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Revista 224.Indd U CARIBBEAn TROPICAL STORMS Ecological Implications for Pre-Hispanic and Contemporary Maya Subsistence on the Yucatan Peninsula Herman W. Konrad ABSTRACT The ecological stress factor of hurricanes is examined as a dimension of pre-Hispanic Maya adaptation to a tropical forest habitat in the Yucatan peninsula. Pre-Hispanic, colonial and contemporary texts as well as climatic data from the Caribbean region support the thesis that the hurricane was an integral feature of the pre-Hispanic Maya cosmology and ecological paradigm. The author argues that destruction of forests by tropical storms and subsequent succession cycles mimic not only swidden —"slash- and-burn"— agriculture, but also slower, natural succession cycles. With varying degrees of success, flora and fauna adapt to periodic, radical ecosystem disruption in the most frequently hard-hit areas. While not ignoring more widely-discussed issues surrounding the longevity and decline of pre-Hispanic Maya civilization, such as political development, settlement patterns, migration, demographic stability, warfare and trade, the author suggests that effective adaptation to the ecological effects of tropical storms helped determine the success of pre-Hispanic Herman W. Konrad. university Maya subsistence strategies. of Calgary. Email: [email protected] gary.ca NÚMERO 224 • PRIMER TRIMESTRE DE 2003 • 99 Herman W. Konrad RESuMEn Los efectos ecológicos causados por los huracanes se analizan en el contexto de la adaptación de los mayas prehispánicos a la selva de la península de Yucatán. Textos prehispánicos, coloniales y contemporáneos, así como información climática sobre el Caribe en general, apoyan la hipótesis de que el huracán era un elemento central en la cosmovisión y el paradigma ecológico prehispánico. El autor argumenta que la destrucción de la selva causada por tormentas tropicales, y los ciclos de sucesión que siguen, se asemejan no sólo a la agricultura de roza, o de tumba-roza-quema, sino también a los ciclos de sucesión naturales, que son más lentos y predecibles. Con distintos niveles de fortuna, la flora y fauna de la región se adaptan a los efectos radicales ecosistémicos en las partes más frecuentemente afectadas. Mientras que las más discutidas causas del declive de la civilización maya prehispánica se refieren a factores políticos, patrones demográficos, guerra y comercio, este autor sugiere que la adaptación efectiva a los efectos ecológicos de las tormentas tropicales repercutió en el éxito o fracaso de las estrategias de subsistencia en esta región. Santa Clara. 100 • REVISTA DE LA UNIVERSIDAD AUTÓNOMA DE YUCATÁN Ecological Implications for Pre-Hispanic and Contemporary Maya Subsistence on the Yucatan PeninsulaU InTRODuCTIOn which might several Maya means of The mystery of how pre-Hispanic subsistence. This paper sets aside, for Maya constructed and maintained mo- the moment, the question of archaeo- numental architecture, great cities, and logical remains to examine tropical a sophisticated civilization in a tropical storms as one factor of ecological stress forest habitat has puzzled scholars sin- on the tropical forest habitat. using ce Bernal Diaz and the Spaniards' first contemporary and historiographic descriptions of Maya cities in the early data from both the Yucatan peninsula 16th century. Whereas Spanish clerics, and the Caribbean area as a whole, it such as Bishop Landa, were inclined to suggests an additional dimension to see in Maya civilization a divine plan reconstructions of pre-Hispanic Maya somehow corrupted by evil forces, subsistence strategies. My objective is modem researchers have made great not to provide definitive answers, but strides in probing Maya science, social rather to begin framing an important organization, and economic activity question which has received inade- But as new discoveries help to answer quate consideration. old questions, they raise new ones, as Despite a great deal of attention to well. Recent research about Southern subsistence strategies, the question Lowland Maya cities such as Calak- of ecological paradigms employed mul, nakbé and El Mirador, for exam- by the Maya has been for the most ple, suggests that current chronologies part bypassed by recent publications identifying Formative, Classic and (Adams, 1977; Andrews and Sabloff, Postclassic periodization may no lon- 1986; Ashmore, 1981; Chase and Rice, ger be accurate (Folan, 1990; Hansen, 1985; Culbert, 1973; De Montmollin, 1991). The discovery of monumental 1985; Flannery; 1982; Friedel and architecture and associated large-scale Sabloff, 1984; Hammond, 1977; Ham- populations suggests that tropical fo- mond and Willey, 1979; Harrison and rest adaptation by the Maya was more Turner, 1978; Turner, 1983; Turner and successful, and