Media Equation in TV Shows

“How television shows portray human-media interaction.”

for Dr. Cindy Peterson

in partial fulfillment of requirements for Comm 4901: Communication Research: Thesis

April 4, 2014 MidAmerica Nazarene University

ABSTRACT

This paper examined Media Equation theory, which states, “media equal real life” (Reeves &

Nass, 1996, p.5). People often become attached to their media and treat it as they would a real human being. This study attempted to discover if characters in recent television support this theory. The study looked at four television shows that have aired in the last ten years: The Big

Bang Theory, Numb3rs, Scrubs and Phineas and Ferb. Each show was analyzed for media interaction. Results show that characters in television illustrate Media Equation when interacting with media in a personal interaction, but do not support the theory in a professional interaction.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thank you to Dr. Mark Hamilton for his advising throughout my undergraduate career;

Dr. Cindy Peterson for her assistance with this paper and all of its components; Dr. Mark Hayse for his guidance on how to conduct research; and Sarah Schmalzried for encouraging me as I worked on this study and for editing out my errors.

i TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ...... i CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION ...... 1 Background of the Theory ...... 1 Research Question ...... 2 Experimental Hypothesis ...... 2 Justification ...... 2 Terms ...... 3

CHAPTER II – REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ...... 4 Background of the Theory ...... 4

CHAPTER III - METHODOLOGY ...... 12 Experimental Setting & Description ...... 12 Subjects ...... 12 Characteristics of Subjects ...... 13 Experimental Variables ...... 14 Timing ...... 14 Procedures ...... 14 Limitations ...... 15

CHAPTER IV - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ...... 16 Results (Hypothesis and Data Tables) ...... 16 Contaminants ...... 18 Conclusions ...... 18 Recommendations for Future Studies ...... 19

APPENDIX A ...... 22 APPENDIX B ...... 32 REFERENCES ...... 35

ii CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION

Background of the Theory

Everyday, people interact with some form of electronic media: computer, phone, television, radio, GPS or any other electronic device. As more devices are released, the prevalence of the digital or electronic media increases. As time has gone by, patterns of how people interact with their electronic media have emerged.

Byron Reeves and Clifford Nass introduced a Theory of Media Equation that posits,

“media equal real life” (1996, p. 5). Their research showed that many people communicate with electronic media as if it were a real human being. Through a series of experiments, they found that people assign a gender to media, find attraction to and from media, act polite toward media, and follow many other social rules when dealing with their media.

The assignment of gender often comes from the voices that the media use to communicate with users. Car manufacturers in Germany learned that giving a GPS a female voice gave users the belief that the GPS was a female. When German users believed that they were receiving directions from a woman, they were not happy and quickly began complaining that they would not take directions from a woman (Flatow, n.d.). Even though the GPS would give the same directions whether it was in a female voice or a male voice, the users believed that it was a female and that made the directions less credible to them. Apple has learned a similar lesson with iPhone’s Siri. When originally released, Siri had a female voice allowing users to ask any question they wanted. Siri would then search the Internet and find the answer within seconds. With the release of iOS 7, Apple introduced a male voice of Siri, saying that it would increase credibility for some users to hear the answers from a male (International Business,

2013).

1 Reeves and Nass (1996) prove many that more social principles, such as interpersonal distance, arousal, image size and flattery, are true with the Media Equation, thus showing that

“media equal real life” (p. 5). The theory only becomes more and more prevalent as the amount of media in the world increases. Media equation is something that can be seen everywhere. It takes the form of very subtle ideas users have about their media, even if they do not realize it, and it spans all the way to much more noticeable expressions towards media. A blatant example is the recent movie Her; the premise of the movie is that the main character, a human, begins to fall in love with his computer (Annapurna Pictures, 2014).

Many questions arise with the ever-growing evidence of the Media Equation in the world.

Although research in this area continues, there is little about the presence of the Media Equation in television series.

Research Question

This paper will seek to answer the following question:

RQ: In relation to The Media Equation, do fictional characters in present-day television shows treat electronic media as if it were a human being?

Experimental Hypothesis

This research hypothesis is proposed in response to the question:

H: Characters in television shows aired in the past 10 years will treat electronic devices as if they are human.

Justification

This experiment is important because it will show whether Media Equation is significant enough in real life that a writer will put it into a television show. If a writer puts Media Equation into scripts for television shows, this means it is likely that he or she has seen Media Equation in everyday life and wants to portray it in their shows. This can also have an effect on audience

2 members. Television viewers may see the characters treating media in ways that are true to the

Media Equation and either begin treating media the same way in their own lives or they may see it as absurd and intentionally not treat media in accordance with the Media Equation.

Terms

The following terms will be used throughout this study as a guide for research:

1. Electronic media – Any electronic device that allows users to gain information through the use of a screen. Examples include TV’s, computers, cellphones, watches, etc.

2. Human-media interaction – Any use of electronic media for any reason. Simply picking up a cell-phone or typing on a computer will count for this experiment.

3. Media equation interaction – The interaction of media that is in accordance with the Media

Equation; times when people interact with media as if it is a real person.

4. Anthropomorphism – “The assignment of human traits and characteristics to computers”

(Nass & Moon, 2000, p. 82).

3 CHAPTER II – REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Background of the Theory

People consistently use electronic media in their everyday life. This ranges from television to computers, to cellphones and tablets, and much more. As media becomes more abundant in the world, so does human interaction with media. Media studies have been performed for many years to show how humans interact with their electronic devices.

