Do They Have Your Numb3r? Strange Visions

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MARTIN GARDNER ON VACUUM ENERGY • WEIGHING THE SOUL • ENTITIES OF THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST

THE MAGAZINE FOR SCIENCE AND REASON Volume 31, No. 1 • January/February 2007 • INTRODUCTORY PRICE U.S. $4.95 • Canada $5.95

New Do They Directions Have Your for Skeptical Numb3r? Inquiry Energy ID’s Pseudo- ‘Vise Strategy’ science Undone Mass Hysteria Strange in Schools Visions How Can SPECIAL Scientists REPORTS: Persuade? • World Trade Center Illness 01> • Gulf War Syndrome

Published by the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry 0556698 80575 SI J-F 2007 pgs 11/13/06 11:24 AM Page 2

THE COMMITTEE FOR SKEPTICAL INQUIRY AT THE CENTER FOR INQUIRY–TRANSNATIONAL (ADJACENT TO THE UNIVERSITY AT BUFFALO) AN INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION Paul Kurtz, Chairman; professor emeritus of philosophy, University at Buffalo Barry Karr, Executive Director Joe Nickell, Senior Research Fellow Massimo Polidoro, Research Fellow Richard Wiseman, Research Fellow Lee Nisbet, Special Projects Director FELLOWS

James E. Alcock,* psychologist, York Univ., Toronto and Sciences, Professor of Philosophy and Robert L. Park, professor of physics, Univ. of Maryland Jerry Andrus, magician and inventor, Albany, Oregon Professor of Law, University of Miami John Paulos, mathematician, Temple Univ. Marcia Angell, M.D., former editor-in-chief, New C. E. M. Hansel, psychologist, Univ. of Wales Steven Pinker, cognitive scientist, Harvard England Journal of Medicine David J. Helfand, professor of astronomy, Massimo Polidoro, science writer, author, Stephen Barrett, M.D., psychiatrist, author, Columbia Univ. executive director CICAP, Italy consumer advocate, Allentown, Pa. Douglas Hofstadter, professor of human under- Milton Rosenberg, psychologist, Univ. of Chicago Willem Betz, professor of medicine, Univ. of standing and cognitive science, Indiana Univ. Wallace Sampson, M.D., clinical professor of Brussels Gerald Holton, Mallinckrodt Professor of Physics medicine, Stanford Univ., editor, Scientific Barry Beyerstein,* biopsychologist, Simon Fraser and professor of history of science, Harvard Univ. Review of Alternative Medicine Univ., Vancouver, B.C., Canada Ray Hyman,* psychologist, Univ. of Oregon Amardeo Sarma, manager NEC Europe Ltd., Irving Biederman, psychologist, Univ. of Southern Leon Jaroff, sciences editor emeritus, Time executive director, GWUP, Germany. California Sergei Kapitza, former editor, Russian edition, Evry Schatzman, former president, French Physics Susan Blackmore, Visiting Lecturer, Univ. of the Scientific American Association West of England, Bristol Lawrence M. Krauss, author and professor of physics Eugenie Scott, physical anthropologist, executive Henri Broch, physicist, Univ. of Nice, France and astronomy, Case Western Reserve University director, National Center for Science Education Jan Harold Brunvand, folklorist, professor Edwin C. Krupp, astronomer, director, Griffith Robert Sheaffer, science writer emeritus of English, Univ. of Utah Observatory Elie A. Shneour, biochemist, author, president and Mario Bunge, philosopher, McGill University Paul Kurtz,* chairman, Center for Inquiry research director, Biosystems Research Institute, John R. Cole, anthropologist, editor, National Lawrence Kusche, science writer La Jolla, Calif. Center for Science Education Leon Lederman, emeritus director, Fermilab; Dick Smith, film producer, publisher, Terrey Hills, Frederick Crews, literary and cultural critic, Nobel laureate in physics N.S.W., Australia professor emeritus of English, Univ. of Scott Lilienfeld, psychologist, Emory Univ. Robert Steiner, magician, author, El Cerrito, Calif. California, Berkeley Lin Zixin, former editor, Science and Technology Victor J. Stenger, emeritus professor of physics Richard Dawkins, zoologist, Oxford Univ. Daily (China) and astronomy, Univ. of Hawaii; adjunct Geoffrey Dean, technical editor, Perth, Australia Jere Lipps, Museum of Paleontology, Univ. of professor of philosophy, Univ. of Colorado Daniel C. Dennett, University Professor and Austin California, Berkeley Jill Cornell Tarter, astronomer, SETI Institute, B. Fletcher Professor of Philosophy, Director of Elizabeth Loftus, professor of psychology, Univ. of Mountain View, Calif. the Center for Cognitive Studies at Tufts Univ. California, Irvine Carol Tavris, psychologist and author, Los Angeles, Calif. Ann Druyan, writer and producer, and CEO, Paul MacCready, scientist/engineer, David Thomas, physicist and mathematician, Cosmos Studios, Ithaca, New York AeroVironment, Inc., Monrovia, Calif. Peralta, New Mexico Cornelis de Jager, professor of astrophysics, Univ. John Maddox, editor emeritus of Nature Stephen Toulmin, professor of philosophy, Univ. of of Utrecht, the Netherlands David Marks, psychologist, City University, London. Southern California Kenneth Feder, professor of anthropology, Mario Mendez-Acosta, journalist and Neil deGrasse Tyson, astrophysicist and director, Central Connecticut State Univ. science writer, Mexico City, Mexico Hayden Planetarium, New York City Antony Flew, philosopher, Reading Univ., U.K. Marvin Minsky, professor of media arts and Marilyn vos Savant, Parade magazine Andrew Fraknoi, astronomer, Foothill College, Los sciences, M.I.T. contributing editor Altos Hills, Calif. David Morrison, space scientist, NASA Ames Steven Weinberg, professor of physics and astronomy, Univ. of Texas at Austin; Kendrick Frazier, science writer, editor, SKEPTICAL INQUIRER Research Center Nobel laureate Yves Galifret, vice-president, Affiliated Richard A. Muller, professor of physics, Univ. of Organizations: France Calif., Berkeley E.O. Wilson, University Professor Emeritus, Harvard University Martin Gardner, author, critic Joe Nickell, senior research fellow, CSI Richard Wiseman, psychologist, University of Murray Gell-Mann, professor of physics, Santa Fe Lee Nisbet,* philosopher, Medaille College Hertfordshire Institute; Nobel laureate Bill Nye, science educator and television host, Nye Labs Benjamin Wolozin*, professor, department of phar- Thomas Gilovich, psychologist, Cornell Univ. James E. Oberg, science writer macology, Boston University School of Medicine Henry Gordon, magician, columnist, Toronto Irmgard Oepen, professor of medicine (retired), Marvin Zelen, statistician, Harvard Univ. Saul Green, Ph.D., biochemist, president of ZOL Marburg, Germany Consultants, New York, NY Loren Pankratz, psychologist, Oregon Health * Member, CSI Executive Council Susan Haack, Cooper Senior Scholar in Arts Sciences Univ. (Affiliations given for identification only.)

• • • Visit the CSICOP Web site at www.csicop.org • • •

The SKEPTICAL INQUIRER (ISSN 0194-6730) is published bimonthly by the Committee for of the November/December 2006 issue. Or you may send a fax request to the editor. Skeptical Inquiry, 1310 Sweet Home Rd., Amherst, NY 14228. Printed in U.S.A. Periodicals post- Articles, reports, reviews, and letters published in the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER represent the views age paid at Buffalo, NY, and at additional mailing offices. Subscription prices: one year (six issues), and work of individual authors. Their publication does not necessarily constitute an endorse- $35; two years, $60; three years, $84; single issue, $4.95. Canadian and foreign orders: Payment in U.S. funds drawn on a U.S. bank must accompany orders; please add US$10 per year for shipping. ment by CSI or its members unless so stated. Canadian and foreign customers are encouraged to use Visa or MasterCard. Canada Publications Copyright ©2007 by the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry. All rights reserved. The SKEPTICAL Mail Agreement No. 41153509. Return undeliverable Canadian addresses to: IMEX, P.O. Box INQUIRER is available on 16mm microfilm, 35mm microfilm, and 105mm microfiche from Uni- 4332, Station Rd., Toronto, ON M5W 3J4. versity Microfilms International and is indexed in the Reader’s Guide to Periodical Literature. Inquiries from the media and the public about the work of the Committee should be made to Subscriptions and changes of address should be addressed to: SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, P.O. Box 703, Paul Kurtz, Chairman, CSI, P.O. Box 703, Amherst, NY 14226-0703. Tel.: 716-636-1425. Fax: Amherst, NY 14226-0703. Or call toll-free 1-800-634-1610 (outside the U.S. call 716-636-1425). 716-636-1733. Old address as well as new are necessary for change of subscriber’s address, with six weeks advance no- Manuscripts, letters, books for review, and editorial inquiries should be addressed to Kendrick Fra- tice. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER subscribers may not speak on behalf of CSI or the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. zier, Editor, SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, 944 Deer Drive NE, Albuquerque, NM 87122. Fax: 505-828- 2080. Before submitting any manuscript, please consult our Guide for Authors for format and refer- Postmaster: Send changes of address to SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, P.O. Box 703, Amherst, NY ences requirements. It is on our Web site at www.csicop.org/si/guide-for-authors.html and on page 69 14226-0703. SI J-F 2007 pgs 11/13/06 11:25 AM Page 3

Skeptical Inquirer SPECIAL REPORTS 12 World Trade Center Illness: January / February 2007 • VOL. 31, NO. 1 Manufactured Mass Hysteria

MICHAEL FUMENTO EDITORIAL 13 New Report Casts Doubt on 5 It’s CSI Now, Not CSICOP Gulf War Syndrome KENDRICK FRAZIER AND BENJAMIN RADFORD THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL

7 New Directions for COMMENT AND OPINION Skeptical Inquiry 15 The Art of Persuasion in Politics PAUL KURTZ (and Science) BENJAMIN WOLOZIN ARTICLES

29 Man for the Cosmos: Carl Sagan’s COLUMNS Life and Legacy as Scientist, Teacher, and Skeptic EDITOR’S NOTE Men of the Cosmos...... 4 DAVID MORRISON 37 Do They Have Your Numb3r? NEWS AND COMMENT Energy Department Will End Most Polygraph Testing / Moscow KENDRICK FRAZIER Round Table Discusses False Science in Russia / Pluto/Planet Roundtable Now Online / UCS Releases Science Idol Calendar / 40 The ‘Vise Strategy’ Undone Michigan Supports Evolution, Rejects ID for Science Classes . . 8 Kitzmiller et al. v. Dover Area School District NOTES OF A FRINGE WATCHER ‘Dr.’ Bearden’s Vacuum Energy BARBARA FORREST MARTIN GARDNER ...... 18

47 Strange Visions INVESTIGATIVE FILES Haloes, Dust Storms, and Mysterious Entities of the Pacific Northwest, Part I Blood on the Walls JOE NICKELL ...... 20 A. CHARLES CATANIA THINKING ABOUT SCIENCE Evolutionary Epistemology, Anyone? 51 Pep Talk MASSIMO PIGLIUCCI ...... 23

How to Get Rid of the Energy NOTES ON A STRANGE WORLD You Don’t Need The Devious Art of Improvising, Lesson Two WILLIAM H. BAARSCHERS MASSIMO POLIDORO ...... 24 55 Mass Hysteria at Starpoint High PSYCHIC VIBRATIONS The Flashlight of the Gods ROBERT E. BARTHOLOMEW ROBERT SHEAFFER ...... 26 AND BENJAMIN RADFORD SKEPTICAL INQUIREE Soul Scales BENJAMIN RADFORD ...... 28

NEW BOOKS...... 61

FORUM Bigfoot, Pluto, and ? CHRIS VOLKAY ...... 63

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR...... 65

BOOK REVIEW

Skeptical Inquirer Editor’s Note THE MAGAZINE FOR SCIENCE AND REASON EDITOR Kendrick Frazier EDITORIAL BOARD James E. Alcock Barry Beyerstein Thomas Casten Martin Gardner Ray Hyman Paul Kurtz Joe Nickell Men of the Cosmos Lee Nisbet Amardeo Sarma Benjamin Wolozin CONSULTING EDITORS t seems entirely fitting that our cover article in appreciation of Carl Sagan, mark- Susan J. Blackmore Iing the tenth anniversary of his death, is written by David Morrison. John R. Cole Kenneth L. Feder Morrison, in many respects, follows in Sagan’s footsteps. Sagan was David’s thesis C. E. M. Hansel Barry Karr advisor at Harvard, where Morrison got his PhD in astronomy. As was Sagan, E. C. Krupp Morrison is a leading planetary scientist. He is the Senior Scientist at the NASA Scott O. Lilienfeld David F. Marks Astrobiology Institute, where he participates in research programs in the study of life Eugenie Scott in the universe. There he follows Sagan’s example of interest in life on other worlds and Richard Wiseman CONTRIBUTING EDITORS in bridging biological and astronomical sciences. He also leads programs studying and Austin Dacey Chris Mooney tracking near-Earth objects, asteroids in orbits that intersect Earth’s. Before his current James E. Oberg position he was Chief of the Space Science Division and Director of Space at the NASA Robert Sheaffer David E. Thomas Ames Research Center. And before that he was a professor of astronomy at the MANAGING EDITOR University of Hawaii and the university’s vice-chancellor for research. Benjamin Radford ART DIRECTOR Like Sagan, he’s devoted a fair amount of his career to communicating. He has Lisa A. Hutter published twelve books. I have four on my shelves, Voyage to Jupiter, Voyages to PRODUCTION Christopher Fix Saturn (both NASA books), and two astronomy textbooks, Abell’s Exploration of the Paul Loynes Universe, seventh edition, and Voyages Through the Universe, both by Morrison, EDITORIAL ASSISTANT Sydney Wolff, and Andrew Fraknoi. The latter two are successors to the highly pop- David Park Musella CARTOONIST ular textbook of the late George O. Abell (a beloved member of the SI Editorial Rob Pudim Board until his death in 1983). That tradition continues in regularly updated edi- WEB-PAGE DESIGN Patrick Fitzgerald, Designer tions of Voyages Through the Universe. Other Morrison titles include the first mod- Amanda Chesworth ern planetary science text, The Planetary System (with Tobias Owen, now in its third PUBLISHER’S REPRESENTATIVE edition), and Exploring Planetary Worlds (Scientific American Library). Barry Karr As did Sagan, Morrison works to counter pseudoscience and fringe-science and CORPORATE COUNSEL to help the public distinguish between real science and its pretenders. A longtime Brenton N. VerPloeg BUSINESS MANAGER CSICOP Fellow, he has been a regular contributor to the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER over Sandra Lesniak the years. Recent examples include his “Astrobiology Is the New Modern Framework FISCAL OFFICER for SETI” (May/June 2006), “Only a Theory? Framing the Evolution/Creation Paul Paulin VICE PRESIDENT OF Issue” (November/December 2005), and “Hyperbole in Media Reports on Asteroids PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT and Impacts” (March/April 2005). “Facts and Fantasies of Extraterrestrial Life” Sherry Rook DATA OFFICER (March/April 2000) was his review of Joel Achenbach’s book Captured by Aliens. His Jackie Mohr first SI cover article (with Clark Chapman) was “The New Catastrophism: Earth, STAFF Darlene Banks Life, and Impacts” (Winter 1990). And he championed the SI publication of one of Patricia Beauchamp Cheryl Catania the most provocative and controversial articles ever to appear in the SKEPTICAL Matthew Cravatta INQUIRER, “A Skeptical Look at September 11th” by Clark Chapman and Alan W. Denise Riley Sara Rosten Harris (SI, September/October 2002), which Richard Dawkins selected for inclu- Debbie Ryan Anthony Santa Lucia sion in The Best American Science and Nature Writing 2003 (Houghton Mifflin). John Sullivan I’ve merely touched on David Morrison’s work, but you can begin to see why the Vance Vigrass PUBLIC RELATIONS American Astronomical Society recently honored him with its Carl Sagan Medal for Nathan Bupp his contributions to the public understanding of science. Henry Huber EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR We can be grateful for the contributions to public understanding by both these Amanda Chesworth planetary scientists, both distinguished citizens of the cosmos. INQUIRY MEDIA PRODUCTIONS Thomas Flynn DIRECTOR OF LIBRARIES Timothy S. Binga

The SKEPTICAL INQUIRER is the official journal of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry, an international organization.

