U

CARIBBEAn TROPICAL STORMS Ecological Implications for Pre-Hispanic and Contemporary Maya Subsistence on the Yucatan Peninsula

Herman W. Konrad

ABSTRACT The ecological stress factor of hurricanes is examined as a dimension of pre-Hispanic Maya adaptation to a tropical forest habitat in the Yucatan peninsula. Pre-Hispanic, colonial and contemporary texts as well as climatic data from the Caribbean region support the thesis that the hurricane was an integral feature of the pre-Hispanic Maya cosmology and ecological paradigm. The author argues that destruction of forests by tropical storms and subsequent succession cycles mimic not only swidden —"slash- and-burn"— agriculture, but also slower, natural succession cycles. With varying degrees of success, flora and fauna adapt to periodic, radical ecosystem disruption in the most frequently hard-hit areas. While not ignoring more widely-discussed issues surrounding the longevity and decline of pre-Hispanic Maya civilization, such as political development, settlement patterns, migration, demographic stability, warfare and trade, the author suggests that effective adaptation to the ecological effects of tropical storms helped determine the success of pre-Hispanic Herman W. Konrad. university Maya subsistence strategies. of Calgary. Email: [email protected] gary.ca

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RESuMEn Los efectos ecológicos causados por los huracanes se analizan en el contexto de la adaptación de los mayas prehispánicos a la selva de la península de Yucatán. Textos prehispánicos, coloniales y contemporáneos, así como información climática sobre el Caribe en general, apoyan la hipótesis de que el huracán era un elemento central en la cosmovisión y el paradigma ecológico prehispánico. El autor argumenta que la destrucción de la selva causada por tormentas tropicales, y los ciclos de sucesión que siguen, se asemejan no sólo a la agricultura de roza, o de tumba-roza-quema, sino también a los ciclos de sucesión naturales, que son más lentos y predecibles. Con distintos niveles de fortuna, la flora y fauna de la región se adaptan a los efectos radicales ecosistémicos en las partes más frecuentemente afectadas. Mientras que las más discutidas causas del declive de la civilización maya prehispánica se refieren a factores políticos, patrones demográficos, guerra y comercio, este autor sugiere que la adaptación efectiva a los efectos ecológicos de las tormentas tropicales repercutió en el éxito o fracaso de las estrategias de subsistencia en esta región.

Santa Clara.

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InTRODuCTIOn which might several Maya means of The mystery of how pre-Hispanic subsistence. This paper sets aside, for Maya constructed and maintained mo- the moment, the question of archaeo- numental architecture, great cities, and logical remains to examine tropical a sophisticated civilization in a tropical storms as one factor of ecological stress forest habitat has puzzled scholars sin- on the tropical forest habitat. using ce Bernal Diaz and the Spaniards' first contemporary and historiographic descriptions of Maya cities in the early data from both the Yucatan peninsula 16th century. Whereas Spanish clerics, and the Caribbean area as a whole, it such as Bishop Landa, were inclined to suggests an additional dimension to see in Maya civilization a divine plan reconstructions of pre-Hispanic Maya somehow corrupted by evil forces, subsistence strategies. My objective is modem researchers have made great not to provide definitive answers, but strides in probing Maya science, social rather to begin framing an important organization, and economic activity question which has received inade- But as new discoveries help to answer quate consideration. old questions, they raise new ones, as Despite a great deal of attention to well. Recent research about Southern subsistence strategies, the question Lowland Maya cities such as Calak- of ecological paradigms employed mul, nakbé and El Mirador, for exam- by the Maya has been for the most ple, suggests that current chronologies part bypassed by recent publications identifying Formative, Classic and (Adams, 1977; Andrews and Sabloff, Postclassic periodization may no lon- 1986; Ashmore, 1981; Chase and Rice, ger be accurate (Folan, 1990; Hansen, 1985; Culbert, 1973; De Montmollin, 1991). The discovery of monumental 1985; Flannery; 1982; Friedel and architecture and associated large-scale Sabloff, 1984; Hammond, 1977; Ham- populations suggests that tropical fo- mond and Willey, 1979; Harrison and rest adaptation by the Maya was more Turner, 1978; Turner, 1983; Turner and successful, and extended over longer Harrison, 1983; Willey and Mathews, time periods, than previously thought 1985). The earlier work sponsored by (Hansen, 1991). Such archaeological the Carnegie Institution of Washing- evidence, however, is insufficient for ton (CIW) and headed by Sylvanus a reconstruction of past conditions, Morley focused primarily on maize for the natural habitat has undergone agriculture. It has been greatly ex- many transformations and the remai- panded by current research showing ning physical evidence is largely mine- that a variety of strategies were invol- ral —stone and ceramic— rather than ved, including raised field intensive the vegetable and animal materials agriculture, homegarden plots, root

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and/or tree farming, aquaculture, rainfall, and after the following dry silviculture (harvesting of forest pro- season, extensive forest fires. As re- ducts), and swidden, or slash-and-bum cently demonstrated by Hurricane agriculture. Modem scholars, however, Gilbert (September 1988) and the 1995 have failed to come to any consensus hurricanes, these accom-panying phe- regarding actual productivity, habitat nomena have a significant, destructive carrying capacity, or demography. Re- impact on habitat. This is what I refer search spearheaded by Arturo Gómez to as the ecological stress factor. Pompa emphasizing silviculture options Formal classification of tropical provides key insights. In contrast to ar- storms is based on wind speed. A tropi- chaeological evidence based largely on cal depression (a system with winds of mineral remains, Pompa's work focuses less than 62.9 kilometers per hour) may on the flora of the regional tropical forest escalate into a tropical storm (speeds habitat which either directly or indirectly between 62.9 and 118.5 kilometers per became the basis for Maya subsistence. hour), or reach hurricane force (greater His summary of silviculture techniques than 118.5 kilometers per hour). Hurri- provides a useful basis for identifying canes are now further classified in terms the basic ecological paradigm employed of a five-scale system, referring to wind by pre-Hispanic Maya (1987,6). The con- intensity and destructive potential. Hu- clusion of this paper will refer to these rricane Gilbert was a Category 5 storm. silviculture techniques, among others, as Both tropical storms and hurricanes can elements that helped to alleviate the eco- have significant ecological impact. In logical stress caused by tropical storms. this paper, I will not always distinguish Climatologists refer to tropical between them for the period prior to storms as "seasonal tropical disturban- 1899, however, as insufficient data on ces", weather patterns which normally particular storms and standardization of originate over the and classification systems had not yet been frequently affect the Yucatan peninsu- established H (neumann et al., 1985,5). la. The maximum expression of such The impact of recent tropical storms storms is the hurricane, an intense can be quite accurately measured. A system with counter-clockwise winds disproportionate amount of this work of at least 118.5 kilometres per hour. has been done in areas where the u.S. Winds may reach up to 300 kilome- national Oceanic and Atmosphere Ad- ters per hour, and speeds of 150-240 ministration (nOAA) has major repor- kilometers per hour are common for ting responsibility. Therefore, while a hurricanes striking coastlines. Hu- great deal of information is available rricanes also bring high water levels on tropical storms that have affected (storm surges), exceptionally heavy the mainland or offshore u.S.A., there

