking, biking and reduction of car Governorate of Al use Buraimi • Coordinate actions for more sustainable transportation • Create partnerships with the private sector for transportation activities • Support the improvement of inter regional public transportation system with the Oman National Transportation Company • Support the Governor in decision making Municipal Council of Al • Work closely with the communities Buraimi • Public participation and engagement
University of Al Buraimi • Link academia/science with urban planning
• Control parking lots • More strict procedures to get the driving license • Parking pricing Royal Oman Police • Monitoring and enforcement (Department of Transit) • Campaigns for community awareness and driving behavior • Campaigns for reducing car use • Integration of taxi service with public transportation
Media • Campaigns for sustainability and reduction of car use
• Partnership with the Governorate and the Municipality for implementation and operation of public transportation Private Sector • Support the local small and medium enterprises with the new transportation system
Oman National Transportation • Improve the public bus service of regional connections Company
• Engagement to sustainability • Participation Local Community / • Awareness and consciousness Residents • Acceptance and adaptation to a more sustainable mode of transportation
Table 13 – Stakeholders of the proposed action plan, Source: Author 2014
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 131 9. CONCLUSIONS
Sustainable transportation is not about radically stopping car use, it is about reducing car dependency through the implementation of mixed land use, higher densities, proximity, accessibility, use of public and non-motorized transportation, and alternative energy usage. Thus, Al Buraimi should adopt a holistic transportation approach that provides access to citizens minimizing the social, environmental, and economic impacts. However, it needs reformulation of governance, planning procedure, and the legal framework in order to establish the basis for its implementation. In addition, it is necessary to achieve public and political acceptance for a new mode of planning and transportation. Moreover, political will in the different levels of the government could make the difference to overcome the lack of integration, coordination, and inadequate planning. Furthermore, the introduction of new proposals can be dramatic and conflictive in the beginning. Nevertheless, the community needs time to adapt to the new ideas, the role of the government is essential in guiding the citizens in this process through campaigns and programs.
Additionally, achieving good governance is essential for sustainable transportation. This is an ideal which is difficult to achieve. However, to ensure sustainable development, actions must be taken with the aim of making it a reality. Moreover, the aim of the proposals is not only to be more sustainable through the implementation of foreign concepts, principles, or models, but also to respect and encourage the cultural values and local identity of Al Buraimi.
Furthermore, the urbanization process of the city has been rapid and unsustainable over the last years. It is high time the government, agencies and the whole community took action in order to overcome the challenges that urban growth presents. Only with the engagement of all stakeholders and the implementation of more balanced oriented practices, can transportation be switched to a more sustainable mode. In addition, this study has utilized, what is
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 132 considered a new approach in Oman, a combination of interviews and, community surveys. Thus, including the community has contributed greatly to the quality of the research and the development of the investigation in the field. Finally, the research establishes criteria and concepts which very well may contribute to the process of sustainable transportation in Al Buraimi. These ideas could be applied to other urban areas of the Sultanate of Oman in the event of successful implementation in Al Buraimi, which could become the first city in the country to adopt a new approach to transportation.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 133
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Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 137 APPENDIX
A - Interview Schedule Interview Institute Name Title Information date Head of Ministry of Housing Land use plan, housing regulations 1 Ministry of Housing Hamad Al Gharibi 22/09/2014 Al Buraimi and planning General plan for Al Buraimi. Yarub Mohammed Al Director of Buraimi 2 Al Buraimi Municipality 23/09/2014 Transportation issues and Yahyaee Municipality challenges Challenges in the development of Al 3 Municipal Council Mohammed Al Badi Member of Municipal Council 23/09/2014 Buraimi Sayyid Ibrahim bin Said Governor of Buraimi Planning process in Al Buraimi, 4 Al Buraimi Governorate 24/09/2014 al Busaidy Municipality problems and limitations 5 Al Buraimi Shaikha Shaikha Al Naimi Shaikha 24/09/2014 Heritage and local identity Head of Ministry of Guidelines and standards for Ministry of Environment 6 Name not provided Environment and Climate 28/09/2014 environmental protection, link with and Climate Affairs Affairs in Al Buraimi transportation Economical perspective in Al Member of Chamber of Buraimi. Needs of better regional 7 Chamber of Commerce Yousuf Bin Karam 29/09/2014 Commerce and Industry linkages for more efficient transportation of goods. Prices of land and buildings in Al 8 Real State Jamil Al Thabsi Broker 29/09/2014 Buraimi Assistant Ministry of Regional linkages in Al Buraimi 9 Ministry of Transportation Name not provided 01/10/2014 Transportation (planning, problems, challenges) Municipality Office of Mohammed Al Japri Local mobility in Al Buraimi 10 Head of Technical Affairs 01/10/2014 Technical Affairs (planning, problems, challenges) Transit Department of the Director of Transit Road accidents, emissions, car’s 11 Hamad Al Rabsi 14/10/2014 Police of Al Buraimi Department speed control, statistics Ministry of Transportation National regulation for Salah Al Shikaili General Director Transport 12 and Communication in 16-10-2014 transportation, planning process, Design Muscat strategies for transportation Different groups of the Sep/14 – 13 N.A Citizens Mobility patterns and needs society Oct/14
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 138 B – Interview Ministry of Transportation and Communications