4 Volume 30, Issue 6 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER SI J-F 2007 pgs 11/13/06 11:25 AM Page 5

EDITORIAL

It’s CSI Now, Not CSICOP

KENDRICK FRAZIER AND THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL

SICOP’s name has been short- The “CSICOP” acronym is widely shorter names; radio and TV can’t and ened. The Executive Council of known and has served the organization won’t use a long name for an organiza- Cthe Committee for the Scientific well, but the full name of the committee tion. CSICOP staff and associated Investigation of Claims of the Para- has always been somewhat problematic. scholars and investigators who do media normal (CSICOP) has formally adopted Because so many of you have been interviews often have resorted to a vari- a shorter name for the organization: with us a long time and feel a deep ety of shortcut references to get any Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI). attachment to the organization, for mention of the organization at all The decision came in a daylong which we are grateful, we thought we included. These same concerns come up meeting of the Executive Council would discuss with you some of the repeatedly in discussions with people (which also serves as SI’s Editorial rationale for the name change. not already familiar with us about who Board) in Oak Brook, Illinois, on The first and less substantive concern we are and what we do. September 23, 2006. It will become has been the name’s length. A shorter, The more substantive concern official as soon as the appropriate legal more succinct name has long been involved the last word in our name, papers have been filed and processed. desired by many of us within CSICOP “paranormal.” For one thing, we have CSICOP and our flagship publica- (now CSI). Almost nobody can remem- never been limited to just the “paranor- tion the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER celebrated ber our full, ten-word name properly. It mal.” From the beginning we have been thirtieth anniversaries in 2006 (see SI takes a long time even to say it. In this concerned with all manner of empirical March/April 2006, p. 13; July/August modern media age, brevity is important. claims credulously accepted without suf- 2006, pp. 13–14; September/October Newspapers and most magazines are ficient critical examination. Our goal 2006, pp. 13–19). obligated by style and usage to publish has been to provide scientific examinations During those three decades, the name the full name of any organization they of these claims, so that reliable, fact- has been both a help and a hindrance. write about, but they obviously prefer based, verified information can be

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER January / February 2007 5 SI J-F 2007 pgs 11/13/06 11:26 AM Page 6

EDITORIAL

used in making judgments about didn’t want to be associated at all with name (or acronym), and we expect many them. We have used terms such as anything with the paranormal in its of us will continue to use it for some time “pseudoscientific” and “fringe-science” name, no matter the context. Many of while transitioning in our own minds to or even “paranatural” as adjectives to us understood, and some even shared CSI. The new abbreviation, by the way, is portray that larger realm. But even the feeling. As we look to the future, pronounced C-S-I (not “psi”!). And yes, those terms, broad as they may seem, CSI seeks to expand its reach, and the we know there is a popular science- are limiting. Executive Council felt that focusing CSI oriented television program (actually Our broader, overarching purpose is on skepticism rather than the paranor- three of them) with CSI in the title but to encourage critical inquiry, scientific mal would convey the interests of CSI thought, frankly, that that was as much thinking, and the scientific outlook. In more broadly. an advantage for us as a disadvantage. short, to promote science and reason. In 1996 the Executive Council More and more we are concerned with formed a subcommittee to consider a * * * science-related issues that have broad possible name change. The subcommit- These same discussions led the public-policy importance, especially tee did so, but in the end decided not to Executive Council, at the same meet- where the science is being misrepre- recommend a change. But this time the ing, also to make several changes to the sented or misused or ignored. Our orig- Executive Council, after an extended organization’s mission statement, inal core focus on the “paranormal” was discussion, decided on a change. which appears in short form on the partly because that was where a lot of The decision to shorten the name back cover of every issue of SI. The misinformation and intentional disin- came first and was easiest. Deciding on more general, overarching statement of formation existed. Also, paranormal the actual name proved more compli- our mission was placed first: “. . . pro- topics had broad appeal to the public cated. One goal was to shorten the name motes science and scientific inquiry, and the media, and the scientific com- but maintain key words. Another was, critical thinking, science education, munity was basically ignoring them, ideally, to keep the same first initials. All and the use of reason in examining allowing promoters of the paranormal permutations of many possible names important issues.” The reference to to go unchallenged. To a certain extent were discussed, but the choice finally “investigation of paranormal and all that is still true. Nevertheless, our came down to three: Committee for fringe-science claims” from a responsi- underlying interest has never been the Skeptical Inquiry, Committee for Scien- ble point of view was replaced with paranormal per se, but larger topics and tific Investigation, and Committee for “investigation of controversial or extra- issues such as how our beliefs in such Scientific Inquiry. “Committee for ordinary claims.” This thus ratifies the things arise, how our minds work to Scientific Investigation” had the advan- broader mission we have already long deceive us, how we think, how our crit- tage of maintaining intact the first four been pursuing. In fact, the Executive ical thinking capabilities can be words of our name, but some felt it was Council encouraged CSI and the improved, what are the answers to cer- overly broad, even a little presumptu- SKEPTICAL INQUIRER to continue to tain uninvestigated mysteries, what ous. “. . . Scientific Inquiry” was also widen their purview to new science- damage is caused by uncritical accep- seriously considered. But in the end, related issues at the intersection of sci- tance of untested claims, how critical “Committee for Skeptical Inquiry” was ence and public concerns, while not attitudes and scientific thinking can be chosen, in large part because it was the ignoring our core topics. better taught, how good science can be most specific and it includes the root Implicit in all this is that, as before, encouraged and bad science exposed, words of our magazine’s title, the we provide quality, informed scientific and so on and on. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. (The Executive analysis and deal preferentially, if not CSI’s mission to promote the appli- Council members, by the way, felt our always exclusively, with empirical, cation of rational thought to public dis- magazine’s name works well and should testable, fact-based claims, not assertions course has always attracted world-class not be tinkered with. Our subtitle, The based mostly on opinion or ideology. scientists and scholars to this endeavor. Magazine for Science and Reason, was But many of them (or at least their col- also praised.) —Kendrick Frazier (Member, Executive leagues) feel that the word “paranormal” (Another side note: “Council,” Council, and editor, SKEPTICAL in the name of CSICOP makes the “Commission,” “Association” and other INQUIRER), for all members of the scope of the committee appear narrower such words were considered for the first Executive Council: James E. Alcock, than it actually is. It always required an word of the name but rejected for a vari- Barry Beyerstein, Thomas Casten, explanation that we weren’t the promot- ety of reasons, including the fact that we Kendrick Frazier, Ray Hyman, Paul ers of the paranormal but the scientific are often referred to or thought of as Kurtz, Lee Nisbet, Amardeo Sarma, investigators, the critical evaluators. “the Committee.”) and Benjamin Wolozin [newly Finally, many academics and others just CSICOP is to many of us a beloved elected]; Barry Karr, ex officio)

6 Volume 31, Issue 1 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER SI J-F 2007 pgs 11/13/06 11:26 AM Page 7

EDITORIAL New Directions for Skeptical Inquiry

PAUL KURTZ Professor Emeritus of Philosophy, University at Buffalo; Chairman, CSI

he Committee for the Scientific J. Klass, Martin Gardner, Ray Hyman, of possible breakthroughs needs careful Investigation of Claims of the and others. Scientists worldwide em- evaluation. Thus skeptical inquiry needs TParanormal (CSICOP) has braced our agenda such as astronomer to examine such claims impartially. reached an historic juncture: the recog- Cornelius de Jaeger (The Netherlands), There are still other challenges that will nition that there is a critical need to Jean-Claude Pecker (France), and Nobel no doubt emerge. change our direction. Under the new laureate scientists in Italy. We were inter- Under its new title, the Committee name, the Committee for Skeptical ested in criticizing the distortions in the for Skeptical Inquiry will endeavor to Inquiry (CSI) will not confine itself pri- media of alleged phenomena, from psy- be true to its early mission. We intend marily to the scientific investigation of chics and UFOlogists to astrologers and to invite leading scientific investigators claims of the paranormal—we never faith healers. These posed, in our view, a from a variety of fields to carefully have—but will deal with a wider range threat to the integrity of science, for they evaluate questionable claims and will of questionable claims that have fudged the differences between genuine criticize those who would block sci- emerged in the contemporary world. science and pseudoscience. We soon dis- ence in the name of occult force—such Actually, the subtitle of SKEPTICAL covered that it was often difficult to draw as the imposition of the concept of INQUIRER—The Magazine for Science a sharp demarcation line between these “soul” to thwart the investigation of and Reason—is the best description of two areas; empirical inquiry was the only the brain. As such, CSI will function as our overall mission: to explicate and sensible approach. We were ever careful a Socratic gadfly, using the best tools defend the importance of scientific not to squelch new proto-sciences that of scientific inquiry and analysis to fer- inquiry, thus contributing to the public might emerge. After thirty years we have ret out what is at stake. Hopefully it understanding of science. established a record in which naturalistic can contribute to the public apprecia- When we founded CSICOP in 1976, causal explanations for such alleged phe- tion of science and also distinguish we were concerned with the proliferation nomena are now available. The “paranor- pseudoscientific claims from genuine of paranormal claims in the media that mal” has been deflated in field after field. ones. We have not abandoned the were unexamined by scientific investiga- We of course had a broader motive: examination of paranormal claims, but tors. These were often on the borderlines to explicate the methods of scientific we have extended our net more widely of science. When we announced our methodology and the scientific outlook, to deal with other areas that have pro- intention of creating CSICOP, many sci- to encourage scientific education, and voked controversy. entists heralded the role that we were to the development of critical thinking. We The Executive Council of CSICOP play. At long last an organization com- viewed ourselves as the defenders of the embarks in this new direction with great posed of scientists, educators, investiga- Enlightenment. enthusiasm. The “new skepticism” that tors, and journalists proposed to carefully Today there are new challenges to sci- we have cultivated recognizes that skepti- investigate alleged mysterious phenom- ence. For example, the field of biogenetic cism is an important part of the process ena, which were not being adequately engineering provides exciting opportuni- of scientific inquiry. This it is not simply examined by the scientific community. ties for the growth of knowledge and its negative debunking; it can make signifi- These questions were generally inter- applications to human betterment. Yet cant constructive contributions to the disciplinary; they fell between the cracks powerful moral, theological, and politi- development of reliable knowledge. of existing disciplines. Distinguished sci- cal forces have opposed scientific The Committee for Skeptical Inquiry entists rallied under our banner from the research on a whole number of issues— is part of the broader Center for Inquiry/ start—including Carl Sagan, Steven Jay such as stem-cell embryonic research. Transnational movement. It likewise is Gould, Isaac Asimov, Richard Dawkins, On the other hand, pro-scientific propo- committed to science, reason, and free and Nobel Prize winners Murray Gell- nents say that we are faced with “a New inquiry in every area of human interest. Mann, Francis Crick, Glenn Seaborg, Singularity,” and that life-extension pro- This, we hope, will greatly enhance the Leon Lederman, and others. We also grams of research offer great promises for cooperative worldwide efforts to extend enlisted well-known investigators of the extending life. Science demands rigorous the frontiers of scientific knowledge for paranormal, such as James Randi, Philip peer review. The excessive extrapolation the benefit of humanity.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER January / February 2007 7 SI J-F 2007 pgs 11/13/06 11:26 AM Page 8

NEWS AND COMMENT Energy Department Will End Most Polygraph Testing

KENDRICK FRAZIER Current workers will still undergo on government secrecy at the Federation of broad security reviews on a periodic basis, American Scientists. “DOE deserves credit After years of controversy, ranging from as will new applicants. But, with narrow for responding to the scientific critique and complaints from national labs’ scientists exceptions, the Associated Press reported employee concerns” about the uncertainties (SI, July/August 2001) to a critical in early October 2006, these workers will surrounding polygraph tests, he said. National Academy of Sciences report (SI no longer be subject a “lie detector” test. Employees complained that the tests, due January/February 2003), the U.S. De- Up to 20,000 workers were at least the- to the prevalence of false positives, could partment of Energy is ending required oretically subject to polygraph tests under improperly endanger their careers. The polygraph tests for thousands of workers the old program, which went into effect in National Academy of Sciences study, issued at its nuclear weapons facilities, including 1999. Government officials gave no num- in October 8, 2002, and chaired by Carnegie most scientists at the three national bers for those who will be subject to poly- Mellon professor Stephen E. Fienberg, said weapons labs, Los Alamos, Lawrence graphs under the new criteria but say their the polygraph results are too inaccurate to be Livermore, and Sandia. use would be limited to workers whose used for general screening of employees. It In new requirements that went into jobs require them to work with or in other said the tests had “weak scientific underpin- effect October 30, 2006, DOE will no agencies that require polygraphs; those nings . . . belief in its accuracy goes beyond longer require polygraph tests as part of where there is “a specific indication” of a what the evidence suggests.” a general screening of new applicants, or clandestine relationship with a foreign Legislation sponsored by Sen. Jeff automatically for employees in areas of country, organization, or terrorist group; Bingaman, D-New Mexico, then chair- high security. Tests will still be required and those where a test is ordered in man of the Energy and Natural for narrow purposes where there is spe- response to a specific incident or concern. Resources Committee, and Sen. Pete cific cause. DOE said a polygraph exam may also be Domenici, R-New Mexico, required The new requirements enact an earlier administered as part of random counter- DOE to overhaul its polygraph program preliminary decision and recommendation intelligence evaluations. based on the findings of the NAS report. to scale back polygraph testing reported to “This is a significant retreat from the a Senate committee in September 2003 [more widespread] use of the polygraph,” Kendrick Frazier is editor of the SKEPTICAL (SI, November/December 2003). said Steven Aftergood, director of the project INQUIRER.