102 • Revista de la Universidad aUtónoma de YUcatán Ecological Implications for Pre-Hispanic and Contemporary Maya Subsistence on the Yucatan PeninsulaU is much less data about storms affec- to climatic cycles in these sources as ting . Since the Caribbean coasts convincing evidence that the Maya of Mexico have until only recently had not only recorded tropical storms, but major populations reporting on such had also devised a method of predic- phenomena, information here is even ting future storms. In view of what is more scattered. Because these storms presently known about the frequency also affect the Caribbean Islands, one of hurricanes, the Lacombe hypothe- must take this area as a whole in order sis lacks credibility; although it does to get a more comprehensive picture reinforce the more tenable position of frequencies and impact in the post that the ancient Maya were seriously conquest period. affected by hurricanes and attempted to record them. THE HISTORICAL RECORD Both conquest-period European Pre-Hispanic records left by the Maya and post-conquest Maya writings such provide clues but few specific details as the Chilam Balam and the Ritual of on tropical storms affecting the Yuca- the Bacabs confirm specific Maya recor- tan peninsula. Aztec myth identifies ding of tropical storms. Landa (1986, the hurricane as the origin of one of 19) reports information he got directly four worlds that were created and from the Maya about "a hurricane of destroyed prior to the one existing the four winds", which struck the Yu- at the time of Spanish conquest. Ac- catan peninsula in 1464, as follows: cording to the Maya Popul Vuh, the second world was destroyed by rains One night a wind came that and . And as Thompson has in- grew into a great hurricane that dicated, most Maya areas have myths overthrew all large trees, des- identifying great storms as destroyers troying tall houses and every of past epochs (1957,399-417). While sort of game… The people were destruction is common in crea- crippled by the blows from the tion accounts worldwide, there is more wood… and so the land lost concrete evidence from Maya sources the name it formerly bore, the which suggests that there was indeed land of deer and turkeys, and large-scale destruction caused by remained treeless, so that today storms and flooding. Lacombe (1988) all those young trees which have argues that the numerous referen- grown up in their place have the ces to rain gods in the Maya codices same height, and looking down (Dresden, Madrid, Paris) refer primarily from higher points it appears to hurricanes. Taking his argument that this whole part of the forest one step further, he sees references has been cut to the same height.

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Although we do not know which graphy led him to the conclusion that part of the peninsula was involved, the God of Storms, or Huracán, whose the impact described conforms sig- indigenous names are Guabancex, nificantly to what is currently known Maboya, and Jurakan, was the most about a maximum hurricane force. In important deity in the pre-Hispanic the Landa account it became a histo- Caribbean Islands. He further argues rical reference point, a practice also that iconography showing circular common in the Maya Chilam Balam, and cross-like forms can be related which use famine, war and drought to tropical storm deities throughout to mark historical periods. Informa- Mesoamerica. tion about actual storms striking the Millas, who was director of 's Yucatan peninsula during the colonial national Observatory of Meteorology era, however, is uneven and sporadic. for many years, states that "there is no For the Caribbean area as a whole known cycle for severe hurricanes in the colonial record is much better. Co- any one region", although in Cuba, for lumbus learned about tropical storms example, it was thought that every fif- on his second voyage (1493-1495), ty years a very severe hurricane would and his first settlement of Isabella was strike the island (1968, xvii). For the struck in June of 1494 and October of western Caribbean Millas identified 1495 (Millas, 1968, xii-xiii). Fernandez 45 hurricanes for the 16th century, 64 de Oviedo y Valdés describes two hu- for the 17th century, and 136 for the rricanes that struck the island of His- 18th century (7-23). paniola on August 3rd, 1508 and July Alison Reading's recent work cove- 29th, 1509 with particularly impressive ring from 1500 to the present locates impact on tropical forests (1944, I, the greatest number of hurricanes 300-305). He also refers to high water between 1871 and the 1980's, although, levels, great rains, high seas and the she adds, this may be "entirely a destruction of ships, buildings, crops function of the improving quality of and animals (1944, I, 300-304). data" (1990, 372). Her data for earlier The Caribbean history of tropical centuries indicates low levels of hurri- storms has received considerable at- cane activity in the Yucatan peninsula tention from two Cuban writers: José in the 1500 to 1800 period, increased Carlos Millas (1968), who provides a activity in the xIx century, and exten- chronology of hurricanes from 1492 till sive activity in the 20th century (373). 1800, and Fernando Ortiz (1947), who According to her data the areas of examines the mythology and symbo- most frequent impact during the co- lism of hurricanes. Ortiz's analysis of lonial period were the , Caribbean and Mesoamerican icono- Cuba and , Hispaniola and

104 • Revista de la Universidad aUtónoma de YUcatán Ecological Implications for Pre-Hispanic and Contemporary Maya Subsistence on the Yucatan PeninsulaU

Puerto Rico. Yet for the more recent directional nature of pass storms and period the Yucatán- area has their concentrations (Map no. 2). as high frequency rates as the other Most of the storms approach the pe- Caribbean islands. It is important to ninsula ~from the southeast, crossing note that the Caribbean Islands were in a northwesterly direction, while continually occupied by Europeans, some, like Gilbert, cross in an almost while the eastern Yucatan peninsula east-v~ direction. Since (the did not have a European, colonial moment when the hurricane strikes population reporting or recording tro- la eliminates the warm ocean water, pical storms. Data from 1871 onward, or energy source of a cyclone, there however, is available in equal measure is a significant reduction of velocity for all areas. and intensity when storms cross land. When entering the Yucatan peninsula, Tropical storms, 1871-1990 , example, had 300- Annual charts for the 1871-1990 pe- 320 kilometer-per-hour winds, which riod identify storm-track location and had fallen to about 155 kilometers per intensity. This allows for a more sys- hour by the time it left the peninsula tematic analysis of the last 120 years entered the (n0AA of tropical storm activity affecting the data). Such energy loss reduces hurri- Yucatan peninsula. When compared canes to tropical storms. South of Be- with Cuba and Jamaica, the peninsula lize City, major storms 01 die quickly was only slightly] affected by storms after encountering the mountainous (106) than Cuba (120), and considera- terrain in that portion of the peninsula. bly more than Jamaica (40). Most tropical-storm-intensity cyclones Identifying areas crossed by storm become tropical depressions (i.e. wind tracks over the 120 year pen as shown velocity of less than 62.9 kilometers by the annual north Atlantic Hurri- per hour) when crossing the peninsula cane Tracking Ch~ (nAHTC), we can and are no longer considered signifi- construct a synchronic view of penin- cant destructive factors. Such velocity sular imp This is illustrated below in reduction is clearly shown in Map no. Map no.1, showing the number of 1, and is particularly relevant for the cyclonic disturbances affecting speci- southern portion of the peninsula. fic areas marked on the map. The to There are two general patterns rela- within the circles indicate totals for ted to distribution and frequency: one each area, showing greatest impact showing decreasing frequencies along along the eastern coasts and in the an east-west axis and two showing north. These patterns have then been decreasing frequencies along a north- divided into zones which reflect the south axis. The impact zones shown in