According to Reeves & Nass (1996), “media equal real life” (p. 5). By this, they mean that people treat media as if it were a real person. These researchers prove this by taking social science findings and looking at the summary of the finding. They then substitute the concept of media for the concept of people and see if the finding remains true. When tested, Reeves and

Nass found that these social findings were true when changed to fit with media. The example they cite is, “People like to be praised by other people, even if the praise is underserved” (p. 14).

In this case, people like to be praised by media, even if the praise is undeserved.

Relationships with media are also formed. In an interview with Ira Flatow (n.d.), host of

Science Today on NPR, Nass explains to Flatow that he believes that people “tend to establish really rich and long-lasting and complex relationships with our computers and any technology that talks or seems to even hint at the slightest bit of intelligence.” Nass speaks of German car companies, pointing out that the companies would not put a female voice on their cars’ GPS.

When manufacturer BMW did this, they were forced to issue a recall because German drivers refused to receive directions from a woman (Flatow, n.d.). The German drivers were falling into the Media Equation. They believed that this was a real woman giving directions and in their minds, believed that a woman should not be giving them directions.

4 Nass studied how different voices on a GPS affect a driver. He pointed out that when comparing two different voices, one that is happy and one that is depressed, drivers who were happy preferred the first voice while depressed drivers preferred the latter. When told by the GPS to calm down, angry drivers tended to get much more angry (Flatow, n.d.). However, when met by a soothing voice, these angry drivers were found to get into fewer accidents in driving simulations (Daviss, 2005).

These drivers are reacting to the media as if they are actual people. They get angry at a device, even though they know it is not alive. “It's a violation, not of a technology rule, but of a social rule…” (Flatow, n.d.), said Nass in regards to the reactions drivers gave to their GPS.

These devices are breaking a rule that is set out for humans to follow. The GPS is considered impolite because it is telling the person to calm down, when a person would expect it to remain silent. There is no rule about technology saying that it cannot tell someone to calm down; the rule comes from social norms.

Nass argues that people can easily forget they are actually working with a computer and lose sight of the differences between humans and computers. “Almost immediately when someone works with the computer or other technology, they immediately start treating it with a whole rang of social rules and expectations…” (Flatow, n.d.).

“To human minds, anything that seems to be real is real and any object that seems to possess human characteristics such as language is a real human” (Lee & Jung, 2005, p. 5).

Studies have shown that “time-old domain specific mind modules, which govern natural human responses to actual objects, influence our responses to physical and social features of virtual objects” (Lee & Jung, 2005, p. 6). These responses can be seen when looking at the size of objects. Many studies have shown that people like larger objects. Even infants gravitate toward

5 larger objects when offered a large one and a small one (Lee & Jung, 2005). Reeves and Nass

(1996) have shown that when larger virtual objects illicit better responses out of people, they have higher states of arousal, more memory and more positive social responses (Lee & Jung,

2005).

Reeves and Nass (1996) measured attention to a television commercial and how the attention changed as movement was introduced or taken away. The EEG showed that when there was motion in the frame, viewer’s attention level increased and when the motion stopped, the attention decreased. This shows that brains do respond to media in the same way they would to what is real.

When something in a picture moves toward us, we do duck, at least mentally. Human responses to movement, ingrained into every old brain, are working to protect us from harm, even though, through a miracle of the twentieth century, we are merely watching television. (p. 223)

Motion must be used properly in media to draw attention. While it is true that movement draws in the attention of the viewer, if there is too much demand for attention and no time to rest, there will be a negative effect. Reeves and Nass (1996) say that there must be a proper balance found in order to properly achieve this goal.

An area where Media Equation is significantly relevant is the area of computer speech.

Allowing computers to convert text into speech, makes information on the internet much more readily available to users who may be visually impaired or engaged in “’eye-occupied’ situations, such as driving a car” (Nass & Lee, 2001, p. 171). Giving a computer the ability to speak gives it a unique personality. “Speaking is profoundly human: More of the human brain is devoted to speech than any other activity” (Nass, 2013, p. 1). Lee, Jung and Nass (2011) state that users can identify a personality in their computer, just by hearing its voice. “They reported

6 very clear evidence that people do recognize personalities in computer voices” (Lee, Jung &

Nass, 2011, p. 309). This can be simply determining the age and gender of a computer. While computers do have an age, they do not have a gender. Giving a voice to a computer will allow the users to attribute a male or female gender to the computer (Lee et al., 2011).

The researchers also discuss users attributing “the personality of a remote source (e.g., the reviewer of a text) to the personality of a proximate source (e.g., the computer voice that narrated the text)” (Lee et al., 2011, p. 309). This means that if the computer is reading a document very dramatically, the user will associate this over dramatic personality to the creator of the document, even though there is not any actual proof that the creator was dramatic (Lee et al., 2011).

Lastly, the three researchers found that users were found to appreciate their computers more if they felt that they were similar to themselves. This appreciation can then be transferred to trust of the content that a computer is narrating. They found that when read by a computer that shared similarities with the user, a document was thought to be much more accurate by the user

(Lee et al., 2011).

Apple’s release of Siri in their iOS changed the way people use technology and shows the

Media Equation even more prevalent than before. In 2013, Apple announced that they would be adding a male voice to Siri with iOS 7. Nass responds saying, “female voices are seen, on average, as less intelligent than male voices" (International Business, 2013, p. 1). Then change, however, cannot simply be swapping out a male voice for a female voice. The interface must include “masculine phrases” according to Nass (International Business, 2013, p. 1). Even though the information being given is completely the same, people are reinforcing Media Equation by finding the male voice more trustworthy than a female voice. A computer has no gender, but

7 when the voice is given the sound of a gender, users react to it differently.