8 Volume 31, Issue 1 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER SI J-F 2007 pgs 11/13/06 11:26 AM Page 9

NEWS AND COMMENT Moscow Roundtable Discusses False Science in Russia

Within the framework of the 2006 PhD poses no problem. The shameful CFI/Amherst/CFI/Moscow International results of this practice occur within the Summer School (held in Novosibirsk, highest levels of government. Siberia), a roundtable discussion was held As an example, Kruglyakov analyzed on Humanism, Science, and False Science the statement of the Vice Secretary of in Russia on July 20. The major speaker, the Security Council of the Russian Edward Kruglyakov, Chair of the Federation, N. Spasskii, from his paper, Committee against Antiscience of the “Preparing for G-8,” which was pub- Russian Academy of Sciences (see Krugly- lished in the official governmental news- akov, Edward, “Why Is Pseudoscience paper, Rossiiskaya Gazeta (April 24, Dangerous?” SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, July/ 2006). In this paper, Spasskii proposes August 2002), presented a report on to revise some basic positions on the eve “Whether Russia Will Be Able to Avoid of the summit in St. Petersburg in July the New Rasputin Times.” 2006. Among others subjects, this He reviewed the most scandalous cases important official writes about the com- Pluto/Planet in the field of charlatanism in today’s ing breakthroughs in energy sources Russia. Kruglyakov reminded listeners (conducted thermonuclear synthesis, Roundtable that the extremely aggressive charlatan hydrogen, and vacuum energy.) Grigori Grabovoi was finally arrested. This statement, according to Krugly- Now Online Nevertheless, for a long time, Grabovoi akov, reveals the fact that this official has had a mysterious immunity and was, advisers who are either ignorant or char- f, like many educators, you are not according to his claims (such as those latans. Until now, only yellow-press quite sure what to do in your own made in an interview on Radio Echo journalists would propose getting Iwork about the recent definition of Moscow, September, 28, 2005), responsi- “energy from a vacuum.” Never before planet by the International Astro- ble for the security of President Putin’s air- have such statements been made on the nomical Union, you may want to read craft and for the aircraft of other presi- state level, Kruglyakov said. According what fourteen experts on planetary sci- dents of the Commonwealth of the to him, hydrogen energy can solve rela- ence and education think. Independent States, “and he claimed to tively local problems, but it is not able A roundtable in the online journal do it with the help of mental control.” to solve the problem of the world short- Astronomy Education Review (AER) His cynical activity was marked by his age of energy and cannot be the basis for looks at the science, politics, and edu- promise to resurrect more then 150 chil- the energy industry. As for thermo- cational implications of the contro- dren, killed during a terrorist act in the nuclear synthesis (controlled fusion), it versy. It also includes a historical time- town of Beslan (in the North Caucasus), is a promising source of energy indeed. line and a guide to educational for about $1,300. Last summer, on the Nevertheless, we cannot expect this kind resources concerning the definition of television talk show, Let’s Talk, he proof energy to be a breakthrough technol- a planet. claimed himself the New Savior. ogy in the near future. See it at the Web site http://aer. Kruglyakov said it has now become As a participant in this round table, I noao.edu—where it begins the tenth an unfortunate trend for top Russian may add only that these and many other issue of the journal. When you go to bureaucrats to get scientific degrees. such cases drastically undermine the the AER site, you can find the full Some underpaid scholars are ready to image of Russia as a world energy sup- ninth issue by clicking on “back make some extra money, and they do plier, as well as Putin’s picture of Russia issues” and then on “vol. 5, no. 1.” the dissertations for the politicians of as an energy superpower. AER actively solicits interesting various levels of government. The qual- —Valerii Kuvakin papers and articles on all aspects of ity of such dissertations is very poor. space science education and outreach. Nevertheless, because of the corruption Valerii Kuvakin is the chairman of the The site gets over 200,000 hits per and connections of the clients, getting a Center for Inquiry/Moscow. month from ninety-one countries.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER January / February 2007 9 SI J-F 2007 pgs 11/13/06 11:27 AM Page 10

REACH OUT TO A NEW FUTURE!

This phase of the campaign spotlights a family of high-impact projects.

As construction of the Center for Inquiry–Transnational expansion is completed, we turn to new challenge goals in our multi-year, $26.26 million New Future Fund campaign. The New Future Fund is an ambitious campaign to support the Center for Inquiry, the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry, and the Council for Secular Humanism through endowment funding and support for expanded programming. The New Future Fund was launched after thorough study, and its goals reflect needs judged indispensable if the Center for Inquiry is to continue serving society as the leading cham- The Center for Inquiry has obtained United Nations recognition as a pion of reason, scientific naturalism, and humanist values. nongovernmental organization (NGO), opening new avenues for activism and human enrichment. The Center for Inquiry presses for humanism, science, and reason worldwide. Centers for Inquiry have been established in Argentina, China, Egypt, France, Germany, India, Nepal, Nigeria, Peru, Russia, and elsewhere, pursuing regionally tailored agendas. The Center and its affiliates have facilitated international meetings Intelligent design (ID) theory is creationism’s new of humanists and skeptics for more than two decades. Your gift to the face, sparking some 70 new controversies in an New Future Fund will help this transnational expansion continue. astonishing 26 states. CSICOP is gearing up to fight back with grassroots outreach to mobilize skeptics at the local level when ID proposals loom; a stimulating new Web site, www.csicop.org/creationwatch; and media outreach, from new literature to books to The Center for Inquiry movement began with publishing, still essential top-shelf online columnists. to our mission. Skeptical Inquirer and Free Inquiry headline a family of As ID advocates plan to shoulder Darwin and the scientific viewpoint magazines in three languages, newsletters, and Web sites. Professional out of public schools, the New Future Fund helps CSICOP say no! public education and media relations further amplify our message. Campus outreach presents our message of science and reason to the leaders of tomorrow. Your gift to the New Future Fund can support these and other Your gift to the New Future Fund can help to support core pub- urgent priorities. We gratefully accept gifts of cash, publicly traded lishing outreach (this issue of Skeptical Inquirer is four pages longer securities, paid-up insurance policies, and other assets. We are pleased to offer attractive incentive and naming opportunities to than early-2005 issues, thanks to support from the New Future honor major contributors. All gifts are fully tax-deductible as pro- Fund), fuel our exploitation of new communications technologies, and vided by law. Campaign personnel are available to meet with donors fund more aggressive on-campus programs. The New Future Fund is to provide updates on our plans and to discuss other commemora- key to the future promotion of skepticism, science, reason, and human- tive opportunities tailored to particular needs and interests. ism by the Center for Inquiry and its affiliates. Contact Sherry Rook, Vice President of Planning and Development Center for Inquiry–Transnational PO Box 741, Amherst NY 14226-0741 Please join us and declare your support today. (716) 636-4869, ext. 311 Write, call, e-mail, or return the bound-in E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.centerforinquiry.net postcard (at right) today!

The Center for Inquiry, the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI), and the Council for Secular Humanism are 501(c)(3) tax-exempt charitable organizations. SI J-F 2007 pgs 11/13/06 11:27 AM Page 11

NEWS AND COMMENT

UCS Releases Science Idol Calendar The Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS), in response to the many ways in which “government science is being cen- sored, manipulated, and distorted on an unprecedented scale,” conducted Sci- ence Idol: The Scientific Integrity Editorial Cartoon Contest. More than four hundred entries were received in response to the organization’s call for submissions of cartoons humor- ously depicting some aspect of the unfortunate trend. The field was winnowed by UCS to the twelve finalists whose work James MacLeod/UCS appears in the calendar, with the help of editorial cartoonists Tony Auth (of The the impact of political interference on ing scientific integrity to federal pol- Philadelphia Inquirer) and Clay Bennett our health, safety, and environment in a icy making.” (of The Christian Science Monitor), Bob very accessible way. And as a bonus, the The calendar is available from UCS; Mankoff (the cartoon editor for The New calendar is packed with interesting dates go to www.ucsusa.org/scientific_integ Yorker), and Hilary Price (the creator of in science history. rity/science_idol/ and click on “2007 sci- the daily comic strip Rhymes with “We hope that scientists and non- entific integrity calendar” for more infor- Orange). Then, the final winner was scientists alike will use the calendar mation. first for a laugh—for the cartoons are selected from the remaining field by —David Park Musella a vote taken among UCS members quite funny—but also as an educa- and supporters. tional tool to teach their friends and David Park Musella is an editorial assis- James MacLeod, of Evansville, family about the importance of restor- tant with the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. Indiana, submitted the work that was chosen as the top entry. Besides having his cartoon appear in the 2007 Scientific Integrity Calendar and the UCS magazine, Catalyst, MacLeod will receive a $500 cash prize, an autographed copy of Michigan Supports Dude: The Big Book of Zonker, by Gary Trudeau, a copy of the calendar auto- Evolution, Rejects ID for graphed by the four celebrity judges, and fifty copies to distribute to his Science Classes friends and family; he will also have lunch with Bob Mankoff. The other dd Michigan to the list of states that have given intelligent design eleven finalists will each receive a signed the bum’s rush. Michigan’s state Board of Education on October copy of the calendar. (MacLeod’s car- A10, 2006, approved public school curriculum guidelines that toon appears above.) support the teaching of evolution in public schools, but not intelligent Regarding the purpose of the contest design. Intelligent design doesn’t belong in the science class, according to and the calendar that it produced, the guidelines unanimously adopted. “The intent of the board needs to Michael Halpern, Outreach Coordi- be very clear,” said board member John Austin. “Evolution is not under nator for the UCS Scientific Integrity stress. It is not untested science.” Program, said, “While editorial cartoons can be funny, political interference in science is not. The calendar communicates

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER January / February 2007 11 SI J-F 2007 pgs 11/13/06 11:27 AM Page 12

SPECIAL REPORTS

World Trade Center Illness: Manufactured Mass Hysteria

MICHAEL FUMENTO

tarting in early 2002, firefighters sure to the environment there,” Dennis People who participate in such medical who responded to the World Trade Charney, Mount Sinai’s dean for acade- studies tend to do so because they SCenter (WTC) on that awful day mic and scientific affairs, said in a state- believe they’re sick. So you can’t make the previous September began reporting ment issued with the study. any meaningful comparisons to respon- what became labeled “World Trade What the report found was that 69 ders who didn’t volunteer for the study Center Cough.” Since then, numerous percent of some 9,500 responders said or to the general public. They simply other first responders, later responders, they suffered new or worsened breathing aren’t random or representative. This and people who simply lived in the gen- problems at the time of their WTC problem alone wholly invalidates the eral WTC area have also reported a vari- work. Further, in 59 percent symptoms significance that Mount Sinai and the ety of respiratory and other ills. persisted until their examinations (con- media gave the report. Clearly, these people are suffering. ducted from 2002 to 2004). But these But what about those spirometer But are they suffering from a variety of are self-reported claims with no way of readings? All this device (invented 150 toxins or alleged toxins that filled the air verifying them. years ago) can do is measure breathing after the fiery explosions? Or is their The best indication these people have capacity. And labored breathing is a problem stress-caused psychogenic ill- real symptoms is that, among nonsmok- main symptom of psychogenic illness. ness with perhaps some non-psy- ing responders, twice as many had abnor- Ultimately, nothing in the report chogenic illness mixed in? mal readings on spirometer (a device that offers the least shred of evidence that the Some scientific papers indicate stress accurately measures your ability to suffering responders aren’t by and large as a major factor. But the media always breathe) as the general population. suffering from psychogenic illness. The favor the multiple toxin or “environmen- Case closed? Not by a long shot. term is commonly misinterpreted as tal illness” theory, and now insist as a One glaring problem is that those meaning “it’s all in your heads.” But it chorus that a new report from the 9,500 evaluated in the Mount Sinai study actually means the symptoms can be Mount Sinai School of Medicine in the aren’t a representative sample of respon- quite real and debilitating but that they journal Environmental Health Perspec- ders, merely an assessment of specific originated with stress. September 11 is tives has settled it. responders from a total of about 40,000. synonymous with stress for the entire “Many who worked at Ground Zero That is, this is not an epidemiologi- nation, and certainly far more so for the in the early days after the attacks have cal study, which would deliberately responders. sustained serious and lasting health “want a group of people who are Medical annals are filled with inci- problems as a direct result of their expo- selected using a sampling design, where dents of mass psychogenic illness hyste- the group represents a study popula- ria. For example, in Kosovo in 1990 at Michael Fumento, a former Army para- tion,” observes John Fairbank, co-direc- least 4,000 residents suffered a mystery trooper, is a senior fellow at the Hudson tor of the UCLA-Duke University illness that began at a high school. Institute, and the author of Science Under Medical Center National Center for Observed researchers: “An outbreak of Siege and The Myth of Heterosexual Child Traumatic Stress. “This doesn’t.” respiratory infection within a single AIDS. This article originally appeared on This study looked only at the minor- class appears to have triggered fears that the Web site ChronWatch (www.chron ity of responders who came to Mount Serbs may have dispensed poison.” watch.com). Sinai to have their health monitored. They hadn’t. Rumors of Israeli-spread

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poison gas caused a similar mass out- drum insisting that responders ought Trade Center on 9/11 or helped in the break of illness among West Bank to be sick. The bastion of these scien- cleanup; they are their tormenters. Palestinians in 1983. tists since 2002 has been—surprise!— Our heroes deserve our compassion That brings us to perhaps the most Mount Sinai. and help for their WTC-related ill- distressing aspect of the WTC out- Indeed, no other institution is more nesses, whether psychogenic or not. But break. In addition to the trauma expe- associated with pushing the oddball the- true compassion begins with informing rienced at the WTC site, the best ory of “environmental illness” than this them that there is no scientific evidence explanation for these ills is that they one. Mount Sinai and the sycophantic indicating they should be sicker than have been induced by the media and media are no friends of those brave men anyone else, at least not from environ- select scientists who steadily beat the and women who rushed to the World mental causes.