Al- Buraimi Research Survey on transportation and mobility
1. Which strategies or plans has the Ministry of Transportation developed?
2. What have you achieved so far?
3. Is the Ministry of Transportation aware of the importance to reduce car dependency as a mode of transportation?
4. What has the Ministry of Transportation done so far in order to reduce car dependency?
5. How does the Ministry of Transportation monitor the implementation processes of the different strategies and plans for transportation?
6. Do you think transportation planning has something to do with land use planning and policies?
7. What has the Ministry of Transportation done in order to link transportation planning with land use planning?
8. Do you think transportation planning has something to do with environmental conservation?
9. How do you coordinate the transportation planning with the policies and initiatives of the Ministry of Environment And Climate Affairs?
10. Has the Ministry of Transportation considered the implementation of alternatives fuels, renewable energies and new engine designs, in order to reduce the emissions and contamination produced by transportation activities in the country?
11. Which measures has the Ministry of Transportation taken in order to encourage the non motorized transportation in the urban areas?
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12. Is there any consideration to update the mobility regulation, in order to switch into a more sustainable mode of transportation in the urban areas?
13. Is the Ministry of Transportation aware of the public health and the relevance of ensuring a clean environment free of green house emissions?
14. Which action have you taken to make sure that transportation activities and infrastructure do not affect public health?
15. Are the citizens in Al-Buraimi informed and educated to engage and adopt more sustainable mobility practices?
16. Which are the plans and strategies for transportation that you consider for the short, medium and long term in the urban areas?
17. According to the Oman Highway Design Manual, there is public consultation in the transportation planning procedure. Please describe briefly the public consultation process.
18. What do you consider the most urgent problem in transportation in Al-Buraimi?
19. What are the challenges in transportation planning in Al-Buraimi?
20. Which positive aspects do you consider that transportation in Al-Buraimi has?
21. Which negative aspects do you consider that transportation in Al-Buraimi has?
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 140 C- Interview Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs
Al- Buraimi Research Survey on transportation and mobility
1. Which environmental problems do you consider are the most relevant in the Al Buraimi?
2. What is the Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs doing in order to solve them?
3. Do you think that environmental policies have something to do with transportation planning?
4. Are the policies of the Ministry of Environment linked with the policies of the Ministry of Transportation?
5. According to the Royal Decree 114/2001, the law on conservation of the environment is addressed to prevent, among others, pollution and contamination. Which plans and strategies have you developed to avoid pollution in the urban areas?
6. How this law is related with transportation planning?
7. Are you aware that motorized transportation in urban areas should be reduced to minimize greenhouse emissions in the environment?
8. Are you considering new technologies and/or renewable sources of energy for transportation in urban areas as part of the policies of the Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs?
9. What is the Ministry of Environment doing in order to reduce the negative impacts in the environment caused by roads and infrastructure for transportation?
10. The Environment Society of Oman, which is working with the Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs, is also working to raise awareness of environmental issues by involving the community. Can you describe this process of participation?
11. Which are the plans and strategies that you consider for the short, medium and long term related to minimize the transportation environmental impacts in the urban areas?