Bennett Daviss speaks of a computer software character named ‘Laura’. He says that as he carries on a conversation with her, he finds that she is appealing to his emotions and he feels a connection with her. He states that Rossalind Picard, one of the developers of ‘Laura’ said that one user had announced, “they felt Laura liked them” (Daviss, 2005, p. 1). Daviss explains:

This slightly embarrassing sensation is possible because emotion is more fundamental to us than rational thought. Emotions are buried deep in the paleopallium, the ‘old mammalian’ part of the brain that pre-dates and physically underlies the neocortex, which is where the powers of rational thought reside. From their ancient location, emotions pervade our thinking and permeate many, even most, of the decisions and perceptions we like to think of as rational. (Daviss, 2005, p. 1)

Nass’s research has shown that the adults learning English as a second language tended to perform better on exams when they received a congratulatory message from a digital companion when they were correct and an apologetic response when they were incorrect (as cited by Daviss,

2005).

Daviss speaks of Microsoft’s “office assistant” Clippy the paper clip; this character is highly disliked by many people because it pops up when users are trying to concentrate. “For millions of Microsoft users, ‘Clippy’, the on-screen help icon came to symbolise automated irritation” (2005, p.4). When it was originally created, Clippy would pop up when the computer noticed that a user needed help. The reason this was bad was that users were often in a bad mood and the paper clip was in a good mood. The moods of the user and the paper clip do not line up, thus causing the users to get much more angry and hinder productivity. Picard and Nass (as described by Davis, 2005) have worked to solve this problem. They have worked create a computer that can detect emotions of the user. This will allow for the computer to bring in an assistant only at the proper moment. The goal then is to have an assistant

8

that will help to improve productivity by offering help only when necessary and with the correct mood.

This technology can help in another way:

In addition to helping students persevere to the end of their mathematics homework, Picard is working on a modified version for UK call centres. Emotionally aware voice- recognition systems could warn phone operators when a particularly irate caller is coming on the line…. After an operator handles such a call, a digital buddy can help by agreeing that it's really upsetting to have to deal with angry people, that they did their best…. (Daviss, 2005, p. 3)

Gong and Nass (2007) define a humanoid as “the state of being humanlike but bearing the clear artificiality of computer synthesis” (p. 164) when speaking of computer generated characters that resemble humans. Two of the most important elements in defining humans are human faces and voices. Although these characters look like humans, users can easily identify them as computer generated. They discuss findings that show that humans associate faces and voices together. When these animated characters are created, their voices and faces are capable of being changed independently. This has the ability to create inconsistencies in human minds due to their associating human ideals to media.

Nass and Moon (2000) define anthropomorphism as “the assignment of human traits and characteristics to computers” (p. 82). In their extensive studies, they say that of thousands of adults surveyed, none have ever stated that they believed that human traits should be shown to computers, but their behavior speaks differently. “Individuals mindlessly apply social rules and expectations to computers” (p. 82).

These social interactions do not have to be obvious. Everyday, people interact with computers in ways that are subtly formed by social rules and expectations.

9 The relationship is profoundly social. The human brain is built, when given the slightest hint that something is even vaguely social, or vaguely human - in this case, it was just answering questions. Didn't have a face on the screen; it didn't have a voice. But given the slightest hint of humanness, people will respond with an enormous array of social responses including, in this case, reciprocating and retaliating. (Spiegel, 2013, p. 1)

Nass describes an experiment where computer users were helped by a computer. The computer answered any question they may have had and then at the end the computer asked for the user’s help. The computer was very helpful for half of the users and very unhelpful for the other half. When asked for help on a boring task, users were much more willing to help a computer that had been helpful to them, than they were to help an unhelpful computer. The users were reciprocating with the computer. Nass, in an interview, says that all cultures have some form of reciprocity in their social norms (Spiegel, 2013). The users were simply following social protocol with the computers.

Due to the prevalence of this theory in everyday life, it could be assumed that popular television shows would include depictions of Media Equation in their characters. If this is true, characters will treat their electronic media as if it were real human beings. As television cannot portray what is going on in the mind very well, the characters will likely vocally express their feelings to the media. This could be through them saying something directly to an electronic device that they would say to a human or they could say something to a friend about the device.

This could also include overt expressions of affection through non-verbal signals. A simple smile at a computer or telephone could be Media Equation interaction. As explicit expressions of affection for media is a break from the norm, this can be humorous and writers will likely include Media Equation to provide humor.

This experiment will attempt to answer the question about characters in modern television shows interacting with media in a way that treats them as if they are human. As the

10 research has shown, this is a theory that is evident everyday, especially now that media and technology are so prevalent in life. This experiment will take the research and see if pop culture has begun to embrace the Media Equation and portray it in television shows.

11 CHAPTER III - METHODOLOGY

Experimental Setting & Description

For this experiment, a computer will be used to access Netflix or other streaming website where selected television shows will be viewed. This will allow for rewinding and re-watching shows as necessary in case a particular element is missed. The experiment will be conducted in a quiet room where it will be possible to focus on the show without any distractions. Notes will be taken in a notebook and transferred to an Excel spreadsheet (See Appendix A), which includes columns for which character interacted with media, a description of the interaction, tally marks for whether the interaction counted as Media Equation or not, after viewing an episode. These notes will include a brief description of the interaction so that it can be determined after watching whether it is Media Equation or not. Interactions will be determined as Media Equation if the character follows social norms with the media.