New Report Casts Doubt on Gulf War Syndrome

BENJAMIN RADFORD

study recently pub- that because they became ill lished by the National after their tour of duty, that Academy of Sciences experience is what caused A their symptoms. While that casts doubt on the reality of Gulf War Syndrome (GWS) may indeed be true, the mal- as a specific disease or syn- adies could also be from any drome. About 60,000 of the number of other, unrelated nearly 700,000 Gulf War vet- causes. Part of the problem is erans began reporting health that the symptoms are so problems in the months and diverse—and so common— years following their military that attributing a specific service. Complaints include cause to a specific illness can insomnia, irritability, hair be difficult or impossible. Is a skin rash or persistent cough loss, chronic fatigue, muscle Oil fires in Kuwait are claimed to have contributed to Gulf War veterans’ spasms, skin rashes, memory disabilities. Photo by Jim Hodson/Greenpeace/ZUMA Press. Copyright caused by toxic chemicals loss, diarrhea, headaches, and 1991 by Greenpeace inhaled years ago at an Iraqi unexplained aches and pains. ans are suffering; the question is munitions dump, or toxic Some veterans believe that GWS is also whether the symptoms are related in any chemicals inhaled over months or years responsible for birth defects and cancer; way to military service and have a com- from a nearby, polluting factory up- others claim that GWS is a sexually mon cause. The controversy over Gulf wind? Or both, or neither? transmitted disease that threatens the War Syndrome—now in its second In the real world, correlation can be health of not only the veterans but their decade—highlights the difficulties of very difficult to distinguish from causation: spouses and partners as well. scientific and medical certainty, as well The precise etiology of Gulf War as a common logical fallacy: post hoc ergo Benjamin Radford wrote about conversion Syndrome is very difficult to pinpoint; propter hoc (“after this, therefore because disorders in Hoaxes, Myths, and Manias, nearly everyone agrees that many veter- of it”). Gulf War veterans may assume co-authored with Robert Bartholomew.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER January / February 2007 13 SI J-F 2007 pgs 11/13/06 11:28 AM Page 14

Links that may seem obvious are not biological weapons during the Gulf War.” erans than among the nondeployed.” always clear. For example, many lifelong Nonetheless, many critics, including Sen. However, the report notes, “there are no smokers never get lung cancer, while Arlen Specter, continued to insist that clear objective diagnostic criteria that many nonsmokers do. To find out nerve gas was a contributing factor to can be used to validate the findings, so it which if any of the myriad substances GWS. The Pentagon was criticized in later is not clear whether the literature sup- the veterans were exposed to caused the years for not doing more to track which ports a true excess of the conditions or illnesses, we would need a control American troops were exposed to which whether the associations are spurious group: two sets of patients in the same toxins, as well as administering inadequate and result from the increased reporting condition, only one of whom was pre- and post-deployment health mea- of symptoms across the board.” exposed to a given pathogen. sures. (Some veterans may be sick when The report states that despite the While some Gulf War veterans claim they leave the military, but without having “enormous effort and resources” devoted that their plight has been ignored, a statistical baseline to determine how to examining GWS, “The information action has been taken to study the syn- healthy they were to begin with, such has not been sufficient to determine con- drome. In 1996, a panel appointed by numbers are difficult to interpret.) Despite clusively the origins, extent, and poten- President Clinton concluded that “sig- claims of a cover-up, however, investiga- tial long-term implications of [Gulf War nificant evidence supports the likeli- tions have not found any evidence that the service] health problems. . . .The diffi- hood of a physiological stress-related Pentagon intentionally hid or suppressed culty in obtaining meaningful answers origin” for many GWS ailments. While information about GWS. . . . is due largely to inadequate prede- the conclusion is probably true, the In 1998, Congress passed two laws ployment and postdeployment screening public should be skeptical of “stress” as regarding the illnesses, the Persian Gulf and medical examinations, and lack of an explanation, for though the ability of War Veterans Act and the Veterans monitoring of possible exposures of the body to convert psychological symp- Programs Enhancement Act. These mea- deployed personnel.” These shortcom- toms into physical ones is well docu- sures contracted the National Academy of ings were addressed in the committee’s mented, citing the cause of a disease as Sciences to “review and evaluate the the recommendations section. stress is of little profit. Stress is a notori- scientific and medical literature regarding The study found that there was “no ously fluid catch-all term that is difficult associations between illness and exposure unique syndrome, unique illness, or to both define and quantify. This is to toxic agents, environmental wartime unique symptom complex in deployed especially true when dealing with non- hazards, and preventive medicines or vac- Gulf War veterans.” As expected, veter- specific stressors. There’s little doubt cines associated with Gulf War service.” ans were at increased risk for several psy- that many things cause concern and The Committee on Gulf War and Health chiatric illnesses, such as post-traumatic stress every day, ranging from traffic did not collect any original data, instead stress disorder, anxiety, and depression. jams to infidelity to wartime combat. focusing on 850 potentially relevant, Among those symptoms that could be But stress is highly subjective, and what peer-reviewed epidemiological studies. measured with diagnostic tests, studies stresses one person may not at all affect The committee published its finding in a did not find an increase in cancer, birth someone else in similar circumstances. 2006 report, “Gulf War and Health.” The defects, cardiovascular disease, or (As noted in the November/December report noted that the studies’ conclusions peripheral neuropathy. Veterans were at 2004 SI article “Bacteria, Ulcers, and were clouded by many common limita- greater risk of respiratory illnesses, and Ostracism? H. Pylori and the Making tions, including “use of a population that there was some evidence that veterans of a Myth,” for decades stomach ul- was not representative of the entire Gulf had an increased likelihood of amy- cers were wrongly believed by both War population, reliance on self-reports otrophic lateral sclerosis. doctors and the general public to be rather than objective measures of symp- Many Gulf War veterans angrily caused by stress. Many other common toms, low participation rates, and a period rejected the latest study’s findings, as maladies and symptoms, ranging from of investigation that was too brief to they did previous reports and studies headaches to violence to sexual dysfunc- detect health outcomes with long latency that did not support their conclusions. tion, are also—rightly or wrongly— such as cancer.” Often this is because they mistakenly attributed to stress.) Every study examined found that believe that if the syndrome is not In 1996, CIA Executive Director Nora Gulf War veterans “report higher rates of proven “real,” that somehow relegates Slatkin addressed the contention that Iraqi nearly all symptoms examined than their the suffering veterans to liars, hoaxers, chemical weapons (such as nerve gas) nondeployed counterparts.... In many or fabulists. Instead, as with mass hyste- caused the symptoms, stating that “On studies, investigators found a higher ria, those truly suffering from the illness the basis of a comprehensive review of the prevalence not only of individual symp- are not faking or imagining the symp- intelligence that we have, we continue to toms but also of chronic multisymptom toms; instead they are simply misat- conclude that Iraq did not use chemical or illnesses among Gulf War-deployed vet- tributing the cause.

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COMMENT AND OPINION

framework first, and they must provide an alternative framework willing The Art of Persuasion to be considered by the listener before mentioning any facts. Unless the listener accepts the new framework, the in Politics listener will dismiss any facts that dis- agree with their existing cognitive framework and all arguments will fail. (and Science) Lakoff’s model explains why the vast amounts of facts provided by scientists and the powerful import of the data BENJAMIN WOLOZIN that we obtain frequently appear to bounce off the ears of the audience, such as those who don’t accept evolution, global warming, or stem-cell research. The book begins by noting some well-known contradictions apparent in the conservative movement. For in- dvocating for science is more marizes research showing that individ- stance, conservatives are generally important than ever. Funding uals develop cognitive frameworks to pro-capital-punishment but anti-abor- A for many scientific endeavors is help them organize the information in tion. How can they favor death on the being reduced. Much of the public the world around them. A simple one hand but oppose it on the other? does not believe in evolution. Ad- example is the issue of abortion. Contradictions, though, are not vances in stem-cell biology and genetic Conservatives frame the abortion unique to conservatives. The liberal engineering are under attack. And debate as a debate about protecting platform is equally contradictory, many politicians and much of the pub- life, which is a powerfully simple argu- because liberals are against capital lic discount warnings about global ment. They have used the power of punishment but in favor of abortion. warming. this moral argument to frame the con- Lakoff resolves this apparent contra- It is often perplexing that science’s servative agenda. We use such cogni- diction with a very simple model. critics appear to be immune to the tive frameworks to interpret the many Lakoff proposes that conservatives tremendous amount of data driving facts confronting us every day. We operate using a “strong-father” our conclusions and instead seem to attend to facts that integrate easily model. The model begins from the rely on weak or dubious facts criticiz- with the cognitive framework and basic idea that the father rules the ing each subject. Whether the topic is tend to dismiss facts that are not con- family and is the authority. This model evolution, global warming, stem cells, sistent with our views. places immense reliance on the value or abortion, how often have we had Scientists also use cognitive frame- of rules and authority. This model pre- the experience of trying to persuade works for understanding disparate supposes that the father has prospered someone why our view of the world is facts. For example, in my field, Alz- because of his hard work, innate abili- accurate, only to have the arguments heimer’s disease, many scientists use ties, and adherence to the rules. A fur- dismissed? How can the public ignore the amyloid-cascade hypothesis to ther assumption is that all who follow the overwhelming evidence? understand the disease process. This this dogma will be successful. Based on George Lakoff is a cognitive psy- hypothesis clearly does not explain all the strong-father model, the father chologist and linguist from the aspects of Alzheimer’s disease, but its should be rewarded because of his suc- University of California, Irvine. His spe- utility lies in its tremendous ability to cess, as should everyone else who pros- cialty is cognitive constructs. He has facilitate interpreting the massive pers because he or she has followed taken this theoretical knowledge and amount of data streaming through the social rules. applied it to politics. His analysis is sim- the literature daily. Lakoff argues that In this model, following the social ple but very cogent. His book Don’t appreciating the role of cognitive rules leads to social and economic suc- Think of an Elephant: Know Your frameworks in human behavior is cess, while those who did not succeed Values and Frame the Debate (Chelsea essential in engaging in public de- must have failed because they did not Green Publishing 2004), now available bates, because it explains how people follow the rules. Thus, the “bad boy” in paperback, provides an important take in information and why people new model for understanding the art tend to dismiss facts that conflict with Benjamin Wolozin, M.D., is a professor of political persuasion. their views. in the Department of Pharmacology at Lakoff’s basic idea is the powerful The book’s fundamental message is the Boston University School of Med- role cognitive frameworks exert in our that to be persuasive, speakers must icine, Boston, MA 02118-2526. E-mail: understanding of the world. He sum- address the underlying cognitive [email protected].

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grows up to be poor. The poor, there- sizes the fluidity of public opinion. suddenly became very amenable to fore, should not be rewarded (with Lakoff points out that many individu- considering the damage done to the benefits such as welfare, Medicare, als use a strong-father model in one United States by the tax cuts and bud- and food stamps). The value of rules part of their lives and a nurturing-par- get deficits, ultimately agreeing also guides the punitive code, because ent model in other parts of their lives. wholeheartedly that the current polit- those who break the law must be pun- The key to conveying alternate ideas is ical agenda was damaging the nation’s ished harshly, such as by use of capital to provide a new construct that the lis- competitiveness. Without an alterna- punishment. The strong father is the tener can use to interpret your mes- tive cognitive framework, he never patriarch, and the wife’s place is subor- sage. Lakoff points out that one must would have considered my comments. dinate to her husband. Many conserv- be careful in selecting the language, Some people will never accept an atives loathe Hillary Clinton. According because the language frames the alternate model, but even those who to Lakoff’s theories, the principal mis- issue. Use of the term tax relief by con- might accept one can’t be expected to take of Hillary Clinton might be automatically accept a new that she acted as an indepen- point of view. The key, accord- dent and coequal entity to her ing to Lakoff, is to provide a husband, the elected leader. “wedge issue” that confronts The strong-father model also Scientists frequently the listener with a situation provides an underlying explana- that challenges her or his exist- tion for the conservative back- use facts to argue a ing model. Partial-birth abor- lash against abortion: young tion has been used effectively women who get pregnant acci- point without bothering by Republicans; very few of dentally get into that situation to address differences these procedures are ever per- because they disobey the tradi- formed, but the frequency is tional rules against premarital in the underlying irrelevant, because the idea of sex; such misbehavior must not killing a late-term fetus is dis- be rewarded with an abortion. cognitive framework. tressing. Lakoff provides the Economic success and the rights example for Democrats of a of the individual patriarch are female soldier who is raped on also paramount in the strong- the battlefield. This soldier father model. Laws that inter- cannot be provided with a fere with economic success, such as servatives presupposes that there is a morning-after pill or an abortion by a environmental laws or tax laws, must problem that needs relief. Who could military hospital, despite the honor we be removed; taxes are assumed to argue against the need for relief, should pay her for having enlisted and remove money that was justly earned which sounds helpful? Anyone who risking her life for her country. by following the social rules. does not address this underlying The book provides a powerful Lakoff states that liberals, on the assumption will not be able to argue explanation of the recent domination other hand, operate using the “nur- against it. An alternative term would of the political culture by the Repub- turing-parent” model. This model be deficit-raising tax cuts. Who could licans. After reading the book, I cer- views that family as a collection of rel- possibly be in favor of those? tainly came to respect the audacious ative equals (as portrayed in Hillary Lakoff urges us to practice using brilliance of Karl Rove and the conser- Clinton’s book, It Takes a Village). In terms that frame the issue and cogni- vative think tanks. this model, the goal of the parent is to tive constructs that support our point This book is a must read for anyone support the rest of the family. The of view. I have tried this and found it who wants to discuss scientific issues in family succeeds as a cooperative to be remarkably effective. For in- the public arena. Unless scientists can enterprise. Those who don’t succeed, stance, I was on a plane talking about provide simple cognitive frameworks the poor, need to be helped by the the cuts to the National Institutes of for understanding scientific advances, enterprise. Criminals are those who Health budget with a conservative. scientists are destined to lose debates in suffer from misfortune and should be When I simply discussed government the public sphere. The dangers of rising helped. Younger women who get spending, he showed no willingness to oceans and climate shifts that could be pregnant are not bad; they just had listen to my comments. Then I remem- caused in the future by global warming bad fortune and should be helped. bered Lakoff’s words and made an are far too abstract for most people to Laws are present to help spread the analogy to businesses (the man was a worry about. On the other hand, peo- fortune of the family. Environmental financial manager for a shoe comple can easily understand that a water laws protect the community over the pany). I presented the idea that busi- stain in the ceiling of one’s house rights of the individual. nesses that don’t invest don’t grow means a problem with the roof rather Over the years, public sentiment and stagnate. The business model was than the ceiling, and that the home has shifted towards the strong-father a cognitive framework with which he owner must correct the underlying model. The shift in sentiment empha- identified. He embraced that idea and problem of the leaky roof or the stain in

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the ceiling will just get worse. Global incentives for considering the value of presented without first providing an warming is a similar problem: weeks of stem cells and for challenging the acceptable cognitive framework. temperatures over 110 degrees in notion that a single stem cell has the Lakoff provides a new paradigm for Phoenix will only get worse unless we same right to life as a thinking, breath- discussing contemporary issues. One of pay attention to the atmosphere. ing, individual. The application of pro- the greatest problems facing our soci- Evolution must also be explained in apoptotic genes discovered in C. ele- ety is that many of the cognitive concrete terms, relevant to everyone’s gans for the diagnosis and therapy of frameworks provided by many conser- daily experience. The fossil record can cancer in man emphasizes the similar vatives and some liberals run contrary be likened to a crime-scene investiga- mechanisms used by disparate life to discoveries made through scientific tion. If your front door is open and your forms and provides a powerful refer- investigation; cognitive frameworks television is missing and you see foot- ence for explaining the evolution of that deny reality are a long-term steps on your floor from a shoe larger genes. Everyone wants a cure for can- threat to our society. than that of anyone in your household, cer and might consider the value of Scientists must develop simple cog- it is reasonable to conclude that an evolutionary theory in that context. nitive models that are relevant to peo- intruder was in the house, even though Scientists frequently use facts to ple’s daily lives; frameworks through you never saw the intruder. The fossil argue a point without bothering to which the public can hear us. Armed record is no different. address differences in the underlying with these simple models and the Science also provides us with a pow- cognitive framework. Many of our wedge issues that are the bread and erful arsenal of wedge issues, if used politicians, such as John Kerry, also use butter of our work, we represent a correctly. Many people have a loved this approach and are singularly un- powerful resource that can move the one with an illness that can only be persuasive. On the other hand, George public discussion to pragmatically cured by advances in health care. Bush is very skilled at focusing on the address the issues of the day and Parkinson’s disease, diabetes, or underlying cognitive framework. This develop policies that benefit rather Crohn’s disease provide important book emphasizes the futility of facts than hurt the lives of our children.

The Committee for Skeptical Inquiry presents a skeptical magazine for the Spanish-speaking world.