número 224 • Primer trimestre de 2003 • 105 Herman W. Konrad

Map. no. 1 Peninsular cyclonic impact, 1871-1990 (number of impacts in specific areas)

RMC, 1 (1996), 98-134

106 • Revista de la Universidad aUtónoma de YUcatán Ecological Implications for Pre-Hispanic and Contemporary Maya Subsistence on the Yucatan PeninsulaU

Map no.2 provide a peninsular over- subsistence crops. This seasonability is view of a 120-year period, indicating directly related to ocean water tempe- differences in frequency throughout ratures, then at their annual warmest, the peninsula. allowing weather systems crossing In addition to synchronic differences the Atlantic to develop into tropical in occurrence, distribution and frequen- storms. And although such storms cy; considerable diachronic fluctuation may occur as early as June and July, has been noted for cyclonic activity and as late as november, most strike throughout the Caribbean area as a who- in August, September and October le (Reading 1990) as well as for north (77.04%). Cyclonic storms are most America tropical cyclones (nOAA). likely to strike the Yucatan peninsula Cyclone frequency in the Caribbean in September (roughly 40 percent). increased from the 1870's up to the The impact of cyclones is further first decade of the 20th century~ and influenced by short-term frequency fac- decreased between 1910 and 1930. tors. In some years there are none and in This was followed by a dramatic others there may be many. According to increase, in the 1930's and 1940's, a neumann et al. (1989), in almost half the subsequent decrease in the 1960's years between 1871 and 1989, there was and 1970's, and a slight increase in no cyclonic impact. On the other hand, the 1980's (Reading, 1990). When only 92 of the 106 registered cyclones took storms reaching hurricane velocity place in 63 of these same 118 years. are taken into consideration, there is Storm data from the recent past a relatively constant number of about indicates that the geographic location 40 hurricanes per decade (369). If we and size of the Yucatan peninsula do not isolate hurricanes from tropical make it perhaps the greatest con- storms, the Caribbean pattern holds tinental mainland area of cyclonic true in the Yucatan peninsula as well. impact in the . The eastern and northern areas of the And although from the early colonial peninsula are more frequently hit by reports and Maya documents we have tropical storms, a dia–chronic pattern scattered references that similar phe- also consistent with the 120-year syn- nomena occurred in the pre-Hispanic chronic overview. epoch, we do not have confirmed, Seasonal occurrence is another substantive evidence directly applica- important variable. In recent times ble to, for example, the Classic Maya the official hurricane season begins in period. Indirect evidence, however, June and terminates at the end of no- does provide useful directions for vember (n0AA), coinciding with the further investigation. These are di- growth and maturation period of most rectly related to climatic factors, such

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Map. no. 2 Peninsular cyclonic impact, 1871-1990

Zone no. of impacts Frecuary classification

I 25 plus Extreme

II 20-24 Very significant

III 15-19 Significant

IV 10-14 Moderable

V 5-9 Rare

VI 1-4 Insignificant

RMC, 1 (1996), 98-130

108 • Revista de la Universidad aUtónoma de YUcatán Ecological Implications for Pre-Hispanic and Contemporary Maya Subsistence on the Yucatan PeninsulaU as warmth of oceans and long-term related to glacial retreat correspond temperature fluctuations. Recent glo- to periods of Maya disruption and bal warming trends associated with contraction. Cyclone activity would the 'greenhouse effect' have been used have in-creased precisely during these —after Hurricane Gilbert, for exam- periods of warmer temperatures. ple— to predict increasing numbers of Although far from definitive, the Category 5 hurricanes if this warming available data on cyclone activity trend continues. As Reading indicates, affecting the Yucatan peninsula in "sea-surface temperature is one of the post-colonial and recent times does cardinal factors controlling cyclone allow for suggestive projections for development" (1990, 375). And Walsh earlier periods. Recent data shows (1977), taking as his reference the 1650- clear patterns of frequency, seasona- 1975 period, has noted a correlation bility, and impact zones, and suggests between increased cyclone frequency that similar patterns occurred in pre- and mean sea-surface temperatures Hispanic periods. A more detailed over the Atlantic. Reading (375) also re- analysis of the ecological impact of lates frequency to tropical lake levels, storms on a tropical forest habitat glacial surges and retreats, and El niño might help interpret what these phenomena. Long-term weather pat- projections imply in reinterpreting terns thus become an important clue pre-Hispanic Maya adaptation to the for reconstructing cyclonic activity in tropical forest habitat. the Formative, Classic and Postclassic Maya eras. In view of the recently THE ECOLOGICAL IMPACT reported evidence mentioned at the OF TROPICAL STORMS beginning of this paper, this would Contemporary Maya in eastern Yu- be the period from roughly 1800 BC catan have the following explanation until 1500 AD, encompassing three of the hurricane (Konrad, 1985, 321): millennia. According to climatic evidence, [A] hurricane is actually a battle high cyclone frequency would fall between good and evil chacs in periods of warmer weather. Folan or raingods. The offshore or (1985) and collaborators (Folan et. approaching weather systems al., 1982; 1983; 1984) have suggested represents the evil chac (the that the greatest Maya expansion and destroyer) with malevolent development occurred during periods intentions on man and his en- characterized by humid/cool condi- vironment, who is confronted tions, or periods of glacial surges, by the good chac (the protector) while long-term warm/dry periods with benevolent intentions on