Anytime a character speaks to a device it will be considered Media Equation, except when they are searching for actual information, such as when asking Siri to look something up on the Internet. If characters engage in small talk or say “please” and “thank you” to the device, it will be considered Media Equation. Speaking of media as if it were human will also be counted as Media Equation interactions (i.e. the use of personal pronouns, etc.). If a character mentions something about their computer (i.e. mentioning they purchased a new computer, etc.), it will not be media interaction, but expressing appreciation for a computer or hatred or other emotions towards a computer will be considered Media Equation interaction.

Subjects

Characters on The Big Bang Theory, Numb3rs, Scrubs, and Phineas and Ferb will be the subjects of this experiment. They will be considered regardless of gender or age.

12 Characteristics of Subjects

Fictional characters in television shows from the past 10 years are the subjects of this study. These characters vary in age, gender, profession and more. There is no specific range to limit the subjects. All characters viewed in a program are considered equally; regardless of if they are main characters or an unnamed person in the background.

The Big Bang Theory has seven main characters that are involved in most of the interactions. Sheldon, Leonard, Raj, Bernadette and Amy all have Ph.D.’s and work as researchers for universities or drug companies. Howard is an engineer who does research at a university, but does not have a Ph.D.; he has a master’s degree. Penny never graduated from college and works at the Cheesecake Factory and hopes to become an actress. These seven are all in their thirties.

Numb3rs includes eight main characters whom are often found interacting with media.

Don Eppes, David Sinclair, Colby Granger, and Nikki Betancourt are FBI agents. Charlie Eppes,

Amita Ramanujan, and Larry Fleinhardt are professors. Charlie is often asked to consult on FBI cases. Alan Eppes is the retired father of both Don and Charlie. Alan Eppes and Larry Fleinhardt are both older, in their 50’s and 60’s; the rest of the characters are 20’s and 30’s.

Scrubs is a show about a group of doctors at Sacred Heart hospital. Christopher Turk,

J.D. Dorian and Elliot Reid are all medical doctors in their 20’s or 30’s. Bob Kelso and Perry

Cox are older doctors who each serve as chief of medicine at some point in the series. There are also several nurses, students and janitors and other hospital staff shown in the show. The series has a wide range of ages: from medical students all the way up to retiring doctors.

Phineas and Ferb is a children’s cartoon about two brothers who are finding ways to spend their summer with their friends. Most of the main characters in the series are young

13 elementary students. Candace is the older sister of Phineas and Ferb and is in junior high school.

Their parents are the only other main characters and they are both working adults in their 30’s or

40’s. Perry is the boys’ pet platypus.

Experimental Variables

Experimental variables are choice of shows and genre from the past 10 years. All other elements of the experiment will be kept the same.

Timing

This experiment will be performed during the spring 2014 semester.

Procedures

The following procedures were followed in the collection of data for this experiment:

1. Fictional television shows from the last 10 years will be chosen from various genres.

These genres will include: a comedy (The Big Bang Theory), a medical show (Scrubs), a

police shown (Numb3rs), and children’s cartoon (Phineas and Ferb).

2. Five episodes from each show will be selected at random and analyzed for human-media

interaction. If an episode includes no human-media interaction, it will be thrown out and

another episode with human-media interaction will be watched.

3. Results for the number of times humans interact with electronic media will be tallied and

noted as to how the characters interacted with the media. (See Appendix A for tally

sheets). The number of times humans treat electronic media as if they had human

characteristics will also be tallied and noted how they treated the media and the context

around it. See explanation above for determining Media Equation interaction.

4. The number of human-media interaction and Media Equation interactions will be

14 |analyzed to determine the percentage of time that characters actually do treat their media

as humans.

5. The context around the interactions will be considered in order to determine if there is a

specific reason that the characters acted in accordance with or against the Media

Equation.

6. Results will be reported and displayed in a public poster session.

Limitations

This study will be limited to only a few episodes of each show. There is not enough time to analyze every single episode of a television show. It is also difficult to determine what a character is thinking. As a viewer, it can only be determined what a character is thinking if the character directly expresses it, either verbally or non-verbally. Characters will also be considered regardless of age or gender. This will partially answer the question of if Media Equation is evident in modern television shows, it will not give any answers about which people are found to be following Media Equation more in their interactions. In the modern world, there are countless shows to choose from, this experiment limits it to a very small number of those shows and in no way tries to analyze all of the modern television shows. A cartoon will be used in this experiment, while this may be argued to be a limitation due to the lack of real humans in the show, for this experiment, the cartoon will be treated the same as it is scripted the same as all other shows. The point of the experiment is to see if the Media Equation is evident in television, thus showing that writers put the equation into scripts.

15 CHAPTER IV - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Results (Hypothesis and Data Tables)

The original hypothesis was that characters in present-day television shows will treat electronic devices as if they are human in comedies for humor’s sake, but in shows where the characters are interacting with it professionally, they will not follow Media Equation. In order to make a character believable, the character must be relatable and act as a normal human, at least to some extent. Media Equation can be humorous when done correctly; placing this in a television show is an easy way to create a comedic interaction for viewers to laugh about.

After analyzing the four television shows listed above, the results showed that 22% of the time, individuals interacted with media in accordance with Media Equation (See Appendix B).

Of the times that Media Equation was followed, none were when the user was interacting with it for part of a job; it was always in a way that was for personal use, where professionalism is not necessarily expected. For example, the episode where the Media Equation was the most prevalent was an episode of The Big Bang Theory where Raj discovers Siri on his phone, He then falls in love with her and begins to speak to her as if she were a real human being. His interactions with Siri continue throughout the episode; all of these interactions where completely personal for Raj and were not part of his job.

Numb3rs only shows one instance of the Media Equation, this happens when Dr.