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SKEPTICAL INQUIRER January / February 2007 17 SI J-F 2007 pgs 11/13/06 11:29 AM Page 18

NOTES OF A FRINGE WATCHER MARTIN GARDNER

‘Dr.’ Bearden’s Vacuum Energy

ne of the strangest books ever Vacuum energy will rescue us from Bearden sprinkles his massive volume written about modern physics global warming, eliminate poverty, and with admirable quotations from top Owas published in 2002, and provide boundless clean energy for physicists, past and present, occasionally reprinted two years later. Titled Energy humanity’s glorious future. All that is correcting mistakes made by Einstein from the Vacuum (Cheniere Press), this needed now is for the scientific com- and others. For example, Bearden be- monstrosity is two inches thick and munity to abandon its “ostrich posi- lieves that the graviton moves much weighs three pounds. Its title page lists tion” and allow adequate funding to faster than the speed of light. He praises the author as “Lt. Col. Thomas E. Bearden and his associates. the work of almost every counterculture Bearden, PhD (U.S. Army retired).” To almost all physicists this quest for physicist of recent decades. He admires “Dr.” Bearden is fond of putting PhD what is called “zero-point energy” (ZPE) David Bohm’s “quantum potential” and after his name. An Internet check revealed is as hopeless as past efforts to build per- Mendel Sach’s unified field theory. that his doctorate was given, in his own petual motion machines. Such skepti- Oliver Heaviside and Nikola Tesla are words, for “life experience and life accom- cism drives Bearden up a wall. Only two of his heroes. plishment.” It was purchased from a monumental ignorance, he writes, could Bearden devotes several chapters to diploma mill called Trinity College and prompt such criticism. antigravity machines. Here is a sample University—a British institution with no The nation’s number two drum- of his views: building, campus, faculty, or president, beater for ZPE is none other than In our approach to antigravity, one and run from a post office box in Sioux Harold Puthoff, who runs a think tank way to approach the problem is to Falls, South Dakota. The institution’s in Austin, Texas, where efforts to tap have the mechanical apparatus also owner, one Albert Wainwright, calls him- ZPE have been underway for years. In the source of an intense negative December 1997, to its shame, Scientific energy EM field, producing an intense self the college “registrant.” flux of Dirac sea holes into and in the Bearden’s central message is clear American ran an article praising Puthoff local surrounding space-time. The and simple. He is persuaded that it is for his efforts. Nowhere did this article excess charge removed from the Dirac possible to extract unlimited free mention his dreary past. holes can in fact be used in the elec- energy from the vacuum of space-time. Puthoff began his career as a dedi- trical powering of the physical system, cated Scientologist. He had been de- as was demonstrated in the Sweet Indeed, he believes the world is on the VTA antigravity test. Then move- brink of its greatest technological revo- clared a “clear”—a person free of mali- ments of the mechanical parts could lution. Forget about nuclear reactors. cious “engrams” recorded on his brain involve movement of strong negative while he was an embryo. At Stanford energy fields, hence strong curves of Martin Gardner’s latest book is The Research International, Puthoff and his local space-time that are local strong Annotated Hunting of the Snark: The then-friend Russell Targ claimed to have negative gravity fields. Or, better yet, movement of the charges themselves Definitive Edition, published by W.W. validated “remote viewing” (a new name will also produce field-induced move- Norton in October 2006. This column is a for distant clairvoyance), and also the ment of the Dirac sea hole negative new contribution to his Notes of a Fringe great psi powers of Uri Geller. (See my energy. This appears to be a practical Watcher column, which ran in every issue chapter on Puthoff’s search for ZPE in method to manipulate the metric itself, along the lines proposed by of SKEPTICAL INQUIRER from Summer Did Adam and Eve Have Navels?, Puthoff et al.217 1993 through January/February 2002. Norton 2000.)

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The 217 superscript refers to a foot- shooter. Another ZPE researcher was guarded by friends day and night, for note about a 2002 paper by Puthoff and killed by a bazooka-size shooter. Steve the same reason, else he runs a high two friends on how to use the vacuum Marikov, still another researcher, was risk of the “air syringe” assassination during the night. field to power spacecraft. Bearden’s anti- assaulted by a sophisticated shooter and Simply trying to do scientific gravity propulsion system is neatly dia- his body thrown off a rooftop to make it work, I find it necessary to often carry grammed on page 319. “Negatively appear a suicide. When his body was (legally) a hidden weapon. Both my charged local space-time,” says the dia- removed, the pavement “glowed.” wife and I have gun permits, and we gram, “acts back upon source vehicle pro- One day at a Texas airport a person frequently and legally carry concealed weapons. ducing anti-gravity and unilateral thrust.” three feet from Bearden was killed with As early as the 1930s, T. Henry In the 1950s, numerous distinguished symptoms suggesting he was murdered Moray—who built a successful writers, artists, and even philosophers by an ice-dart dipped in curare! “That COP>1.0 power system outputting (e.g., Paul Goodman, William Steig, and was apparently just to teach me ‘they’ 50kW from a 55 lb power unit—had to ride in a bulletproof car in Salt Paul Edwards) sat nude in Wilhelm were serious.” The colonel goes on to Reich’s “orgone accumulators” to absorb the healing rays of “orgone energy” coming from outer space. Bearden suspects (in footnote 78) that orgone energy “is In the 1950s, numerous distinguished writers, really the transduction of the time-polar- ized photon energy into normal photon artists, and even philosophers sat nude in Wilhelm energy. We are assured by quantum field theory and the great negentropy solution to the source charge problem that Reich’s “orgone accumulators” to absorb the healing the instantaneous scalar potential involves this process.” I doubt if the rays of “orgone energy” coming from outer space. Reichians, who are still around, will find this illuminating. To my amazement Bearden has good things to say about the notorious “Dean explain that “they” refers to a “High Lake City, Utah. He was repeatedly drive”—a rotary motion device designed Cabal” who were offended by a friend’s fired at by snipers from the buildings to propel spaceships by inertia. It was “successful transmutation of copper (and or sidewalk, with the bullets sometimes sticking in the glass. He was promoted by John Campbell when he other things) into gold. . . . We have had edited Astounding Science Fiction, a mag- also shot by a would-be assassin in his numerous other assassination attempts, azine that unleashed L. Ron Hubbard’s own laboratory, but overpowered his too numerous to reiterate.... Over the assassin and recovered. Dianetics on a gullible public and made years probably as many as fifty or more Hubbard a millionaire. Only elementary Obviously, I’m not competent to overunity researchers and inventors have physics is needed to show that no iner- wade through Bearden’s almost a thou- been assassinated . . . some have simply tial drive can move a spaceship in fric- sand pages to point out what physicists disappeared abruptly and never have tionless space. On pages 448–453 tell me are howlers. I leave that task to been heard from since.” Overunity is Bearden lists eighty patents for inertial experts, though I suspect very few will Bearden’s term for machines with energy drives. They have one feature in com- consider it worth their time even to read outputs that exceed energy inputs. mon: none of them works. the book. To me, a mere science jour- Counterculture scientists tend to be Any significant researcher should be nalist, the book’s dense, pompous jargon bitter over the “establishment’s” inability wary of “meeting with a sudden sui- sounds like hilarious technical double- cide” on the way to the supermarket. talk. The book’s annotated glossary runs to recognize their genius. Was not Another thing to beware of, is a cali- Galileo, they like to repeat, persecuted brated auto accident where your car is to more than 120 pages. There are 305 for his great discoveries? This bitterness rammed from the rear, and you are footnotes, 754 endnotes, and a valuable is sometimes accompanied by paranoid shaken up considerably. An ambu- seventy-three-page index. fears, not just of conspiracies to silence lance just happens to be passing by The back cover calls the book “the moments later, and it will take you to definitive energy book of the twenty- them, but also fears of being murdered. the hospital. If still conscious, the Bearden’s pages 406–453 are devoted to researcher must not get in the ambu- first century.” In my opinion it is des- just such delusions. lance unless accompanied by a watch- tined to be the greatest work of out- Several kinds of “shooters” are ful friend who understands the situa- landish science in both this and the pre- described that induce fatal heart attacks. tion and the danger. Otherwise, he vious century. It is much funnier, can easily get a syringe of air into his for instance, than Frank Tipler’s best- He himself, Bearden writes, has been hit veins, which will effectively turn him by such devices. An associate, Stan Meyer, into a human vegetable. If he goes to seller of a few decades ago, The Physics died after a “possible” hit by a close-range the hospital safely, he must be of Immortality.

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INVESTIGATIVE FILES JOE NICKELL

Mysterious Entities of the Pacific Northwest, Part I

ankind’s imagination has al- I spoke on “Mysterious Entities of pictorial chart, “Alien Timeline” shown ways been excited by the pos- the Pacific Northwest,” which I specially in the September/October 1997 Msibilities of unknown regions. researched for the cruise, and—as SKEPTICAL INQUIRER.) Thus, a seemingly limitless universe opportunity presented itself—I was also The earliest record of potential invites speculation about extraterrestri- able to do a bit of on-site investigating Sasquatch footprints is dated 1811 als; the world’s largely unexplored relating to that topic as we occasionally when David Thompson, a trader and oceans and seas, even deep lakes, put into port. Here is an overview of explorer, was seeking the mouth of the prompt thoughts of leviathans; simi- what I found. Columbia River. Crossing the Rockies larly, vast wilderness areas of the globe at what is today Jasper, Alberta, he came Sasquatch spark belief in other strange creatures, upon a mysterious track in the snow. It including various man-beasts; and The area our cruise skirted is part of the measured fourteen inches long by eight belief in the great, imagined “Other Pacific Northwest, an area loosely en- inches wide and was characterized by Side” leads to tales of such entities as compassing northern California, Wash- four toes with short claw marks, a ghosts and spirits. ington state, Oregon, British Columbia, deeply impressed ball of the foot, and an In mid-2006, I was aboard a Center and southern Alaska. It contains some of indistinct heel imprint (Green 1978, for Inquiry cruise that traveled north the most extensive forests in North 35–37; Hunter 1993, 16–17). Some from Seattle, Washington, along the America which, some claim, is home to modern Sasquatch enthusiasts have sug- coastal reaches of British Columbia the fabled Sasquatch (although sightings gested it was the legendary man-beast, and southern Alaska. As part of our exist in other states and countries). but primate expert John Napier of the floating conference on “Planetary The name “Sasquatch” is often said to Smithsonian Institution was not so sure. Ethics”—featuring an address on that be Native American; actually it was Napier observed (1973, 74) that crucial topic by CFI chairman Paul coined by a Canadian schoolteacher J.W. Thompson’s description was “an inade- Kurtz—we visited Glacier Bay and Burns, in the 1920s. Her Native Coast quate basis for any far-reaching conclu- were treated to lectures on global Salish informants had different names sions.” He argued that the print could warming and the melting of the for various unknown hairy giants, the well have been that of a bear (whose world’s glaciers by Mark Bowen, British Columbian version being known small inner toe may not have left a author of Thin Ice (2005). Among as sokqueatl or soss-q’tal. Burns wanted to mark); Thompson himself thought it other speakers, Barbara Forrest cri- invent a single term for all of the alleged likely “the track of a large old grizzled tiqued recent attacks on the teaching creatures (Coleman and Clark 1999, bear” (qtd. in Hunter 1993, 17). of evolution. 215; Alley 2003, 9). This began a process Contrastingly, in 1847, a very differ- of homogenization that helped turn var- ent type of wild man was reported. Joe Nickell is a former private detective ious imaginative wild-man concepts into Artist Paul Kane was in Washington, in and author of numerous investigative an increasingly uniform type, as we shall sight of Mount St. Helens volcano, books, including Crime Science and Real- see. (I have been investigating this which, the Indians asserted, was “inhab- Life X-Files. His Web site is at www.joe process for many years, just as I did for ited by a race of beings of a different nickell.com. extraterrestrials which culminated in my species, who are cannibals, and whom

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they hold in great dread.” Called of nine-by-seventeen-inch feet. A friend (Bord and Bord 1982, 80). Roger “skoocooms” or “evil genii,” however, of Mullens, Bill Lambert, had then Patterson, a longtime Bigfoot enthusiast they appear to have been seen as super- strapped them onto his own feet and who had frequently “discovered” the natural rather than natural beings. In tromped about the area where the berry creature’s tracks, encountered a man- any case, Kane did not refer to them as pickers’ cars were parked (Dennett beast as he and a sidekick rode at Bluff ape-like (Hunter 1993, 17–18). 1982). Since then, more realistic foot- Creek. It spooked the men’s horses but The supposed capture of Sasquatch prints have appeared, curiously follow- as his mount fell, Patterson claimed, he was reported in the Victoria, British ing extensive published descriptions of jumped clear, grabbed a movie camera Columbia, Daily Colonist on July 4, 1884. what genuine Sasquatch/Bigfoot should from his saddlebag, and filmed the crea- Railway men had allegedly captured a be like. So has other evidence. ture as it strode away with a seemingly hairy “half-man, half beast,” only four- The 1950s were a watershed in exaggerated stride, “as if,” wrote Daniel feet-seven-inches tall and weighing 127 Sasquatch’s history. In 1951 the foot- Cohen (1982, 17), “a bad actor were pounds. Dubbed “Jacko,” it was allegedly print of a yeti or “abominable snowman” trying to simulate a monster’s walk.” being kept in an area jail, but was to be from the Himalayas was photographed Patterson’s creature had hairy, pendu- taken to London to be exhibited. by explorer Eric Shipton and received lous breasts, a detail many thought so Although some have suggested Jacko considerable media attention—in Cali- convincing that it argued against the could have been an escapee from a tour- fornia and elsewhere across the United film being a hoax. Actually, Patterson ing circus menagerie, it seems more States and even the world. had previously made a drawing of just likely he never existed. He was never In 1955, one William Roe claimed to such a supposed female creature which heard from again, except that a later have observed a female Sasquatch for a appeared in his book, published the year newspaper article—in the July 9, 1884, few minutes at close range. Two years before (Patterson 1966, 111). Mainland Guardian—indicated the later Albert Ostman swore that, some Although early in the next millen- story had been a hoax, apparently per- thirty-three years earlier, in 1924, he nium a Patterson acquaintance, Bob petrated by a reporter for the Daily had been prospecting alone near the Heironimus, confessed he had been the Colonist (Stein 1993, 246–247). Toba Inlet, British Columbia, when he man in the ape suit (Long 2004), some Certainly, hoaxes characterized many was abducted—carried off in his sleep- skeptics as well as die-hard monster Sasquatch reports throughout the next ing bag—by a male Sasquatch. Ostman enthusiasts refused to believe him. century. A case from 1924 may be one claimed he was held captive by a family Meanwhile, hoaxes and questionable of them. A man named Fred Beck and of the creatures, whom he described in reports aside, the fact remains that no several fellow prospectors claimed to detail, but escaped after almost a week. credible capture of Sasquatch/Bigfoot has have shot at several “mountain gorillas” However, analysis of his story demon- ever been recorded, nor has anyone ever in a canyon near Kelso, Washington. strated that it was more likely the result recovered a carcass or even partial skele- They insisted that that night the crea- of imagination than of recollection ton in the Pacific Northwest or else- tures bombarded their cabin with rocks (Daegling 2004, 31–32, 67–69). where. Insists Cohen (1982, 9), “Surely and beat upon the door and roof. At In 1958, Sasquatch was rechristened the creatures die.” Ah, well, but the leg- daybreak the attack had ceased and after making several visits to a road-con- end still seems impervious to destruction. giant footprints were found around the struction site at Bluff Creek in remote cabin (Bord and Bord 1982, 41–42). northern California. The tracks were Cadborosaurus However, rumors have since persisted discovered by Gerald Crew, a photo of That there are—if not actual “sea ser- that pranksters living in the vicinity had whom, holding up a cast of a giant foot- pents”—great denizens of the deep, no planted the footprints and thrown the print, was picked up by a wire service one can dispute. Among them are the rocks (Daegling 2004, 59–70). and circulated across the country. As a giant manta ray (frequently twenty feet Another case took place in 1930, result, “Bigfoot” (whose name first across), the whale shark (sixty or more near Mount St. Helens. Some people appeared with the Crew photo in the feet long), and still other great crea- who had been picking berries returned Humboldt Times on October 5, 1958) tures—including the giant squid and to their cars to discover huge, manlike began to proliferate. Decades later, after the blue whale (Welfare and Fairley tracks circling the area. Excitedly, they the death of the Bluff Creek road con- 1980, 68, 71–72). reported the tracks to nearby forest tractor, Ray Wallace, Wallace’s family While there are numerous early rangers, but for more than half a century told the press that he had faked the accounts of great “sea serpents,” often the tracks remained a mystery. Then in 1958 tracks, and they even produced described as having multiple humps, it is 1982 Rant Mullens, a retired logger who pairs of carved feet that matched the usually difficult to theorize about what had been working for the Forest Service Bluff Creek tracks (Daegling 2004, 29, was actually seen. In one instance it may at the time of the tracks appeared, con- 73; Coleman and Clark 1999, 39). have been quite ordinary creatures viewed fessed that he had been involved in fak- Another watershed came in October at a distance, or in another simply the ing the giant footprints. As a prank, he 1967 with “one of the most momentous product of an overworked imagination or had carved from a piece of wood a pair events in the annals of Bigfoot hunting” even a deliberate tall tale. The lack of