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man and his environment. The of such storms is expended. During a physical manifestations of the 24-hour period, a Category 4 hurricane hurricane, particularly the high expends energy equivalent to the heat velocity winds, are by-products energy released from 400 twenty- (the sound and fury) of a titanic megaton hydrogen bombs (Jennings, cosmic battle between the forces 1970,59). The impact felt at ground of good and evil. The intense level is only a minimal fraction of the rains are the by-product of the storm's force. energy expended, the 'sweat One hurricane by-product not men- of the gods' as it were, and the tioned in the cited Maya explanation relative degrees of havoc (storm is forest fires. Peninsular experience in surge, floods; destruction of sett- this century demonstrates that major lements, crops, flora and fauna) hurricanes are invariably followed, in become an indication of the evil subsequent dry seasons, by large-scale chac's success while positive forest fires in areas adjacent to coastal aspects (survival of natural and points of impact. In the July following human environments, increased Hurricane Gilbert (1988), roughly 160 rainfall in areas peripheral to the 000 hectares of forest were burned center of storm activities) are despite all efforts to contain and ex- associated with the good chac. tinguish fires. And post-hurricane dry spells Ecological impact can be divided or seasons occur because the into four main categories: good chac, having expended so much force in celestial combat, 1) damage along coastli- may require a lengthy period of nes, recuperation. 2) wind destruction, affecting flora, fauna and human settlements, This seemingly mythic version does 3) high water levels and flooding acti- represent a rather factual description vity resulting from extreme rainfall, of real impact phenomena, which can which has been recorded as high as be devastating at point of impact, yet 107 cm in a 24-hour period (Hebert, provide crop-saving rains at conside- 1980) and rable distances from the storm center, 4) post-hurricane forest fires. The if the storm occurs during a short-term following sections of the paper dry spell. The Maya are also technica- present a more comprehensive lly correct in locating the activity in picture of ecological impact based the sky, for this is where, at altitudes on selected storms affecting the of up to 4000 meters, the main force peninsula in the past century.

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1916 storms Early 1930 storms Two hurricanes struck the peninsula's The 1930's were particularly active east coast in 1916, the first on Septem- storm years. One hurricane and three ber 1, at Payo Obispo (now ) tropical storms crossed the peninsula and the second, on October 15, at in 1931, two tropical storms in 1932, what was then the important port of and in 1933 two hurricanes and three Vigía Chico. The impact of the first tropical storms hit the peninsula —a hurricane's storm surge was described total of three hurricanes and eight later by Gann (1924, 22-23) as follows: tropical storms in a three-year period. the "hurricane and tidal wave simply Virtually all areas of the peninsula wiped out houses and shipping and were affected, and there were additio- tore great gullies through the site nal storms in 1934 and 1936. Archaeo- occupied by the town [xcalac]". His logists with the Carnegie research description of the second was that it teams working out of the Chichén "destroyed most of the east coast [of Itzá site gave graphic reports on forest the peninsula] settlements. Vigía Chi- fires after the 1937 fieldwork season. co, once a flourishing port, [was] now Here they describe the region between a depressing dump of ruined houses, Dzitnup, just west of Valladolid, and wharf and rolling stock" (27). Mérida Cobá— though similar conditions newspapers reported serious damage were reported on the Caribbean coast: to forests and buildings, a paralysis of forestry activities (chide collection), For the last six years, possibly and destruction of the area between longer, annual dry-season fires Bacalar and Santa Cruz, now Felipe have swept through... In some Carrillo Puerto (Voz de la Revolución, sections, not a living plant re- 1916/11/08). The Mexican Federal Go- mained from the former forest, vernment had only 1occupied this part only fallen trees and standing of the peninsula in 1901 and had made skeletons. not only has the great infrastructural investments forest been killed, but the des- along the coasts to stimulate and im- truction of the humus and roots plement ambitious forestry projects. by fire has resulted in complete Most of that 15-year investment was erosion of the thin mantle of soil wiped out by the 1916 storms. Fo- into underground crevices to restry was paralyzed, and the Vigía leave barren stretches of white Chico and xcalac thereafter remained pitted limestone [CIW Yearbook, insignificant, commercial activities no. 27, 938, 146-147]. moving to alternative locations in the One 1931 storm passed directly ensuing years. over on September 10,

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causing large-scale destruction. At im- the status of ground crops. To frame pact wind speed was 211.2 kilometers this in Maya interpretative idiom, the per hour; its storm surge destroyed a evil chac's successes, in late September, large part of the town and swept debris would have largely wiped out the and boats in the Belize River mouth good chac's earlier successes. ashore. The storm took fifteen hundred lives, seriously damaged or destroyed 1955 storms the majority of the settlements' wooden The two hurricanes crossing the pe- buildings, and caused drastic decline in ninsula in September of 1955 virtually mahogany and cedar extraction. Chicle destroyed Chetumal, then a town production dropped 90% in the season of 5 000 inhabitants. It was from the following the hurricane (WnRC, Record ruins of the town that the modern Group 59, File no. 248). city of Chetumal was reconstructed. 1933 storms had a very mixed im- In the Belize town of Corozal (2 000 pact. The tropical storm of May 14-19 inhabitants) 90% of the homes were skirted the entire northern perimeter destroyed. The first, of the peninsula. Coming as it did at (September 10-19), crossed the penin- the beginning of the rainy season, it sula on a slightly north-of-west trajec- would have provided desired mois- tory, entering land September 16 at the ture for recently-planted crops and Bay of Ascención and exiting roughly those planted immediately after the at the mid-point between Celestún and storm. The July 13-19 storm, which Sisal. Twelve days later, on September passed on a east-west direction across 21, began crossing the the peninsula, would have inundated peninsula on a similar trajectory ente- young plants, but in areas less affected, ring at the Bay of Chetumal September would have had a beneficial effects. 28 and exiting just south of Champo- Well-advanced maize crops would tón, Campeche on September 29. Both have also benefited from the Septem- were major storms, Hilda Category 2 ber 10-15 storm. But the heavy rains and Janet Category 4. produced by this storm, which was Extensive newspaper accounts quickly followed by the hurricane of allow for a reconstruction of the scope September. 16-24, would have already and intensity of these storms, both softened rooted plants, assisting the on urban and rural areas. Hilda had following hurricane to flatten and des- a rather narrow band of Category 2 troy most of the year's maize. What the hurricane-intensity wind with a forty- 1933 storms illustrate is that positive kilometer diameter and Category 1 or negative effects depend on where wind velocities over a much wider and when the hurricane hits, and on radius. Janet, on the other hand, re-