Fleinhardt is trying to set up his new cell phone and he gets angry because it does not work. The phone is not doing anything, Fleinhardt is simply not used to using technology and the phone not working as he thinks it should frustrates him and he gets upset with the phone. This interaction was part of Fleinhardt’s personal time and not as part of a job. There are many more media

16 interactions in the shows analyzed, but the interactions all stay away from the Media Equation by treating electronic media as electronic devices and not humans.

Scrubs has only two occurrences of the Media Equation; they are by the same person and in the same episode. The two instances happen when an intern, studying to become a doctor, says that he is mad at the internet and later ‘forgives’ the internet. Neither interaction takes place as part of the intern’s job. He was having personal problems with the internet and a video that was spreading across the internet that he did not want to spread.

Phineas and Ferb have a few more Media Equation interactions than the other shows.

Part of this is because, being kids, the main characters do not have jobs and thus do not have to maintain the professionalism of treating media as media and not people. The Media Equation interactions in Phineas and Ferb have a childish appearance to many of them, since the show was created for children, the writers likely put the interactions into the show in order to appear to children. Also, children will often believe a story easier than many adults; therefore, the characters do not need to be as convincing or realistic in order to be believed.

Below are the data tables from the experiment with the actual counts from each series:

Table 1

Media interaction in television series Television Show Media Equation Non-Media Media Interaction Percentage of Equation Media Equation The Big Bang 46 39 85 54% Theory Numb3rs 1 87 88 1% Scrubs 2 20 22 9% Phineas & Ferb 14 75 89 16% Total 63 221 284 22%

17 Contaminants

This experiment may have been contaminated by numerous distractions in the room.

There were often distractions since finding a completely silent room on a college campus alone can be difficult. Also, defining what constitutes a Media Equation interaction is sometimes hard to determine since a character’s motives for speaking or showing emotion can not be known.

There may have been some interactions that were not determined Media Equation by this experiment, but were intended as such by writers. There may have been other shows that were not selected whose Media Equation content were higher or lower, which would have affected the whole.

Conclusions

The hypothesis was partially supported as nearly 1 in 5 or exactly 22% of times characters interacted with media, they followed Media Equation. This number does not seem significant, but when considering the fact that a character simply looking at his or her watch was considered media interaction, one will realize that there is significant evidence of the Media

Equation found in this study.

However, in a professional situation, characters would not follow Media Equation, especially in the shows Numb3rs and Scrubs; both of these shows focus on characters in their professions. These shows had the fewest occurrences of Media Equation.

Any time a character, in any of the shows, interacted with media as part of their job, it was in a way that did not follow Media Equation. The characters saw the electronic device as a tool to help them accomplish a task and nothing more. FBI agents only used their electronic media to do their job, doctors only used the medical equipment to help serve patients and scientists only used the university’s computers to further their studies. While some of these

18 people did show Media Equation in their interactions, they never showed Media Equation when they were working on their jobs.

Media Equation proves to be evident in today’s television, thus suggesting that writers and producers likely see Media Equation in the world around them and incorporate it into the stories told on television. Writers want their characters to be believable, so they incorporate things that they believe that most people in the world today would see in their daily life. This study suggests that Media Equation is prevalent enough in everyday life that writers have found a need to include it in television shows. If writers did not find it in everyday life, they would not include this theory in their stories, as they would fear that it would make their characters less believable.

Writers also likely see that many of the Media Equation interactions take place outside of the workplace. They know that people tend to treat their electronic devices used for their jobs as tools in order to do their job; but outside of the job, many people are likely to follow the Media

Equation and treat their electronics as if they were living human beings.

From an audience point of view, this study shows that viewers do see Media Equation in the television shows that they watch. This means that in addition to being exposed to the Media

Equation in everyday life, people will also see Media Equation when they are viewing television in their leisure time, thus enforcing it more in their minds. This can encourage viewers more into following Media Equation or cause them to see it as absurd when people treat media as if it were a real person.

Recommendations for Future Studies

This study was investigating whether fictional characters in fictional television shows followed Media Equation. No attempt was made to study the demographics of characters that did

19 follow Media Equation. Future studies could include determining if one gender follows Media

Equation more often than the other; or if there is a specific age group or ethnicity that is portrayed as treating electronic media as if it were human more than another. Is there a reason that some groups are portrayed as following Media Equation more than others? Does treating electronic media as if it is human make the character seem less intelligent and thus this is used as a way of portraying that stereotype among fictional television characters?

Recently, a new movie, called Her, as mentioned previously, was released; the trailers for this movie show the main character falling in love and developing a relationship with an operating system (Annapurna Pictures, 2014). The trailer for the movie is filled with Media

Equation; the main character is showing love to an electronic device. And in-depth study of this film and interviews with Spike Jonze, the writer and director, could reveal reasons for creating such a movie. If Jonze felt that this was a story that could legitimately happen, he may have created the movie as a form of satire for the world today. A study like this could gather more proof for the existence of Media Equation in everyday life.

Gong and Nass suggest that humans associate faces and voices together and when a voice is able to change independently of the face, there are inconsistencies created in the human mind

(2007). Assuming that this finding is accurate, how do people react to animated movies when a well-known actor or actress provides the voice for an animated character that bears no resemblance to the actor or actress? Does this cause inconsistency in human minds? Do people react more positively to animated movies where the animated characters are made to look more like the person who voiced them?