extended over longer Harrison, 1983; Willey and Mathews, time periods, than previously thought 1985). The earlier work sponsored by (Hansen, 1991). Such archaeological the Carnegie Institution of Washing- evidence, however, is insufficient for ton (CIW) and headed by Sylvanus a reconstruction of past conditions, Morley focused primarily on maize for the natural habitat has undergone agriculture. It has been greatly ex- many transformations and the remai- panded by current research showing ning physical evidence is largely mine- that a variety of strategies were invol- ral —stone and ceramic— rather than ved, including raised field intensive the vegetable and animal materials agriculture, homegarden plots, root NÚMERO 224 • PRIMER TRIMESTRE DE 2003 • 101 Herman W. Konrad and/or tree farming, aquaculture, rainfall, and after the following dry silviculture (harvesting of forest pro- season, extensive forest fires. As re- ducts), and swidden, or slash-and-bum cently demonstrated by Hurricane agriculture. Modem scholars, however, Gilbert (September 1988) and the 1995 have failed to come to any consensus hurricanes, these accom-panying phe- regarding actual productivity, habitat nomena have a significant, destructive carrying capacity, or demography. Re- impact on habitat. This is what I refer search spearheaded by Arturo Gómez to as the ecological stress factor. Pompa emphasizing silviculture options Formal classification of tropical provides key insights. In contrast to ar- storms is based on wind speed. A tropi- chaeological evidence based largely on cal depression (a system with winds of mineral remains, Pompa's work focuses less than 62.9 kilometers per hour) may on the flora of the regional tropical forest escalate into a tropical storm (speeds habitat which either directly or indirectly between 62.9 and 118.5 kilometers per became the basis for Maya subsistence. hour), or reach hurricane force (greater His summary of silviculture techniques than 118.5 kilometers per hour). Hurri- provides a useful basis for identifying canes are now further classified in terms the basic ecological paradigm employed of a five-scale system, referring to wind by pre-Hispanic Maya (1987,6). The con- intensity and destructive potential. Hu- clusion of this paper will refer to these rricane Gilbert was a Category 5 storm. silviculture techniques, among others, as Both tropical storms and hurricanes can elements that helped to alleviate the eco- have significant ecological impact. In logical stress caused by tropical storms. this paper, I will not always distinguish Climatologists refer to tropical between them for the period prior to storms as "seasonal tropical disturban- 1899, however, as insufficient data on ces", weather patterns which normally particular storms and standardization of originate over the Atlantic Ocean and classification systems had not yet been frequently affect the Yucatan peninsu- established H (neumann et al., 1985,5). la. The maximum expression of such The impact of recent tropical storms storms is the hurricane, an intense can be quite accurately measured. A system with counter-clockwise winds disproportionate amount of this work of at least 118.5 kilometres per hour. has been done in areas where the u.S. Winds may reach up to 300 kilome- national Oceanic and Atmosphere Ad- ters per hour, and speeds of 150-240 ministration (nOAA) has major repor- kilometers per hour are common for ting responsibility. Therefore, while a hurricanes striking coastlines. Hu- great deal of information is available rricanes also bring high water levels on tropical storms that have affected (storm surges), exceptionally heavy the mainland or offshore u.S.A., there 102 • REVISTA DE LA UNIVERSIDAD AUTÓNOMA DE YUCATÁN Ecological Implications for Pre-Hispanic and Contemporary Maya Subsistence on the Yucatan PeninsulaU is much less data about storms affec- to climatic cycles in these sources as ting Mexico. Since the Caribbean coasts convincing evidence that the Maya of Mexico have until only recently had not only recorded tropical storms, but major populations reporting on such had also devised a method of predic- phenomena, information here is even ting future storms. In view of what is more scattered. Because these storms presently known about the frequency also affect the Caribbean Islands, one of hurricanes, the Lacombe hypothe- must take this area as a whole in order sis lacks credibility; although it does to get a more comprehensive picture reinforce the more tenable position of frequencies and impact in the post that the ancient Maya were seriously conquest period. affected by hurricanes and attempted to record them. THE HISTORICAL RECORD Both conquest-period European Pre-Hispanic records left by the Maya and post-conquest Maya writings
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