112 • Revista de la Universidad aUtónoma de YUcatán Ecological Implications for Pre-Hispanic and Contemporary Maya Subsistence on the Yucatan PeninsulaU presented a Category 4 storm with a and trees were destroyed (Diario de Yu- 130-kilometer diameter and Category catan, September 18). Along the north 1 hurricane-intensity gusts extending coast at Telchac Puerto the hurricane as far as 400 kilometers north and hit coconut plantations hard, and on 160 kilometers south of the of the east coast town of Sisal, did signifi- the storm. Thus, the two storms were cant damage to houses, trees and boats. felt in varying degrees of intensity The detailed inventories of destruction across virtually the entire peninsula. from some forty different locations Although both storms decreased in present picture of extreme crop, fruit intensity while crossing the peninsula, tree, and architectural damage. Loss of Hilda produced crop losses of up to life, however, was restricted to the east 95% as far as 200 kilometers inland coast with a reported 11 deaths at Vigía near in the town of Teabo, 80% losses Chico and a few inland casualties. up to 250 kilometers inland, and 50- Janet took many more lives than 60% losses on the eastern portion of Hilda. had an estimated the peninsula. Janet had an even more 500 deaths, Belize 16, and Campeche violent impact on areas further south also reported several deaths. In the and in areas already affected by Hilda. week following Janet's passage the Property damage in the narrow majority of Chetumal's surviving in- path of Hilda was intensive. It left no habitants were evacuated to Mérida. building standing in Vigía Chico and While we know that Janet passed di- the Bay of Ascención was "full of great rectly over the most heavily forested tree trunks, dead birds, coconut palms states, Quintana Roo and Campeche, and mangroves and refuse of all kinds, and left a broad path of uprooted or making navigation difficult"; its storm denuded trees, no realistic information surge was four meters high and waters regarding impact on forest fauna is reached four kilometers inland. Felipe available for this storm. Carrillo Puerto lost houses and trees, and communication systems were in- 1988 storms terrupted. Regional forestry workers The most significant storm in 1988 were trapped, unable to return to sett- was the Category 5 Hurricane Gilbert, lements after the massive destruction whose winds officially reached 300 to the forest and the consequent bloc- kilometers per hour. For this storm I kage of roads and trails. In Peto buil- have used nOAA data, media reports dings were damaged and large trees and interviews as well as personal uprooted; Yaxcabá lost a great number surveys conducted along the east of houses, stone walls and trees, and in coast of Quintana Roo, the interior of the town of Muna, houses, windmills, Yucatan and along its northern coast.

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Gilbert passed relatively close to the from Vigía Chico on the Caribbean peninsula's northern extremity over side to the City of Campeche on the what is perhaps its least-forested area. Gulf Coast. Gilbert was considered a I will therefore discuss impact on the 'dry' hurricane, however, for rainfall coastal and interior peninsula. accompanying the storm was a mere The nOAA rates Gilbert the most 8-10 centimeters. intense storm of the century, making Gilbert damaged and destroyed their calculations according to wind buildings within 50 meters of the velocity and a record low, air pres- shoreline, from Playa del Carmen to sure reading for Atlantic storms: 885 Campeche. The small Maya temple on millibars, reported in the eye of the the southern tip of was hurricane, between Swarm Island and left a pile of rubble. The main floors the Yucatán peninsula. Gilbert's winds of hotels along beaches at Cancun and moved counter clockwise around on Isla Mujeres were gutted and beach a 60-kilometer-wide circle and had houses all along the northern coast the destructive force of a . As suffered serious damage. Cancun it approached the peninsula its eye beaches were converted to 'hurricane narrowed considerably and an outer beaches', sandless and limestone- ring —a second eyewall— formed 160 strewn, while beaches peripheral to kilometers from the center, packing the main impact zone were severely winds of 200 kilometers per hour. eroded. The mangrove growths along It struck in two stages, between the the east coast were swamped with islands of and Isla Mujeres: water and stripped of leaves. Reefs first the outer ring of Category 3 winds near the Quintana Roo coastlines were and two hours later the very narrow also extensively affected. Along the circle of what were by then Category northern coast, where coastal sandbars 5 winds. As it crossed the peninsula are backed by ciénegas, or salt-water the outer eyewall contracted while the swamps, over a dozen new channels inner eyewall collapsed. By the time between sea and ciénega were formed. the storm left the peninsula, 12 hours Two large ships 60-80 meters long later, winds had fallen to 155 kilome- were deposited against beach buil- ters per hour. Satellite images revealed dings in Cancun and Progreso, and a 600-kilometer diameter at landfall on innumerable smaller craft were left at September 14, and as Gilbert passed considerable distances inland. over land the system covered the enti- Impact on coastal flora, fauna, and re peninsula. Its accompanying storm constructions was extreme along a surge, topped off by wind-driven 100-meter-wide band of the coastline. waves, had notable coastal impact north coast saltbeds were seriously

114 • Revista de la Universidad aUtónoma de YUcatán Ecological Implications for Pre-Hispanic and Contemporary Maya Subsistence on the Yucatan PeninsulaU affected and many years of natural previous storms had already virtually beach-forming deposit eliminated. wiped out primary forest, although Shoreline vegetation, mostly man- there are many individual species of grove, suffered intense damage. Sea- greater age. Mature trees are most bottom sand disturbance affected vulnerable to the impact of high ve- marine species inhabiting shallow locity winds and are the most likely coastal waters inside of the reefs to be uprooted, as they were in both along Quintana Roo coasts. Over a settled and uninhabited areas. Two year later mangrove growth was only key factors in mature-tree vulnerabi- beginning to show initial signs of re- lity are their bulk and rigidity. Exten- covery at Puerto Morelos arid Playa sive moisture softens or weakens root del Carmen. Even two years after systems below the ground, and when the storm, there were large patches large trees are uprooted they bring of permanent damage to northern, surrounding younger trees down ciénega-associated tree species as far along with them. In this sense we as 500 meters inland. have an intensification of the forest Inland impact on forest growth patch-clearings formed under normal was also massive. Extensive human circumstances of tropical succession activity over the past century and patterns in primary forests. More Santa Clara.