As mentioned earlier, being exposed to Media Equation in television and seeing it from the outside perspective that television offers, people may be more inclined to follow Media

20 Equation or to reject it and treat their media as electronic media and nothing else. This could be studied to determine if people who are exposed to constant use of Media Equation on television tend to follow what characters on TV do or do humans draw away from Media Equation and attempt to treat their media as media and not human. Do people think that characters in television shows are being crazy by treating media as if it were real or do people tend to agree that this is how things actually happen in real life?

If humans begin viewing media as more humanlike, does that bring into question what it means to be human? What about robots who are basicaly talking and moving media? When is one determined human or not human if humans attribute human characteristics to media? What are the long term impications if the trend towards more electronic media only increases?

21 APPENDIX A

Big Bang Theory 5-14: The Beta Test Initiation Who Interaction Media Equation Non-Media Equation Leonard Checks watch for time 0 1 Sheldon Reads facts off laptop 0 1 Raj Talks to Siri 1 0 Raj Asks Siri her name 1 0 Raj Are you (Siri) single? 1 0 Raj Apologizes for intimate question 1 0 Raj Siri, you want to get coffee 1 0 Howard She's gonna break his heart 1 0 Group Watching TV 0 1 Raj How are you Siri? 1 0 Raj What're you (Siri) doing? 1 0 Raj You (Siri) have a nice voice 1 0 Understands why Siri likes to be Raj appreciated 1 0 Raj Why don't women like me? 0 1 Raj No need for web search 0 1 Raj What's your (Siri) last name? 1 0 Compares Siri to other women with 1 Raj name 1 0 Raj You can call me Raj 1 0 Raj I'd prefer you call me sexy 1 0 Raj Excited because Siri will call him sexy 1 0 Raj Typing on computer 0 1 Raj Ask Siri for gelato 0 1 Raj Thank you darling 1 0 Sheldon Shocked by Siri calling Raj sexy 1 0 Raj Siri, remind me 0 1 Kripke Recommend a restaurant 0 1 Kripke Mad at Siri for misunderstanding 1 0 Kripke You suck Siri 1 0 Raj Don't talk to her like that, she's a lady 1 0 Tells others about talking to Siri for Raj recipes 1 0 Raj Siri's spontaneity is contagious 1 0 Siri suggested; Raj disagreed but didn't Raj want to argue 1 0 Raj What should Siri wear for dinner? 1 0 Raj Siri, play some smooth jazz 1 0 This woman (Siri) can read me like a Raj book 1 0 Raj I can't believe I BOUGHT my soul-mate 1 0

22 Raj Dreams of Siri as a real person 1 0 Siri Works on hi-tech computer surface 0 1 Raj Can't speak to Siri as a real woman 1 0 29 10

Big Bang Theory 5-19: The Weekend Vortex Who Interaction Media Equation Non-Media Equation Leonard Working on computer 0 1 Howard Whip app 0 1 Amy Setup GPS 0 1 Sheldon Open computer in car 0 1 Sheldon Puts on headphones 0 1 Leonard Working on computer 0 1 Leonard & Sheldon Preparing to play online 0 1 Angry when informed that he has paid Sheldon in game prostitutes 1 0 Sheldon Whip app 0 1 Bernadette "Get that guy" 1 0 Bernadette Shooting at screen with finger 1 0 Group Playing on laptops 0 1 "Gandhi didn't know how much fun Raj killing was" 1 0 Changes in game close to match Howard Bernadette's 1 0 Sheldon Whip app 0 1 Only heals Howard because he has an Bernadette "owie" 1 0 "That is sweet" (Bernadette & Howard Sheldon matching in game) 1 0 Leonard Whip app 0 1 Sheldon Whip app 0 1

Big Bang Theory 7-4: The Raider's Minimalization Who Interaction Media Equation Non-Media Equation Sheldon & Amy Watching Raiders 0 1 Amy Ruins Raiders for Sheldon 1 0 Upset when Raiders is ruined, try to Guys disprove 1 0 Raj Takes pictures 0 1 Leonard Checks computer 0 1 Sheldon & Amy Video chatting 0 1 Raj & Post online dating profiles 0 1

23 Steward Raj & Steward Watch as people read profiles 0 1 Steward "Ladies are coming to us" 1 0 "Do you feel exposed when they read Raj your profile?" 1 0 Sheldon & Amy Watch Little House on the Prairie 0 1 Sheldon Points out errors in LHOTP 1 0 Leonard Video chat with mom 0 1 Raj & Steward Watching online dating profiles 0 1 Steward "I've never felt so rejected" 1 0 "If we're gonna get shot down, it'd be Raj better to do it in a bar" 1 0 Watches Raiders and is still upset about Guys errors 1 0 8 9

Big Bang Theory 6-7: The Habitation Configuration Who Interaction Media Equation Non-Media Equation Amy Running video camera 0 1 Leonard Using laptop 0 1 Sheldon Using laptop 0 1 Sheldon & Amy Video Chatting 0 1 Amy Running video camera 0 1 0 5

Big Bang Theory 7-13: The Occupation Recalibration Who Interaction Media Equation Non-Media Equation Leonard Calls Penny 0 1 Listens to relaxation directions on Sheldon phone 0 1 Sheldon Makes smart alek remark to phone 1 0 Sheldon "Two ins in a row?" (Sarcasm) 1 0 Amy Working on a laptop 0 1 2 3

Numb3rs 4-11: Breaking Point Who Interaction Media Equation Non-Media Equation Dad/Don/Charlie Watching news report 0 1 FBI Agents Watching old news reports 0 1 Charlie Using computer to calculate 0 1