12. Which initiatives do you consider in order to create government and public awareness about the importance of sustainable development?
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 141 D – Interview with the Governor of Al Buraimi
Al- Buraimi Research Survey on transportation and mobility
1. What do you consider the most urgent problem in transportation in Al-Buraimi?
2. What are the challenges in transportation in Al-Buraimi?
3. Which positive aspects do you consider that transportation in Al-Buraimi has?
4. Which negative aspects do you consider that transportation in Al-Buraimi has?
5. What have you done so far in order to face the problems and challenges of transportation in Al Buraimi?
6. What is the main potential of Al Buraimi?
7. Is the Al-Buraimi Governorate aware of the importance to reduce car dependency as a mode of transportation?
8. What has the Al-Buraimi Governorate Department done so far in order to reduce the transportation impacts in the environment?
9. Is the Al-Buraimi Governorate Department aware of the public health and the relevance of ensuring a clean environment free of green house emissions?
10. Which action have you taken to make sure that transportation activities and infrastructure do not affect public health?
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 142 E - Community Questionnaires
Al- Buraimi Research Survey on transportation and mobility
Date:
1. General Information:
Age: under 20 20-40 40-60 over 60
Sex: female male
Occupation: Number of children:
Neighborhood: Marital Status:
Nationality:
2. Please fill the information in the table below
Rank the activities How do you travel for How long do How where you travel Where is this each activity (private you take to many more (working, place located? car, taxi, motorbike, arrive? trips per studying, leisure, (neighborhood) bus, waking, bike) (minutes) day? shopping, others)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 143 3. Please locate in the map of Al Buraimi the places listed in the table above and your residence place
Residence Place Source: Google maps
4. How long do you walk per week?
Never Below than 2 hours
Between 2 and 4 hours More than 4 hours
5. Do you usually bike?
Yes No if yes, how long per week?
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 144 6. If you neither walk nor bike, why don’t you do it?
7. Do you have your own car?
Yes No
8. Have you ever had an accident traveling by car?
Yes No
9. Do you think that roads in Al-Buraimi are safe in terms of accidents?
Yes No
10. How do you consider the air quality in Al-Buraimi?
Clean Polluted
11. How do you consider the noise level produced by transport in Al-Buraimi?
Low Medium High
12. What do you consider as public spaces?
Roads Parks Green Areas
Sidewalks Other:
13. How do you consider the urban public spaces in Al-Buraimi?
Low quality High quality
14. Which other city (ies) / region (s) in Oman do you travel more?
______
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 145 15. Why you travel there?
Work / Business Tourism
Shopping Other: ______
16. How do you commute there?
Private Car Taxi
Bus Other:______
17. If you take a bus, what do you think about the service?
Efficient Inefficient
16. How often do you cross the border to Al-Ain?
Daily Once per week
More than once per week Once per month
More than once per month Never
17. How long do you usually take crossing the border to Al Ain?
18. Why do you travel to Al-Ain or other regions in Oman?
Work / Business Tourism
Shopping Other: ______
19. How do you evaluate the transport network which links Al-Buraimi with other regions in Oman?
Efficient Inefficient
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013 146 F - Plans, laws and regulations
Name Ministry Content related to transportation
Omani Environmental Ministry of Environment and Climate - Royal Decree 114/2001 Law on Conservation of the Regulations Affairs Environment and Prevention of Pollution International References - Royal Decree 29/2000 Law of protection of water Documents resources SEU Guidance Notes - MD 187/2001 Issuance of Environmental approvals and final Environmental Permit - MD 79/1994 Noise pollution control in Public Environment - MD 243/2005 regulation for the control & management of ozone depleting substances - MECA Guidelines for Obtaining Environmental Permits - Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Oman Highway Design Manual Ministry of Transport and - Highway Strategy (Volumes I and II) Communications - Planning Procedures - Road Cross Sections and Capacities - Local Development Access - Design, Structures, Architectural Considerations - Facilities for Pedestrians Oman Planning Guidelines Ministry of Housing - Transportation Planning (06/04/2014) - General Urban Planning Development Control Plan Ministry of Tourism - Guidelines for transportation tourism facilities Framework
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