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important in terms of ecological im- migrated to an area near uaymitún pact, however, is the effect on canopy where the storm had enhanced growth structure. of the birds' food sources. Turkeys, Gilbert's effect on standing trees is pheasants, monkeys, regional feline clearly visible along a 200 kilometer species, and deer ventured into hu- north-south stretch of coastal Quinta- man settlements in search of food. na Roo. near the center of the storm Abnormal infestations of parrots were path most standing trees lost virtually also reported raiding fruit-producing all secondary branches and many pri- zones along the northern slopes of the mary branches. This canopy structure Puuc hills (Oxkutzcab, Ticul, Tekax), damage exposes the complex, layered areas less affected by the storm. The flora, even if it remains standing, to after-effects of Gilbert demonstrate open area conditions. The loss of forest how dramatically a hurricane may al- canopy has very significant ecological ter the subsistence patterns of regional implications. not only is the debris on fauna. the forest floor (tree trunks, branches vines, and leaves) subject to a more STORMS AnD ECOLOGICAL rapid drying-out process, causing STRESS forest fires, but the whole succession If we take storm patterns as seen in process is affected. The hurricane's recent times as probable patterns in impact on forests becomes a natural the past, then post-conquest data is large-scale version of the swidden sufficiently strong to allow for the cycle’s preparation for planting. And, hypothesis that what we have seen as maize growers in the Chumpon area of ecological stress caused by tropical told me, after major tropical storms storms applies not only to the con- destroyed regional forests, the forest temporary Yucatan, but also to the Maya’s traditional response was to entire period of Maya occupation of plant extensively where their chacs the peninsula. had cleared the forests. Despite the paucity of botanical, Gilbert drastically reduced bird, geographical and zoological studies animal and other populations. The from the Yucatan peninsula, certain loss of forest vegetation, the strip- trends in short- and long-term con- ping of tree fruits, leaves and other sequences of cyclonic disturbances sources of nourishment also created can be gleaned from historical and a subsistence crisis for many species. contemporary data already identi- Following heavy casualities, many fied here and from studies in other of the remaining flamingo flock at cyclone-prone areas such as northern the Rio Colorado breeding grounds Australia (Hopkins and Graham, 1987;

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Stocker and unwin, 1989; Webb, 1958). truction and storm activity introduces Post-Gilbert research, ongoing and species from other ecological niches. projected, may alter the patterns iden- Hardy colonizing species of flora tified below, thus they are tentative have reproductive and dominance rather than definitive. advantages over more delicate spe- cies. Shoreline species of flora with a 1) Offshore life span greater than roughly twenty (Reef and shallow water) years, or subject to at least one hurri- Reef structures may be severely dama- cane, would need to adapt to cyclonic ged and shallow-water sea-bottoms interventions. seriously disturbed. Resident flora and fauna are either damaged or des- 3) Ciénegas troyed. Marine zoologists at Puerto Such salt-water marshes and lakes bor- Morelos suggest that conches and dering much of the Yucatan peninsula mollusks suffer high mortality rates. are severely affected by storm-surge, Lobster reproduction rates two years wind and wave action. Mangrove after Gilbert had reached roughly species are virtually defoliated, with 50% of pre-hurricane reproduction in considerable limb and stem breakage some areas. Food sources for surviving and uprooting. Two years after Gil- shallow-water species of fauna suffer bert, large patches of dead mangrove short-term degradation. Thus recovery remained. The storm-surge floods the- of normal ecological balance among se areas with sea water and on entry flora and fauna requires time. This and retreat closes existing channels gives the advantage to species better to the ocean and opens others. This adapted to severe environmental significantly alters species composi- stress. The short-term implications for tion within the cienegas, at least in the food resources in this habitat would be short term, especially as bird nesting considerable. and marine reproduction cycles are interrupted. Altered ecological condi- 2) Shorelines tions force some waterfowl species to Storm-surge and wave action cause relocate breeding grounds; the same serious erosion. up to a century and is probably true for sea-turtles and in the case of a Category 5 hurricane marine reptiles. several centuries, of normal shoreline Since ciénega coastal habitat is deposits are eliminated in a matter of subject to extensive and periodic dis- hours and are deposited in the sea or turbance, it must be characterized as as new beaches. Shoreline vegetation a constantly shifting ecological niche. suffers extreme disturbance and des- For human populations depending on

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subsistence resources from these areas, with far-reaching consequences for the past and present, this requires access regeneration, suppression, and repro- to alternative resources. Cyclones may duction of species" (1958, 227). There periodically eliminate certain flora and are as yet no botanical studies directly fauna species on low-relief offshore related to cyc1ones in the affected islands and keys, resulting in recolo- coastal forests of the Yucatan penin- nization and minimal dependence on sula, but the information available long-term evolutionary adaptations. from areas such as north Queensland provides valuable references and gui- 4) Coastal forests des. Evidence available to me would Published research on cyclonic impact indicate that parallel processes have in northwestern Australia by Hopkins and ate taking place on the peninsu- and Graham (1987, 25) led to the con- la, and that generally, in peninsular clusion that "cyclones have moulded areas affected by cyclones, we must the structures of the rain forests in abandon the notion of climax forests the area". Together with Webb's work achieving and maintaining stability (1958, 220-228), their research identi- over long periods of time (Map no. 2, fies extreme defoliation of trees above Zones I-IV). three meters, universal crown damage to canopy and subcanopy trees, and 5) Inland forests stem breakage or uprooting of 10-80% These would include forests beyond of larger trees. This represents an accu- 30-50 kilometers from peninsular rate description of the coastal impact coasts. These forests, although they zone affected by Hurricane Gilbert and suffer lesser degrees of defoliation, do the other storms mentioned earlier suffer considerable crown damage to in this paper. Since, as indicated by canopy and subcanopy trees and, in Beadle and Costin (1952), "freedom the case of mature trees, uprooting. from gross disturbance for a period The forest understory is thus left of time longer than the life span of the exposed to intense sunlight. Forest longest-lived individuals is necessary gaps greatly increase both in size and for a community to reach maturity" number. The forest-gap regeneration (Webb, 1958, 227), the capacity of coas- process (from previously dormant tal forests to reach a climax or mature seeds, root and damaged-stem sprouts state is negligible. Webb concludes and gap-colonizing species) then plays that "Present observations in north an important role in the forest succes- Queensland suggest that cyclones sion process. The Australian research are a potent ecological factor which describes an unusual post-cyclone regularly upsets forest equilibrium, flowering among smaller tree and

118 • Revista de la Universidad aUtónoma de YUcatán Ecological Implications for Pre-Hispanic and Contemporary Maya Subsistence on the Yucatan PeninsulaU shrub species and particularly vines tive factor; we can see that the impact (Hopkins and Graham, 1987). Both the zones identified in Map 2 correlate not intensive rains accompanying cyclo- only with rainfall levels but also with nes, and changing intensities of light, degrees of cyclonic impact. The tropical act as trigger mechanisms affecting forest of the peninsula may to a certain the flowering and fruiting of forest extent owe its composition to the mol- species. On the other hand, pollination ding influences of the 'evil chacs'. and seed dispersal patterns are alte- red, exposed new leaves and sprouts 6) Soils and forest floors are subject to insect attacks, and dama- The virtual absence of forest-floor ged trees are vulnerable to parasites. soils and the abundance of broken In view of the virtually certain forest limestone debris characterizes much fires that follow hurricanes, many of of northern Quintana Roo. Three the immediate recuperative respon- cyclone-related factors can be identi- ses are but short-term, giving a clear fied which would affect soil formation advantage to light- and fire-resistant processes, and add to long-recognized species in the longer-term succession soil generation limitations within patterns. This produces unexpected canopy-closed tropical forests. These forest species compositions. Austra- would be the intense heat of forest fi- lian research has led researchers to res, the leaching and erosion caused by suggest that "unexplained examples cyclone-generated rains, and excessive of… unusual local abundance of par- exposure to sunlight. under normal ticular species" in tropical forests are conditions the death of terminal age directly linked to cyclonic disturbance trees, when they fall of their own (Hopkins and Graham, 1987,29). High account or assisted by strong winds, concentrations of various palm species causes a certain degree of uprooting and the Achras zapota, as well as other and breaking-up of surface limestone. trees in Quintana Roo and Belize may Cyclonic winds, on the other hand, well be a by-product of post-cyclone uproot a greater number of mature succession patterns. trees with firm root structures, and For the Yucatan peninsula as a intensify the breaking-up of forest- whole, the gradual increase in forest floor surfaces. Tropical forests acquire height from north to south has been an almost rubble-strewn appearance attributed primarily to differing ra- of limestone debris, with subsurface infall and moisture levels. While not crevices and uneven surfaces that denying this factor, I would suggest become catchment basins for existing that persistent, periodic cyclonic dis- soils. Forests acquire a widely varied turbance has also constituted a forma- localized distribution of plant energy