24 numbers FBI Agent Watching security footage 0 1 FBI Agent Showing results on computer 0 1 Watches raw footage of FBI Agent newscasts 0 1 FBI Agents Viewing pics on a screen 0 1 Don Working on a computer 0 1 Professor Using computer to record data 0 1 Using computer and satellite FBI Agents imagery 0 1 0 10

Numb3rs 6-8: Ultimatum Who Interaction Media Equation Non-Media Equation Use projector screen while Don & Charlie teaching 0 1 Edgerton Uses phone to call cops 0 1 Prison guard Tries to use radio to call cops 0 1 FBI & US Marshalls Check security footage 0 1 Charlie Watches TV 0 1 Sinclair Uses radio 0 1 FBI Agent Watches security footage 0 1 FBI Agents Use telephone to call Edgerton 0 1 Charlie & Edgerton Video chat 0 1 Uses computer to review FBI Agent evidence 0 1 Don Uses computer 0 1 Don & Charlie Review security footage 0 1 Sinclair & Charlie Talk on cellphones 0 1 Sinclair & Edgerton Talk on telephone 0 1 Charlie & FBI Agents Watch footage on computer 0 1 Don Checks records on computer 0 1 Don & Sinclair Talk on cellphones 0 1 Sinclair Looks at records on computer 0 1 Sinclair & Charlie Talk on cellphones 0 1 Sinclair & Edgerton Talk on telephone 0 1 0 20

25 Numb3rs 5-10: Frienemies Who Interaction Media Equation Non-Media Equation Criminals Steal computers 0 1 Look at cellphone on computer Agents screen 0 1 Agents Watch interrogation on monitors 0 1 Checks memory card on Ramanujan computer 0 1 "Grandma's phone 'never leaves her sight, texting fees are so Dry cleaner high'" 0 1 Seeing person's records on Agents computer 0 1 Betacourt Shows Don info on computer 0 1 Fleinhardt Using cellphone 0 1 Checks computer code on her Ramanujan computer 0 1 Cracks computer code on Ramanujan computer 0 1 Ramanujan Calls on cellphone 0 1 Betancourt & Don Watch security footage 0 1 Agents Have radio conversation 0 1 Kids check website/receive Kid (Criminal) phone calls about where to rob 0 1 Charlie & Marshall Show results on computer screen 0 1 Fleinhardt & Ramanujan Working on computer 0 1 Sinclair Working on computer 0 1 Sinclair, Don & Granger Look at pictures on screen 0 1 Ramanujan Working on computer 0 1 Betancourt, Granger & Don Look at website 0 1 Uses computer to analyze Charlie robberies 0 1 Calls Charlie's cellphone, Don Charlie doesn't answer 0 1 Charlie Calls Don on cellphone 0 1 Don Radios for backup 0 1 Marshall, Charlie & Granger Look at computer 0 1 Turner Calls on cellphone 0 1 0 26

26

Numb3rs 1-1: Pilot Who Interaction Media Equation Non-Media Equation Don & Dad Watching TV 0 1 Charlie Using map software 0 1 Agents Taking crime scene photos 0 1 Agent Makes phone call 0 1 Agents Photographing possible suspects 0 1 Agents Using computers 0 1 Charlie & Ramanujan Working on laptop 0 1 Don Telephone call 0 1 Don & Charlie Cellphone call 0 1 Charlie Throws cell phone 0 1 Fleinhardt Playing arcade game 0 1 Don Makes phone call 0 1 Don Uses laptop 0 1 Agent Using cell phone 0 1 Agent Calls EMS 0 1 0 1 0 16

Numb3rs 6-16: Cause & Effect Who Interaction Media Equation Non-Media Equation Sinclair Gets cell phone call 0 1 Sinclair Using phone 0 1 Don Gets cell phone call 0 1 Fleinhardt Using cell phone 0 1 Gets upset at phone because it is Fleinhardt not working 1 0 Agents Look at crime scene photos 0 1 Agents Working on computer 0 1 Charlie & Don Looking at data on screens 0 1 Betancourt On phone 0 1 Amita Working on laptop 0 1 Sinclair & Granger Look at records on computer 0 1 Charlie Pulls up info on computer 0 1 Fleinhardt, Amita & Otto Look at data on screens 0 1 Amita Using laptop 0 1 Betancourt & Agent Using computer to check records 0 1 Agents Looking at records on screens 0 1

27 1 15

Scrubs 7-8: My Manhood Who Interaction Media Equation Non-Media Equation Janitor Wearing camera on foot 0 1 Kelso Using cellphone 0 1 Turk & Dorian Fighting over TV remote 0 1 Cox Using laptop 0 1 Ted Reading on laptop 0 1 Turk & Dorian Fighting over TV remote 0 1 Janitor Typing on laptop 0 1 Reid Pulls out cellphone 0 1 0 8

Scrubs 9-7: Our White Coats Who Interaction Media Equation Non-Media Equation Student Using laptop 0 1 Student Reading on cellphone 0 1 Cox Checks Watch 0 1 Student On cellphone 0 1 Turk On phone with Dorian 0 1 Doctor Using medical equipment 0 1 Doctor & Student "Still mad at the Internet" 1 0 Students Pull up video on computer 0 1 Student "I forgive you, Internet" 1 0 2 7

Scrubs 8-3: My Saving Grace Who Interaction Media Equation Non-Media Equation Nurse Using computer 0 1 Nurse On the phone in the background 0 1 0 2

Scrubs 8-13: My Full Moon Who Interaction Media Equation Non-Media Equation Turk On phone 0 1 Patient Using laptop to watch sports 0 1 0 2

Scrubs 9-13: Our Thanks Who Interaction Media Equation Non-Media Equation Cole "I can't read old people clocks" 0 1 0 1