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photographs is one problem, the absence Other sightings soon followed, one Whereas one fellow eyewitness thought of a single authenticated remnant another. on November 29, all made newsworthy it a whale or seal, Graff thought it There are apparently such remains, by interest in reports and photos of the resembled Ogopogo—actually a pur- such as the carcass of one that washed newly “discovered” Loch Ness Monster. ported Pacific Northwest lake monster ashore in Scotland in 1808 (known as the Just as “Nessie” made frequent appear- (Nickell 2006)—stating, “The feeling Stronsa Beast) and another caught in a ances in her northern Scotland home, when you see one is incredible; your Japanese fishing net on April 25, 1977 “Caddy” became a claimed resident of mind goes into overdrive trying to clas- (Welfare and Fairley 1980, 81; Shuker the bay, and by 1950 some five hundred sify what your eyes see and the moment 1996, 210–211). Both of those turned witnesses claimed to have sighted the you realize that it isn’t classifiable is awe- out to be the rotting carcasses of basking creature (Colombo 1988, 379–380). some!” All we can really conclude from sharks. According to Arthur C. Clarke’s I can attest that Cadboro Bay is pic- Graff’s account is that viewers were Mysterious World: “The dead basking turesque, even at night, but I suspect there unsure of what they saw. shark decays in the most deceiving man- is no Cadborosaurus. The many reports I got a good idea of just how difficult ner. First the jaws, which are attached by and accounts, I learned, “differed in it can be to know exactly what you are only a small piece of flesh, drop off leav- details” (Colombo 1988, 380)—an indi- seeing, when on board our cruise ship in ing what looks like a small skull and thin cation that there may have been various Glacier Bay’s Tarr Inlet, I had a creature serpentlike neck. Then as only the upper creatures swimming in the waters off sighting and soon thereafter spoke to a half of the tail fin carries the spine, the Victoria. As I learned in investigating lake U.S. Park Service ranger about it. She lower half rots away leaving the lower fins monsters (Radford and Nickell 2006, told me it was probably just what I sus- which look like legs.” As this source con- 117–118), multiple creatures—such as pected—a sea otter—having actually cludes, “Time after time this monsterlike otters swimming in a line—can easily be seen otters at that place and time herself relic has been the cause of a sea serpent mistaken for a single one appearing to (Cahill 2006). ‘flap’” (Welfare and Fairley 1980, 81). have multiple coils or humps. Two days later, while we were Indeed, in the case of the creature Indeed, that may explain one such docked at Sitka, Alaska, I went out on a hauled up by Japanese fishermen (off Caddy sighting, at Roberts Creek, a com- three-hour search—called Sea Otter & the coast of New Zealand), tissue analy- munity overlooking the Strait of Georgia Wildlife Quest—aboard the double- ses were conducted by Tokyo University (between Vancouver Island and the decked excursion boat, St. Eugene. In biochemist Dr. Shigeru Kimora. These British Columbia mainland). It was addition to “Whale Rock”—a forma- revealed the presence of the protein elas- made in 1932 by local novelist Hubert tion located just under water with todin, found only in sharks (Shuker Evans (1892–1986) who saw “a series of waves breaking on it that is often mis- 1996, 210). Other such “globsters” (as bumps breaking the water, all in dark sil- taken for a whale—I saw a variety of decomposed sea monsters are dubbed) houette, and circled with ripples.” He creatures that under the right condi- turn out to be whales, oarfish, or other told a friend: “Sea lions. They run in a tions could simulate a sea serpent. They scientifically known creatures (see line like that sometimes.” But as they included a humpback whale, a group of Radford 2006). watched, the profile of a head emerged playful sea otters, and harbor seals bask- Despite such a bleak state of affairs, which the two men estimated was ing on a little island. These mammals an alleged sea serpent is said to appear extended some six feet out of the water and others, including sea lions, repre- from time to time in Cadboro Bay, on (Colombo 1988, 369–370). However, sent much more likely candidates for the southeast coast of British Columbia’s the creature or creatures were apparently Caddy than some imagined, hitherto Victoria Island. It was first reported on some distance away and could have been unknown, leviathan. October 8, 1933, by a barrister, Major misperceived. The story was half a cen- W.H. Langley. He was sailing in his tury old when told and related by a rather (Part II will discuss aliens and ghosts.) sloop Dorothy about 1:30 P.M., where- obvious romantic who gushed, “It just upon he spied a creature “nearly eighty put the hair up on the back of your neck” Acknowledgments feet long and as wide as the average (Colombo 1988, 370). In addition to individuals mentioned in automobile.” Langley said it was green- Another reported Caddy sighting the text, I appreciate the assistance of those who helped make the Alaskan cruise a suc- ish brown and had a serrated body, (so-called, although actually occurring cess, notably Toni Van Pelt and Pat “every bit as big as a whale but entirely in the San Juan Islands chain) illustrates Beauchamp. I am also grateful to Susan different from a whale in many a similar viewing problem. Terry Graff Fitzgerald and Jeff Brown of KTOO-FM, respects.” His sighting was reported in (2006, 3) reported seeing, in 1997, Juneau. Also, CFI Libraries Director the Victoria Times by reporter Archie “what looked like three seals in a row Timothy Binga once again provided valuable research assistance. Willis, and a newspaperman from the not thirty feet offshore,” but then “real- rival Victoria Daily Colonist, Richard L. ized there was only a head on the first Pocock, dubbed it “Cadborosaurus” one and the second and third were MYSTERIOUS ENTITIES OF THE (after its habitat, Cadboro Bay, and the undulating humps moving up and PACIFIC NORTHWEST, PART I Latin word for “lizard,” saurus). down.” I would add, “or so it seemed.” Continued on page 60

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THINKING ABOUT SCIENCE MASSIMO PIGLIUCCI

Evolutionary Epistemology, Anyone?

hilosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein ushering in a whole new way of looking riously a “satisficying,” not an optimiz- famously wrote (in the Tractatus) at human knowledge. ing, process. Selection does not work for Pthat “Darwin’s theory has no Evolutionary epistemology aims to the good of the species, nor for the more to do with philosophy than any explain not only why we can know about achievement of solutions that are opti- other hypothesis in natural science.” the world, but—perhaps more cru- mal from an engineering perspective. All Apparently, Darwin begged to differ, cially—why our epistemic access to the it does is favor organisms that are even since already in 1838, in his Notebook world is so limited. After all, natural selec- slightly better adapted to the environ- M, he wrote: “Plato . . . says in his tion adapted our sensory and cognitive ment than others. Our limited and Phaedo that our ‘necessary ideas’ arise abilities to the so-called “mesoworld,” that faulty cognitive and sensorial abilities from the preexistence of the soul, are is that portion of reality above the micro- are good enough for the task of survival not derived from experience—read scopic and quantum levels but below the and reproduction, and that’s all we can monkeys for preexistence.” macroscopic levels of interplanetary to expect natural selection to achieve. The contrast between these eminent intergalactic phenomena. This means that Of course, all of this immediately thinkers sets the stage for a fascinating one should expect our intuitions and rea- raises the obvious objection: how do we treatment of so-called “evolutionary soning abilities to be pretty good when know that evolutionary epistemology is a epistemology” by Gerhard Vollmer (in they address the mesoworld, but to good account of the range of humanity’s Darwinism & Philosophy, edited by V. increasingly fail or mislead us when we epistemic access to the world? Clearly Hosel and C. Illies for the University of move away from it. As Vollmer puts it, this is a philosophical, not a scientific, Notre Dame Press, 2005). The basic idea nobody can visualize the quantum realm, problem, so one cannot simply devise a is that evolutionary theory can account, and—ironically enough—many people set of controlled experiments to settle the at least in principle, for the very fact that still have trouble accepting the idea of matter. However, there are some good we are capable of (imperfectly) knowing evolution itself because they cannot wrap arguments to counter the major objec- the real world—something that has oth- their minds around the concept of cumu- tions raised against evolutionary episte- erwise baffled epistemologists since lative change over periods of hundreds of mology. Vollmer goes into some details, Plato. With a simple move, as Vollmer millions of years. but essentially the objections boil down points out, Darwin substitutes a scien- Indeed, even within the meso-realm, to three points. First, evolutionary epis- tific concept (common descent) for a we can still be taken in by optical illu- temology assumes what is commonly metaphysical one (preexistence), thus sions, or draw false inferences, a fact for referred to as a “correspondence theory” which classical epistemology has no of truth, the idea that we get closer to the Massimo Pigliucci is a professor of evolu- explanation other than the imperfection truth the more our models of the world tionary biology and philosophy at Stony of being human (which is simply rela- correspond to how the world really is. Brook University on Long Island, a fellow of beling the problem, unless one provides Ah, but—unless we are gods—how do the American Association for the Advance- an account for such imperfection). we know how the world really is? We ment of Science, and author of Denying According to evolutionary epistemolo- Evolution: Creationism, Scientism and gists, on the other hand, partial cogni- EVOLUTIONARY EPISTEMOLOGY, the Nature of Science. His essays can be tive success at the meso-level is the result ANYONE? found at www.rationallyspeaking.org. of the fact that natural selection is noto- Continued on page 27

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NOTES ON A STRANGE WORLD MASSIMO POLIDORO

The Devious Art of Improvising, Lesson Two

arry Houdini, discussing fraud I said that was fair enough, and sug- had let him take charge and make the rules. detection, once wrote in his gested he make a drawing on a piece of A fatal mistake. Hbook A Magician Among the paper and then I would try to duplicate “Well, I will see you later on the Spirits that, “It is manifestly impossible it live on the show. show” he added, in fact, waving me to detect and duplicate all the feats “Great!” he said. I was ready. goodbye. attributed to fraudulent mediums who Or so I thought. “Oh no!” I thought. “This can’t hap- do not scruple at outraging propriety pen! He can’t leave: I have no idea what Taking the Chance and even decency to gain their ends.... he drew!” Again, many of the effects produced by I had learned through various books And this is where Randi’s lesson on them are impulsive, spasmodic, done on on magic and mentalism many ways improvising suddenly struck me. An the spur of the moment, inspired or proof duplicating a drawing done by idea popped into my mind. moted by attending circumstances, and someone who is hiding it. You can “Right . . . ehm, Mr. Ferrara, I just could not be duplicated by themselves.” look at the movement of the pencil thought something....” In my previous article, I detailed my above the paper and guess the shape “What is it?” initiation, through James Randi, to the he is creating. In some cases, you can “Well, did you make your drawing art of creating irreproducible feats by even guess a shape just by listening to with a pen or a pencil?” “impulsive, spasmodic” and “on the the sound of the pen on the paper. “With a pencil, why?” spur of the moment” techniques. Or you can look at the impression “Ah! You see, I think that if you hold The first time I put to practice what left by the tip of the pen on the piece up a white sheet of paper to the camera I had learned came very soon after that of paper below the one being drawn. with a drawing done in pencil, it will be episode. I had been invited on a late Or you could try to take a peek very hard for the viewers to see what night talk show to discuss psychic phe- between your fingers while you pre- you drew....” nomena and paranormal claims. The tend to cover your eyes. Or you could He thought about it for a few sec- host of the show, Italian political com- have an accomplice strolling around onds, and then agreed. “You are right! mentator Giuliano Ferrara, asked me if I and taking a look at the drawing on Here . . .” he said taking another piece could do something to show how it is your behalf. Or, as Randi did in of paper. This time, he used a felt tip possible to obtain seemingly paranormal Rome, you can switch an envelope marker and did another drawing. phenomena through trickery. . . . and so on. When he was done, he put the new “However,” he specified, “I am not Ferrara, however, took a single sheet drawing in his pocket and took the other going to be a stooge or help you with of paper, asked me to turn my back to drawing, crumpled it up and threw it in a any trick. If you say you are able to him and made his drawing very quickly, waste paper basket! demonstrate something that is indistin- leaving me no chance to use some of the And then he left. guishable from a psychic demonstration, ruses I was ready to put in practice. Well, I thought. Now, this is very then you should do it without my help.” When I turned around, he had interesting.... already folded his sheet of paper and For some inexplicable reason, the Massimo Polidoro is an investigator of the placed it inside his jacket pocket. He papers I was holding suddenly fell on the paranormal, author, lecturer, and co- used no envelopes. floor and I had to kneel down in order to founder and head of CICAP, the Italian “Good” I said, while I was actually collect them. When I stood up I had a skeptics group. His Web site is www. thinking: “Bad. Really bad!” I had not been crumpled up piece of paper hidden massimopolidoro.com. able to stay in charge of the situation and between my documents.