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reservoirs, enriching heterogeneity 7) Fauna and diversity for flora and fauna re- Cyclonic disturbance invariably affec- production and sustenance. ted insect, bird and animal life in Backyard plots (solares) of Yucate- tropical forests. The instability of can peasant maize growers today show canopy-level environments would a highly sophisticated exploitation of suggest a somewhat different sequen- precisely such varied niche opportuni- ce of evolutionary processes than ties. That Maya agriculturalists in the found, for example in the more stable distant past recognized such poten- Amazonian tropical forests (Balée tials, utilized them, and passed them 1991; Caufield, 1985). Fauna species on to succeeding generations, is enti- occupying the understory and forest rely consistent with their basic strategy floors would possess evolutionary of diversity in agrarian and silviculture and adaptive responses to periodic subsistence practices. Periodic cyclo- and dramatic short-term alteration nes, I would argue, provided them of natural habitats. Those species with large-scale natural laboratories capable of regional migration, either in which they could experiment and from areas devastated by cyclones or refine their knowledge of their habitat to areas with post-cyclone succession

Santa Clara. and its resource potentials. habitats, would have better chances of

120 • Revista de la Universidad aUtónoma de YUcatán Ecological Implications for Pre-Hispanic and Contemporary Maya Subsistence on the Yucatan PeninsulaU reproductive success and species do- biodiversity remains open to specula- mination. Post-Gilbert bird and animal tion. I suspect that their knowledge of migrations to less affected zones or their environment was more complex even to urban centers in search of food, and sophisticated than is currently provide contemporary examples of re- recognized, that their successes were gional migratory patterns. Long-term linked to such knowledge, and that gradual ecological transformations their failures were the result of igno- also have important implications. In ring or miscalculating the dynamics addition to seasonal and long-term of its composition, succession patterns ecological transformations, the regio- and cyclonic interruptions. nal fauna, in order to ensure survival In a previous article I suggested and reproductive capacities, also had that hurricanes could be seen as 'tri- to contend with the more dramatic and gger mechanisms' for settlement pat- disturbing repercussions of cyclonic terns, subsistence patterns, migrations impact — fire, flood and fierce winds. and demographic stability warfare, and trade (Konrad, 1985). These ele- ETHnOECOLOGICAL ments arise frequently in discussions IMPLICATIOnS of the rise and fall of classic Maya AnD PRE-HISPAnIC civilizations. Although I do not rule SuBSISTEnCE STRATEGIES out factors mentions in the list above, Despite the great advances made in I am chiefly concerned with Maya stra- recent research concerning the pre- tegies of coping with environmental Hispanic Maya occupation of the restraints and opportunities. Yucatan peninsula, there seems to be Since Maya civilization developed an overriding concern with a limited and flourished in essentially inland set of environmental restraints and centers, the southern lowlands repre- opportunities. The current debates senting perhaps the most important about carrying capacities, agricul- nucleus, understanding their depen- tural systems, population densities, dence on tropical forests becomes external and internal trading patterns, paramount. The tropical forest is disease, class factionalism, and exter- highly complex in its multi-layered- nal conquests do not sufficiently take layered structure, succession cycles, into account the nature of tropical and energy recycling processes. It forests. The physical evidence of past harbors an extremely diverse range of Maya civilizations is still, in large flora and fauna. Tropical storms not part, circumscribed by the tropical only alter the complexity or diversity forests. How the Maya handled, or of habitat, they also alter (many times mishandled, this natural garden of accelerating) the timing and rhythm

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of existing life cycles and succession strategies, however, would represent a patterns among both flora and fauna. good choice with a higher probability The Maya choice of the tropical for long-term subsistence. Thus the forest, represented by the ceiba, as picture of broad-based agricultural their paradigm of the center of the strategies emerges: swidden agricul- world and the source of sustenance a ture, terraces, raised fields, hydraulic logical understanding of succession systems, intensive agriculture similar dynamics. Experts have accepted for to chinampas, and homegarden plots some time that swidden systems in (Gómez Pompa, 1985, 5-6). Although many ways mimic natural succession not employed at the same time or cycles of tropical forest processes. place, these techniques would have What may well is the fact that slash- allowed the Maya to minimize dama- and-bum agriculture replicates, in a ge to, yet utilize the benefits from the very direct manner, the impact that tropical forest. tropical storms have on peninsular A broad strategy would also in- tropical forests, that is, the felling of clude a wide range of silviculture the forest, forest fires, and succession. techniques. This is where the research Human intervention comes into play and insights of Arturo Gómez Pompa in of ground or tree crops useful to hu- (1971, 1985) and others working with mans. The hurricane presented indu- silviculture aspects take on special ced succession cycles on a far greater significance (Alcorn, 1984; Barrera scale than possible with slash-and- Marín et. Al.,1976, and 1977; Gómez burn methods. And an already fragile Pompa et al., 1972, 1982, 1984, 1987; tropical forest ecosystem subject to Flores, 1983). Gómez Pompa identifies unpredictable, periodic interventions a wide range of silviculture techni- from natural causes would have neces- ques practiced by the Maya, past and sitated a delicate balance of use versus present (1985,6). His view, that Maya preservation. silviculture consisted of a series of Reliance on narroe strategies like activities of protection, cultivation, swidden agriculture, tree or root crops selection, and introduction of trees would have been a poor choice for in their milpas, fallows, plantations, the pre-Hispanic Maya. These could natural forests, houses, living fen- not sustain high population levels ces, cenotes, and urban centers" (7) over extended periods, nor provide provides additional detail about the a necessary surplus buffer against diversity of subsistence techniques. uncontrollable natural events such as Recent studies based on contemporary drought, cyclones, or flora diseases. indigenous knowledge of ethnobo- Reliance on the broadest possible tany clearly point to retention and