28 Phineas & Ferb 1-6: Get That Bigfoot Outta My Face Who Interaction Media Equation Non-Media Equation Using cellphone, upset because Candace no service 0 1 Perry Checks watch 0 1 Perry Video chats 0 1 Doofensmirtz Using laptop 0 1 Doofensmirtz Checks watch 0 1 Girls Playing video games 0 1 Perry Video chats 0 1 Perry Taking pictures 0 1 Angry about losing video game Candace throws controller 1 0 Candace Tries to call mom 0 1 Cameraman Using camera 0 1 Vanessa Turns on music 0 1 Phineas & Ferb and Girls Having tree house fight 0 1 Mom Calls Candace 0 1 1 13

Phineas & Ferb 1-11: Mom's Birthday Who Interaction Media Equation Non-Media Equation Phineas Using phone headset 0 1 Perry Video chatting 0 1 Tells a blinking arrow not to tell Doofensmirtz him where to go 1 0 Doofensmirtz Uses computer for evil plan 0 1 Perry Being held captive by robots 0 1 Doofensmirtz Uses evil device 0 1 Group Watches video 0 1 Perry Attacked by robots 0 1 Mom Satellite uplink with dad 0 1 Candace & Jeremy Cell phone call 0 1 Candace Calls other girls 0 1 Perry Video chatting 0 1 Show multimedia presentation Phineas & Ferb on laptop 0 1 Phineas & Ferb Use shrink ray & submarine 0 1 Perry Makes cell phone call 0 1 Phineas Turns on music in submarine 0 1 Phineas & Isabella Cell phone call 0 1 Doofensmirtz Checks watch 0 1

29 Phineas Calls Candace's cell phone 0 1 See what Candace sees on a Phineas & Ferb screen 0 1 Candace & Mom Cell phone call 0 1 1 20

Phineas & Ferb 3-12: What a Croc Who Interaction Media Equation Non-Media Equation Dad, Phineas & Ferb Watch TV 0 1 Irving Holding digital scrapbook 0 1 Perry Video chatting 0 1 Phineas Using 'croc-o-locator' 0 1 Defensive of letting Candace Iriving take digital scrapbook 1 0 Iriving Calls scrapbook a her 1 0 Doofensmirtz Uses intercom 0 1 Doofensmirtz Uses electric net 0 1 Phineas "Croc-o-locator says he is here" 0 1 Phineas Radios Isabella 0 1 Camera Operators Using cameras 0 1 Doofensmirtz Using evil device 0 1 Irving & Candace Fight over digital scrapbook 0 1 Girl Fights a robot 0 1 Scolds a robot and tells him to Girl hide 1 0 Girl Cuddling up to robot 1 0 Girl Puts makeup on robot 1 0 Guy Talks to his car 1 0 Girl Yells at robot for being slow 1 0 Guy Yells at car 1 0 Girls Using computer 0 1 Jeremy Gonna miss the robot 1 0 Girl Talking to robot 1 0 Guy "Thanks for the help cat car" 1 0 Phineas, Ferb & Candace Watching TV 0 1 11 14

Phineas & Ferb 2-4: Day of the Living Gelatin Who Interaction Media Equation Non-Media Equation Phineas & Ferb Using molecular transporter 0 1 Perry Video chatting 0 1

30 Doofensmirtz Sends video message 0 1 Phineas Checks watch 0 1 Candace Makes cell phone call 0 1 Doofensmirtz Uses evil device 0 1 Doofensmirtz Pushes button 0 1 Doofensmirtz Upset about device being ruined 0 1 Perry Video chatting 0 1 Doofensmirtz Using computer 0 1 Checks watch, upset that it is too Doofensmirtz small 0 1 Doofensmirtz Using evil machine 0 1 Agent O Uses watch laser 0 1 Candace & Mom Cell phone call 0 1 Candace Cell phone call 0 1 0 15

Phineas and Ferb 3-5: Blackout Who Interaction Media Equation Non-Media Equation Doofensmirtz Using evil device 0 1 Candace & Mom Cell phone call 0 1 Dad Using app 0 1 Doofensmirtz Causes blackout 0 1 Finds flashlight, Candace batteries are low 0 1 Gets cell phone call Candace from mom 0 1 Upset about phone Candace being destroyed 0 1 Candace Calls flashlight stupid 1 0 Perry Video chatting 0 1 Perry Video chatting 0 1 Traps rhino with Doofensmirtz electronic trap 0 1 Doofensmirtz Uses evil device 0 1 Uses electronic Doofensmirtz invention 0 1 Candace Using camera 0 1 1 13

31 APPENDIX B

Big Bang Theory

46% Media Equation Non-Media Equation 54%

Numb3rs

1%

Media Equation Non-Media Equation

99%

32 Scrubs

9%

Media Equation Non-Media Equation

91%

Phineas and Ferb

16%

Media Equation Non-Media Equation

84%

33 Grand Totals

22%

Media Equation Non-Media Equation

78%

34 REFERENCES

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International Business, T. (2013, June 13). Apple Reveals Siri Will Now Have A Male Voice Option With iOS 7 Release. International Business Times.

Lee, K., & Jung, Y. (2005). Evolutionary Nature of Virtual Experience. Conference Papers -- International Communication Association, 1-33.

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Reeves, B., & Nass, C. I. (1996). The Media Equation: How people treat computers, television, and new media like real people and places. Stanford, CA: CSLI Publications.

Spiegel, A. (2013). No Mercy For Robots: Experiment Tests How Humans Relate To Machines. Morning Edition (NPR).

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