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I immediately went to my dressing “Now,” Randi explained to me, “her (standing inside, rather than outside). room and opened up the paper. There was words were totally true. I never ever had Both the magicians and Walters a real risk in all this: Ferrara may have well a chance to get close to the drawing, as agreed that Randi truly was amazing. decided to do a different drawing the sec- hard as I tried. I doubt they used the Now, how did he do it? Randi had ond time. However, when I saw what he same strict conditions on Geller, but the described this demonstration in his drew I knew for sure that he had not fact remains that that was the very first book The Truth About Uri Geller but had changed his mind, for he had drawn a time I saw the envelope.” never revealed it in print. So, when he hammer and sickle. Since Ferrara had been So, without blinking, Randi acted as showed me the tape a few years ago, I a left-wing supporter for years but had just if everything was going perfectly. “Please immediately asked him about it. recently adopted a conservative position, I put it back in the book. I want to be “During the show, while Barbara was thought that by drawing the symbol of the sure it’s under control.” talking or we were watching some Communist party he was planning to She obeyed and then Randi turned footage on Geller, I surreptitiously make a joke of some kind while on air. to his fellow magicians. “Now watch opened the pen and took out the car- And, in fact, this is exactly what hap- this, it may surprise you.” tridge from it. Then, I closed the pen pened. During the show, after some deep concentration, I drew a hammer and a sickle and he showed to the audience that it was exactly what he had drawn. Both Henning and Wilson were staring, It is true that luck played an important part in all this, but as the saying quite curious to see how Randi would escape goes, fortune helps the daring. But this is not always the case, and from such an impossible situation. this is exactly what happened to Randi in a memorable television appearance some years ago. Both Henning and Wilson were star- again and put it on the table. I then The Belly Writer ing, quite curious to see how Randi would inserted the cartridge in my belt, with Randi told me he had been invited by escape from such an impossible situation. the writing side upward. Now it was just Barbara Walters to appear on her televi- Randi took out a pen and started to a question of acting. I mimed the action sion show Not for Women Only. She had draw something on a piece of paper, of drawing, with the non-writing pen, already had Uri Geller as a guest a few without showing it to anyone. When he and put the blank paper face down. months earlier and he had worked won- was done he put the drawing, face down, When she started to open the envelopes, ders on her: she had become a believer. on the table. Put the cap back on the pen I could see through the last one a bit of When the time came for an episode and put the pen on the table. “Now let’s the drawing, I saw a house and a stylized of the show devoted to “Magic and see your drawing” he asked Walters. girl. So I took the paper again with both Magicians,” Walters invited three very She was already seeing her illusions hands, and asked her to check if the prominent magicians of the time: go down the drain, because Randi’s con- envelope was transparent. It was just an Doug Henning, then star of fidence was so powerful that it could excuse to gain some time for me to draw, Broadway’s “The Magic Show,” Mark mean only one thing: somehow he had as best as I could given the situation, a Wilson, one of the first TV magicians, reproduced the drawing correctly. replica of her drawing. I simply placed and Randi himself. “Oh no, I can’t believe it” she said the paper against the tip of the cartridge During the show, the discussion even before she had seen Randi’s guess. and started to slowly move my belly in turned to Uri Geller and to an incredible Walters took the envelope out of the order to make the drawing. Yes, the final telepathy test he had done for her. He book. She opened one envelope, opened product was not perfect, but the result I had divined what drawing Barbara had the second, and when she was ready to got from her reaction was fantastic, and drawn and had hidden inside three open the third, Randi stopped her to ask that is all that matters. To the viewers, envelopes and then kept inside a book. if her drawing could be seen through it. and to my fellow magicians, I was able She wanted to see if Randi was up to his She checked, but it could not be seen. to reproduce exactly what Geller had claim that he could reproduce everything The final envelope was opened and done, even though the conditions had that Geller did, so she said: “Just before the drawing shown: it was a house with been quite bad for me!” the program, I did a drawing. I put it in a little girl standing outside, a chimney, If I thought that Randi had topped three envelopes in this book. We have smoke coming therefrom, and a door- himself with this ingenious system he not had this envelope out of our sight. way. Randi turned his drawing to the had invented on the spur of the Randi has in no way been close to it. The camera. It was a bit crude in style, but it moment, just out of desperation as he closest you’ve been to it, to my knowl- showed exactly the same thing, the admitted to me, I was wrong. Next edge, is right now. Reproduce it.” house, the smoke and the little girl time, we will see why....

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PSYCHIC VIBRATIONS ROBERT SHEAFFER

The Flashlight of the Gods

ow that crashed saucers seem again. Recently Stanton Friedman, the could be seen glowing faintly. The to have replaced alien abduc- “flying saucer physicist,” wrote, “Years authorities were notified, and thus Ntions as the “gold standard” of ago I was indeed dubious about the began a two-day vigil next at the water’s UFOlogical excitement, there is some- Aztec case, thanks to Bill Steinman, Silas edge. Finally, after Geiger counter read- thing of a “gold rush” to promote addi- Newton, etc., etc. However, once I did ings showed that the pond was not tional crash sites. Already well-estab- my homework, visited the site, and radioactive, a determined diver named lished are the legendary Roswell, New spent time with Scott Ramsey and oth- Mark Stamey braved the depths and Mexico, crash of 1947, and the Kecks- ers who have been doing theirs, I soon returned with an amazing find: a burg, Pennsylvania, crash of 1965 (actu- became convinced that indeed a saucer battery-powered railroad lantern. It was ally the Great Lakes Fireball of Decem- crashed at Hart Canyon near Aztec in never determined who had thrown it ber 9, 1965—see this column, May/ March, 1948, and its retrieval was into the pond. June, 2004). indeed, as one might expect, covered up Aah, but more than thirty years later, One up-and-coming entrant in the by the U.S. Government. Scott has “the truth” is coming out: According to UFO Crash Derby is the tiny town of really dug into the documentation, and BUFO, the Burlington UFO Internet Aztec in northwest New Mexico, not far found witnesses, etc. I would probably Radio, “the ‘lantern story’ was a coverup from Four Corners. The Aztec crash still rank Roswell the number one crash” for something much bigger—something yarn began with entertainment colum- (Saucer Smear, May 1, 2006). An annual that our government did not want us to nist Frank Scully’s 1950 book Behind UFO symposium has been held in Aztec know about.” Diver Stamey is now the Flying Saucers. Among its many since 1998 (the Web site claims “of the claiming that the lantern incident was dubious claims was that a saucer 99.99 sixteen recovered “crashed disks,” twelve “staged,” and a UFO remained in the feet in diameter (the saucers allegedly were recovered in New Mexico alone”— water’s depths. If you want to get the followed “the rule of Nines,” when mea- see www.aztecufo.com). Given that lowdown on the great Carbondale UFO sured in multiples of a long-dead British there is little other reason for anyone to Crash, see www.burlingtonnews.net/ monarch’s foot) crashed in Hart Can- visit the tiny town, its semi-famous carbondale.html. BUFO claims to be yon, containing the bodies of sixteen lit- UFO crash site has obviously become the highest-ranked Internet radio site tle men, dressed in the clothing styles of one of Aztec’s greatest assets. for UFOs and paranormal subjects. 1890. Scully’s book generated a lot of Perhaps sensing a profitable venture, However, repetitive UFO fatigue publicity and interest, which abruptly some folks are working hard to rehabili- seems to be settling in to even the most faded when his chief informant, Silas tate the once-infamous (and now virtu- well-established UFOlogical activities. Newton, was convicted as a swindler. ally forgotten) alleged UFO crash at Attendance at this year’s annual Roswell But sunken UFO stories, like rubber Carbondale, Pennsylvania. On the night UFO Festival was “pathetically low” duckies, have an amazing propensity for of November 9, 1974, three teenage according to UFOlogist Dennis popping up to the surface again and boys reportedly heard a noise in the sky, Balthaser; no official numbers were then looked up to see a red ball of light released. The organizers blamed the Robert Sheaffer’s World Wide Web page for coming at them from over a nearby decline in attendance on the high price UFOs and other skeptical subjects is at mountain. They claimed it plunged into of gasoline. Nonetheless, the city of www.debunker.com. a small pond, from whose depths a light Roswell is taking over sponsorship for

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next year’s festival. The National UFO what seems to be practically the all-para- in March of this year something strange Conference, originally scheduled to take normal, all-the-time programming on happened again with our microwave as it place in Hollywood during the Labor certain cable TV channels, where excit- had about three months prior. My Day weekend, was unexpectedly can- ing state-of-the-art visual effects give brother was heating his meal in the celled; as of this writing the organizers, undeserved credibility to the same old microwave and moved toward it when it battling the calendar, hope to hold a tired and unsubstantiated claims. Just as was finished. He then noticed that the last-minute UFO conference in Decem- the cable news channels talk endlessly digital clock on the microwave spelt the ber in San Diego. about news developments on which word child. This had happened one time However, what we are witnessing they have little or no real information, late in 2005 with exactly the same word does not appear to be the demise of the History and Science Fiction on the same microwave. That time, we belief in UFOs and related claptrap. Channels (among others) now endlessly were so creeped out by it that we imme- Instead, it is gradually transforming re-hash and re-re-hash featherweight diately pressed the button to clear; it itself from a participatory activity to a UFO claims to titillate the masses. required several attempts before the word spectator sport, in keeping with larger UFOs are alive and well, except they’re was removed and the time was displayed social trends that are turning many peo- not seen in the skies any more. You’ll again as usual . . . there have not been any ple into couch potatoes. The Science find them zooming in on digital cable to other strange occurrences here. Addi- Fiction Channel has announced a new your new plasma flat-screen HDTV. tionally, there are not any children in my weekly series, Sci Fi Investigates, promis- family or neighborhood that have passed ing to look into such worthwhile sub- * * * on within my lifetime.” But the jects as life after death, Mothman, Some “mysteries” aren’t all that hard to Webmaster added the following “update” voodoo, Roswell, paranormal hotspots solve; indeed, they make you wonder at the bottom of the page: “Many listen- and Bigfoot. The era of the individual how they ever qualified as a “mystery” in ers have pointed out that this message UFO sighting, membership in UFO the first place. The mystery-mongering indicates the microwave’s ‘Child Lock’ clubs, and attending paranormal confer- late night talk show Coast to Coast AM feature is enabled.” Of course, this doesn’t ences is fading away. Even UFO maga- featured on its Web site an account called mean that the next strange message dis- zines and most books on the subject are “The Message on a Microwave Clock.” played on a microwave clock won’t now irrelevant. Taking their place is Listener Scott F. writes, “On a weekend be supernatural. . . .

EVOLUTIONARY EPISTEMOLOGY, abilities, it is also true that science has organism and the environments in ANYONE? augmented our tools to explore the which the organism lives. No predic- Continued from page 23 world, and has objectified our ability to tion of the future is required because do so. Consider particle accelerators, selection constantly adjusts the fit of don’t, at least not directly. Then again, it whose data are gathered by machines, the organism to whatever environmen- would be pretty astonishing if our theo- not humans, and are analyzed by com- tal changes happen to take place. In ries made very precise predictions about puters, not neuronal circuits. While the much the same way, we don’t need a the behavior of the world (consider, for results of subatomic physics (or any thermostat to predict changes in tem- example, quantum mechanics) and still other science) are obviously not entirely perature in order to maintain a com- turned out to be completely wrong. As independent of human faculties, they are fortable environment in our houses. philosopher Hilary Putnam (cited in partially detached from them, which (Interestingly, a thermostat does Vollmer) once quipped, “The typical makes a test of the reliability of human inevitably cause a delay in such adjust- realist argument against Idealism [a faculties possible (consider the simpler, ment, precisely because of the lack of major philosophical foe of evolutionary but related, issue of how we establish if predictive power; an analogous partial epistemology] is that it makes the success someone is seeing a mirage rather than a lack of fit between organisms and envi- of science a miracle.” real object). ronments has also been demonstrated A second major objection to evolu- A final objection to evolutionary by evolutionary biologists.) tionary epistemology is based on the idea epistemology, according to Vollmer, Evolutionary epistemology may not that it isn’t actually possible to show that asks how our cognitive structures can have all the answers, of course, but it is our cognitive structures are fit to their be adapted to an environment that an excellent example of how science can environment without entering into a wasn’t known to the organisms in inform philosophy, contrary to vicious circle (after all, we would have to question (i.e., us). This betrays a fun- Wittgenstein’s smug comment in the use precisely those cognitive structures to damental misunderstanding of the the- Tractatus. It seems that just as there can check the fit . . .). Science gets us out of ory of evolution: the process of adapta- be no science without philosophical the quandary here. While it is true that tion by natural selection is best under- assumptions, there can hardly be philos- ultimately all our knowledge has to stood as a continuous feedback ophy without accounting for the find- derive from our senses and reasoning between the genetic makeup of an ings of science.

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SKEPTICAL INQUIREE BENJAMIN RADFORD

Soul Scales

People often look to the empirical immediate drop in weight (and nothing Q: Have you heard about the world to bolster their religious or spiri- more), two showed an immediate drop in claim that a person’s soul can be tual beliefs, searching for corroborating weight which increased with the passage weighed? A friend told me that this is physical evidence that their beliefs are of time, and one showed an immediate based on a scientific experiment, but I’m based on fact. (I once won a bet from a drop in weight which reversed itself but not sure. fundamentalist Christian coworker who later recurred.” Furthermore, the precise insisted that men have one fewer rib moment of death is not always clear even M. Bennett than women, evidence that God used today, and in 1907 medical measurement one of Adam’s ribs to create Eve.) The methods were even cruder. (Readers A: People have searched for evi- idea that a soul can be measured is interested in the process of dying should dence of life after death for centuries, if appealing on many levels, especially seek out Alan King’s brilliant and moving not millennia. Spiritualists, psychic since it provides empirical evidence of 2003 documentary Dying at Grace.) mediums, and most religions teach that the soul’s mass. With tighter protocols and better death is not an end but instead a Welcome to the oft-visited (in para- diagnostic tools, if the soul does indeed moment of transformation when a per- normal circles, anyway) realm of irrepro- exist, and does indeed have a measurable son’s soul or spirit is cleaved from its ducible results. In 1907 a Massachusetts weight, then science should be able to decaying corpus and freed to go on to a doctor named Duncan MacDougall of verify it. MacDougall died in 1920, and higher or better place. Haverhill, Massachusetts, devised a series in the century since his first experi- It is an appealing idea and a beautiful of experiments that he expected would ments, no one has reproduced his metaphor. But is it true? Does a spirit measure the soul. Using six terminally ill results. Just as MacDougall’s name has have material weight? Does a soul have patients on a specially constructed scale been stripped from his findings, so have mass? Has science found the soul? bed, he measured their weight before, the fatal design errors in his work. All Yes—so the story goes—such exper- during, and after death. His results were that remains is the easily remembered iments have taken place; doctors and mixed, but he concluded that there was “fact” that the soul weighs twenty-one researchers determined that the soul indeed a very slight loss of weight, on grams. And like the oft-debunked fac- weighs twenty-one grams. This of average twenty-one grams. When he toid that people only use ten percent of course brings up all sorts of interesting repeated this test on (presumably soul- their brains, the belief that the soul has questions. Do devout people have less) animals, he found no such weight weight will likely live on. reduction. After eliminating the possible heavier souls? Since death is not neces- References sarily a discrete point but part of a con- sources of error for this startling finding (such as the loss of air from the lungs), MacDougall, Duncan. 1907. The Soul: tinuum, does a person weigh less and Hypothesis concerning soul substance less the closer to death he or she is? Do MacDougall concluded that he had together with experimental evidence of the children have more soul than the finally quantified the weight of the soul. existence of such substance. American MacDougall’s efforts are a good exam- Medicine, April. elderly? If the soul has mass then it Mikkelson, Barbara and David. 2005. Soul Man. must be material; what’s it made of? ple of pseudoscience. On the face of it, Available online at www.snopes.com/reli- Pungent ether? Minty, mystic mist? Is it the experiments seem fairly straightfor- gion/soulweight.asp. ward (either a body weighs less just after Roach, Mary. 2003. Stiff: The Curious Lives of a small, squishy ball that resembles rab- Human Cadavers. New York: W.W. Norton. bit droppings, or a clear purple ooze death or it doesn’t), but a closer look that smells like bubble gum? What reveals varied and profound flaws in his methodology. For one thing, Mac- exactly is it? Submissions can be sent to: The Dougall used a very small sample size, Skeptical Inquiree, Skeptical and his results were inconsistent; some Benjamin Radford is managing editor of Inquirer, P.O. Box 703, Amherst the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER; his latest book, bodies lost more than an ounce, others NY 14226 (or bradford@center co-authored with Joe Nickell, is Lake far less. As myth debunker Barbara forinquiry.net). Monster Mysteries: Investigating the Mikkelson concluded, “out of six tests, World’s Most Elusive Creatures. two had to be discarded, one showed an

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Man for the Cosmos: Carl Sagan’s Life and Legacy as Scientist, Teacher, and Skeptic

In this new remembrance of Carl Sagan, who died ten years ago, a noted planetary scientist and colleague (and former student of Sagan) recalls Sagan’s immense contributions to planetary research, the public understanding of science, and the skeptical movement. DAVID MORRISON

arl Sagan was the world’s best-known scientist in the late twentieth century, serving as our guide to Cthe planets during the golden age of solar system exploration. He was both a visionary and a committed defender of rational scientific thinking. Sagan died on December 20, 1996, while only 62, and he has been greatly missed in the decade since. In addition to my own knowledge and insights about his scientific and skeptical contributions, I have made extensive use of the two excellent narrative biographies by William Poundstone (1999) and Keay Davidson (1999). Poundstone is stronger on Sagan’s science, Davidson on his personal history. Neither, however, emphasizes his role as a skeptic.