122 • Revista de la Universidad aUtónoma de YUcatán Ecological Implications for Pre-Hispanic and Contemporary Maya Subsistence on the Yucatan PeninsulaU maintenance of a most comprehensive massive stone and masonry temple tropical forest nomenclature (Alcorn, and elite-sector resident buildings 1984; Barrera Marín, Barrera Vasquez found in all major sites reflect not and Lopez Franco, 1976). More impor- only societal stratification but also tantly, the Maya utilized the majority buildings capable of withstanding of identified species. The ancient Maya wind pressures of Category 5 storms. understood both the complexity and Low stone fences around residences diversity of tropical forest habitats, or fields, however, would be virtually and their societal successes and failu- useless as windbreaks against hurrica- res should not be divorced from this ne force storms. understanding. Cyclonic stress on habitat, besides Although tropical storms could shaping fundamental subsistence be realistically anticipated, the time, strategies, undoubtedly had implica- location and impact of any specific tions for social, political and economic storm could not be predicted by the affairs. The absence of sustained, Maya. If knowledge of cyclonic inter- centralized, peninsula-dominating ventions influenced location of major political and economic systems, in settlements, then settlement patterns contrast to highland developments, would be related to the impact zones may well reflect the need for mobility identified in Map no. 2. Studying this and flexibility within a larger habitat Map, we find that the greater con- subject to high degrees of ecological centration of classic period sites are stress. Shifts in loci of regional centers located in areas least affected by major of influence, and the rise and fall of tropical storms. Avoiding coastlines, specific dynasties, may well have been particularly along the Caribbean side influenced by the successes of the 'evil of the peninsula, would have been an chacs'. Flexibility and mobility of flora ecologically sound strategy (Anthony and fauna were also factors to be taken Andrews, personal communication). into consideration in Maya adaptive Tulum, the obvious exception, is at an processes. elevation above storm surge levels. The objective of this paper has been Measures taken to minimize adver- to introduce rather than resolve ques- se effects must have become an inte- tions about cyclonic habitat interven- gral part of basic ecological strategies. tions, ecological stress, and Maya sub- In zones I-Ill the prominence of houses sistence strategies. If our knowledge of with rounded walls and roofs would the contemporary Yucatan peninsula's be a positive adaptation as these struc- tropical forest habitat is still rather tures resist high winds better than do limited, it is more limited still about those with square walls or roofs. The the pre-Hispanic period. Information

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from contemporary times can provide BIBLIOGRAPHY Adams, Richard E. W. (comp.) 1977. The Origins definitive answers for contemporary of Maya Civilization, Albuquerque, n. M., questions; for the more distant past it university of new Mexico Press. Alcorn, Janis B. 1981. "Haustec noncrop resour- merely helps to frame questions useful ce management implications for prehistoric for further investigation. rainforest management", Human Ecology, 9,4,395-417. 1984. Haustec Maya Ethnobotany, Austin, uni- versity of Press. Andrews, E. Wyllys and Jeremy A. Sabloff ACKnOWLEDGEMEnTS (eds.) 1986. Late Lowland Maya Civilization: Funding for the research on which this article Classic to Post-Classic, Albuquerque, uni- is based was provided by the Social Sciences versity of new Mexico Press. and Humanities Research Council of Canada Arzapalo-Marin, Ramon 1987. El ritual de los (SSHRCC). Dr. Anthony Andrews, Dr. Mario Bacabes, Mexico, unAM. Aliphat, Dr. Denise Brown, Dr. William Folan, Ashmore, Wendy A. (ed.) 1981. Lowland Maya Dr. Arturo Gomez Pompa, Dr. Andrew Gra- Settlement Patterns, Albuquerque, universi- ham, Dr. Elizabeth Graham and Candelaria ty of new Mexico Press. Arceo have provided data, insights and assis- Balee, William 1991. "Indigenous history and tance in carrying out the research. Amazonian biodiversity" paper presented at the Conference on Forest and Environ- mental History of Latin America, 18-22 ARCHIVAL SOuRCES February, San Jose, Costa Rica. AGn Archivo General de la nacion, Barrera-Marin, Alfredo, A. Barrera-Vasquez and R. Lopez-Franco 1976. Nomenclatura AGnF Fomento etnobotanica maya: una interpretacion taxo- AGnG Gobernacion nomica, Mexico, InAH-SEP. AGnP Presidentes Barrera-Marin, Alfredo et. al. AEC Archivo del Estado de Campeche, 1977. "El manejo de las selvas por los mayas: Campeche sus implicaciones silvicolas y agricolas", AEY Archivo del Estado de Yucatan, Biotica, 2, 2, 47-61. Merida 1980. Diccionario Maya Cordemex, Merida, Edi- CIWY Carnegie Institution of Washington, ciones Cordemex. Yearbooks Caufield, Catherine 1985. In the Rainforest, new InIBT Instituto nacional de Investigacio- York, Alfred A. Knopf. nes de Bosques Tropicales, Mexico Chase, Arlen and Prudence M. Rice (eds.) City 1985. The Lowland Maya Postclassic, Austin, nARA national Archives and Records university of Texas Press. Administration, Washington, D. C. Culbert, Patrick (comp.) 1973. The Classic Maya PRO Public Records Office, Kew Gar- Collapse, Albuquerque, university of new dens, u. K. Mexico Press. S R E Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores, Dahlin, Bruce 1983. "Climate and prehis- Mexico City toryon the Yucatan peninsula", Climatic SREAH Archivo Historico Change, 5, 3, 245-263. WnRC Washington national Records Cen- De Landa, fray Diego 1986. Relacion de las cosas ter, Suitland, Maryland de Yucatan, Mexico, Pornia (editor's trans- DdY Diario de Yucatan, Merida lation of quoted passage). ndY Novedades de Yucatan, Merida De Montmollin, Oliver 1985. Classic Maya sett- RM Revista de Merida, Merida lement and politics in the Rosario Valley, RP Razon del Pueblo, Merida Chiapas, Mexico. Doctoral dissertation, nOAA u.S. national Oceanic and Atmosphere university of . Administration Diaz del Castillo, Bernal 1956. The Discovery nHC national Hurricane Center, Coral and Conquest of Mexico, 1517-1521. (A. P. Gables Maudslay, trans.), new York, nHRL national Hurricane Research Labo- Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Farriss, nancy ratory, Coral Gables 1984. Maya Society Under Colonial Rule, the Collective Enterprise of Survival, Princeton,

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