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Sagan was propelled on his academic and public careers by biology at Berkeley and Stanford, he joined the Harvard enormous talent, good luck, and an intensely focused drive to College astronomy faculty as Assistant Professor. Denied tenure succeed. His lifelong quest was to understand the universe, at Harvard, Sagan moved to Cornell University in 1968, serv- especially our planetary system, and to communicate the thrill ing as David Duncan Professor of Astronomy and Director of of scientific discovery to others. A natural teacher, he loved to the Laboratory for Planetary studies until his death in 1996. explain things and never made a questioner feel stupid for asking. Although Sagan had broad intellectual interests, his pursuit Research of his career left little time for other activities: he did not play Although best known to the public as a popularizer, Sagan golf or follow sports, take up cooking or photography, sing or first distinguished himself as a research scientist. His accom- play a musical instrument, or join a church or synagogue. His plishments in research made it much easier for his academic peers to accept him as a spokesperson for science. Sagan loved the research process, As Sagan often noted, only one generation was especially when it was combined with the exploration of new worlds. As he often privileged to grow up when the planets and noted, only one generation was privileged to grow up when the planets and their their moons were little more than dim points of moons were little more than dim points of light in the night sky, and to see them emerge as unique worlds with their own light in the night sky, and to see them emerge geological and perhaps even biological history. Sagan helped define two new disci- as unique worlds with their own geological plines: planetary science and exobiology. As a leading consultant to NASA, he also and perhaps even biological history. helped chart the exploration of the solar system by spacecraft. With training in both astronomy and first two wives complained that he devoted insufficient time to biology, Sagan brought a unique breadth to the emerging new his marriages or his children (Davidson 1999). He focused on fields of planetary science and exobiology. At the time he his career goals, and the world was enriched thereby. received his doctorate, his thesis advisor Gerard Kuiper rec- Many scientists would like to be able to communicate with ognized that “Some persons work best in specializing on a the public about their discoveries. However, few become adept major program in the laboratory; others are best in liaison at explaining technical subjects in terms that are readily under- between sciences. Dr. Sagan belongs in the latter group” (in stood by the lay public. Even fewer are willing to take the time Davidson 1999). to answer journalists’ questions patiently, to sit still for appli- Sagan was an “idea person” and a master of intuitive phys- cation of makeup for television appearances, or to return ical arguments and “back of the envelope” calculations. He reporters’ calls promptly even when they interrupt a meal or a usually left the details to others, and most of his published lab experiment. They might like to be great communicators, papers were collaborations. Much of this work was done with but they lack the skills and the commitment. They also recog- students, many of whom went on to become leaders them- nize that academic rewards generally come to the best selves in planetary science. On much of his later work, includ- researchers, with limited honor associated with excellence in ing the famous TTAPS paper on nuclear winter (more on this teaching and even less for public outreach. Sagan was differ- later), his name appears last among the listed authors. ent. He recognized his talents as a teacher and popularizer and Throughout the 1970s and into the 1980s, he also edited the decided to make such outreach a major aspect of his career. foremost professional journal in planetary science, Icarus. Born in 1934, Sagan grew up in a working-class Jewish Sagan’s most important early research dealt with the atmos- neighborhood of New York and attended urban public schools phere of Venus. Discoveries in radio astronomy made when he in New York and New Jersey. The University of Chicago pro- was in graduate school first suggested that this planet had a vided him scholarship support when he entered in 1951, and very hot surface, in contrast to previous speculation that the he continued there for graduate work, receiving his doctorate in climate of Venus was more Earth-like. Part of Sagan’s thesis astronomy in 1960. After two years as a postdoctoral fellow in consisted of the first computed greenhouse model for the atmosphere, in which the high infrared opacity of carbon Astrobiologist David Morrison (NASA Astrobiology Institute), a dioxide and water vapor produced a surface temperature hun- Fellow of CSI, was one of Sagan’s first doctoral students. He wrote dreds of degrees higher than that of an airless planet. Over the a scientific update for the reprinting of Sagan’s The Cosmic decade of the 1960s he improved these models, working pri- Connection, and he was recently awarded the Carl Sagan Medal marily with his former student James Pollack, to develop and of the American Astronomical Society for his contributions to the refine what remains to this day our basic understanding of the public understanding of science. atmosphere of Venus.

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Mars was another planet that interested Sagan, and with Pollack he modeled the atmosphere and developed the idea, later verified by the Mariner 9 and Viking spacecraft, that quasi-seasonal changes observed on the surface were the result of wind-blown dust. He also wrote a series of papers on Jupiter, focused on atmospheric organic chemistry. From childhood, Sagan had been inspired by the mystery of the origin and distribution of life. This passion led him to study biology and develop collaborations with leading biologists such as Stanley Miller, and Nobel laureates Joshua Lederberg and George Muller. Early in his career, he received more encouragement from these biologists than from astronomers, many of whom considered planetary studies to lie on the fringes of respectable science, and exobiology to be beyond the pale. A number of his early publications were in Carl Sagan with Immanuel Velikovsky at the 1974 AAAS debate. All photos exobiology, and at various times he speculated about life not by David Morrison. only on Mars, but also on Venus, Jupiter, and even the Moon. In spite of his increasing role as a scientific skeptic, he permit- that lay persons and students could understand made him a ted himself to indulge in this broad speculation, so long as his popular teacher and public lecturer. He won teaching awards ideas remained within the realm of possibility. Sagan was also at Harvard and Cornell, and even in the busiest times of his one of the founders of international interest in SETI, the life he tried to keep his hand in undergraduate teaching. microwave search for extraterrestrial intelligence, although he In 1966 he first achieved some modest national attention himself did not conduct any searches. with his book (with the Russian astronomer I. S. Shklovskii) NASA valued Sagan’s contributions to the spacecraft explo- Intelligent Life in the Universe. The following year, Sagan wrote ration of the planets during its “Golden Age” (roughly an upbeat article on the potential of life on the planets for 1960–1990). He was a member of science teams selected for National Geographic, and he made a few brief TV appearances. the Mariner 2, Mariner 9, Viking, Voyager, and Galileo mis- Already it was apparent to some that Sagan sought a broader sions, among others. With his quick mind and breadth of role than that of academic researcher, a concern that probably vision, he was always a welcome contributor to planning ses- contributed to denial of tenure by Harvard University in sions and the “quick look” interpretation that followed the first 1967. Students loved him, but some colleagues bristled at receipt of spacecraft data. His former student Clark Chapman what they perceived as self-aggrandizement and pandering to wrote in 1977: “A man of vivid imagination, he keeps alive a the public. Unlike Harvard, Cornell University was looking wide variety of conceptions of planetary environments. By sug- for faculty with a potential for stardom, and they provided gesting often outlandish alternatives and challenging tradition- Sagan an endowed chair and the solid academic springboard alists to disprove them, he has inspired doubts about many he needed for his future rise to fame and fortune. accepted theories. Sagan’s role is essential for healthy science Throughout his career, Sagan devoted himself to the quest because a bandwagon effect frequently leads to premature con- to improve public understanding of the nature of science. He sensus among scientists before equally plausible alternatives wanted every citizen to have a “baloney detector” as defense have even been thought of, let alone rationally rejected.” against sham in commerce and politics as well as science. He Sagan’s own excitement with the process of scientific dis- felt that it was the duty of scientists to face these issues covery is captured in the following quote (Sagan 1973): “Even squarely and publicly. The Cosmic Connection (1973), which today, there are moments when what I do seems to me like an includes extensive discussions of extraterrestrial life as well as improbable, if unusually pleasant dream: to be involved in the more conventional astronomy and planetary science, even exploration of Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn; to try to explores the UFO phenomenon and the writings of pseudo- duplicate the steps that led to the origin of life on an Earth cosmologist Immanuel Velikovsky. However, Sagan opposed very different from the one we know; to land instruments on tactics that demeaned pseudoscientific beliefs or attacked reli- Mars to search there for life; and perhaps to be engaged in a gion, refusing (for example) to sign a statement against astrol- serious effort to communicate with other intelligent beings, if ogy because of its authoritative tone. such there be, out there in the dark of the night sky.” His interest in popular misconceptions about science led him to organize two public symposia on fringe-science topics Popularizer and Skeptic at meetings of the American Association for the Advancement At the same time he was building up an enviable bibliography of Science (AAAS). Both arguably concerned real scientific (which grew to 250 pages by the end of his life) and a record issues, not cases of fraud or religious extremism. of successful students, Sagan also established a growing repu- The first AAAS symposium, in 1969, dealt with the reality tation as a popularizer of science. His boyish good looks, reso- of UFOs. Like many scientists of his generation, in high nant voice, and ability to explain scientific concepts in ways school Sagan had been attracted to the idea that UFOs might

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mindedness. The confrontation of the patriarchal Velikovsky and his young, brash critic was a clash of egos on both sides. Sagan aimed his remarks, published in extended form in Scientists Confront Velikovsky (Goldsmith 1977), primarily at the public and science journalists. By most accounts he was the hands-down winner. Many people credit this debate as the beginning of the end for the Velikovsky cult, which is today reduced to a handful of obscure cranks. However, Sagan’s role earned him the bitter enmity of Velikovsky supporters. His greatest sin was his lack of respect for the old man, who steadfastly refused to accept any modification of his then quarter-century-old views. Sagan’s critique of Worlds in Collision was also castigated by Velikovsky followers for its failure to address all of his claims, and for some slipshod calculations Sagan with colleague Toby Owen at JPL in 1976, examining recent Viking that were never corrected in Sagan’s published remarks. This orbiter photos of Mars. Sagan and Owen played key roles in deciding on symposium has been extensively analyzed (e.g., Bauer 1984), and the landing sites for the Viking spacecraft. it still raises unanswered questions about the most effective ways be visiting spacecraft. At the AAAS, J. Allen Hynek and James to counter pseudoscientists. Similar scenarios are replayed today McDonald defended UFO studies while Sagan, Donald by scientists who debate creationists and defenders of intelligent Menzel, and Lester Grinspoon attacked this position. The pro- design. I sometimes ask myself if Sagan would have ventured into ponents on both sides of the issue were scientists, although this lion’s den, and if so how a debate between him and, say, cre- they took very different approaches to the interpretation of the ationist Duane Gish, would have played out. anecdotal reports of UFO sightings. (The subject of alien Both AAAS symposia were widely covered by the media and abductions or direct contact with extraterrestrials, which has contributed to a growing public recognition. A further boost since become so common, was not an issue at that time; the came in 1973 with the publication of The Cosmic Connection, AAAS symposium focused on the interpretation of moving described in Science (Hartmann 1974) as “thirty-nine genuine, lights in the sky and anomalous radar signals.) vintage Sagan dinner conversations.” This description was UFO proponents argued that even though there was no more accurate than the reviewer may have realized. This book, individual sighting in which one could make a compelling case like all of Sagan’s, was dictated. Creating his books and popu- for extraterrestrial spacecraft, the sheer volume of reports jus- lar articles this way, Sagan simultaneously developed his unique tified continuing examination and study. In contrast, Sagan speaking and writing styles. At his lectures, listeners were emphasized the unreliability of witnesses, the absence of phys- impressed by his carefully crafted sentences, and by the way his ical evidence of UFOs, and alternative explanations including talks (delivered without notes) seemed to be so well organized. hallucination and self-delusion. He noted that “there are no Dictation turned out to be the perfect way for Sagan to orga- cases that are simultaneously very reliable (reported indepen- nize his thoughts and develop his prose style simultaneously. It dently by a large number of witnesses) and very exotic (not allowed him to “write” while traveling or walking on the beach, explicable in terms of reasonably postulated phenomena),” and it never necessitated his learning to type. It also allowed and he applied a skeptical standard that is often associated him to derive multiple value from the same material, typically with his name: that extraordinary claims require extraordinary delivering his message in various lectures, writing it for a mag- levels of evidence or proof. azine article (for such outlets as Parade), and using it as the basis The 1974 AAAS symposium, on the work of Velikovsky, for a chapter in one of his books. was riskier, since Velikovsky himself was invited to speak under The Cosmic Connection helped open the door to a medium AAAS sponsorship, something he claimed as a vindication. that Sagan seemed destined for: television. In November 1973, While Sagan promoted the symposium, it was actually orga- he was invited to appear on the popular Tonight Show with nized by historian Owen Gingerich and astronomers Ivan Johnny Carson (himself a skeptic). Handsome, articulate, King and Donald Goldsmith. Velikovsky’s thesis of global cat- informal in manner, yet enthusiastically discussing real science astrophes caused by numerous planetary encounters within (and often bringing the latest photos from NASA missions like historical times was scientifically indefensible but had Viking and Voyager), he captivated both the audience and the attracted a wide popular following. Unlike the UFO sympo- host. Over the following thirteen years, Sagan appeared on sium, there were no scientists to defend these ideas, published The Tonight Show twenty-six times. No matter how pressing in his 1950 book Worlds in Collision (dismissed by Sagan his other business, he was always willing to take a break and fly [1973] as a “speculative romance”). Rather, the 77-year-old to Hollywood for Carson. He considered it “the biggest class- Velikovsky confronted his debunkers personally. room in history.” Keay Davidson (1999) describes the symposium as part In January 1974, Time did a cover story on life in the uni- apology to Velikovsky for previous slights from astronomers, verse, in which it called Sagan “the prime advocate and peren- and part an effort to reassure the public of science’s basic fair- nial gadfly for planetary exploration.” A few weeks later Sagan

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published an article in TV Guide, the largest circulation magazine in the United States. Sagan was suddenly hot, receiving media attention normally reserved for a select few Nobel Prize winners. In August 1976, Newsweek put his smiling face on its cover, a rare accolade for any scientist. Their thumbnail sketch stated: “At 42, Carl Sagan has become the leading spokesman and salesman for the new science of exobiology, the search for extraterrestrial life. Lobbying in Washington, appearing on television talk shows, and teaching at Cornell, he is building fresh support for the space program and fulfilling his own fantasies of finding life out there.” Two years later, he received the ultimate tribute for a science writer, winning the 1978 Pulitzer Prize for general nonfiction for his book about the human brain, The Dragons of Eden. Sagan was a founding member of the Committee for Sagan with Ann Druyan in 1980 during the filming of Cosmos. Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal. CSICOP originated in 1976 in part to direct attention to egregious Cosmos, was on the New York Times best seller list for seventy media exploitation of supposed paranormal wonders. (He was weeks and made him wealthy as well as famous. always supportive of CSICOP and the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, In October 1980, Sagan appeared on the cover of Time, and served as keynote speaker at two well-attended CSICOP shown wading in the “cosmic ocean.” Time described him as conferences, Pasadena in 1987, Seattle in 1994, each of which the “Showman of Science” and the “prince of popularizers.” led to a major article in SI: “The Burden of Skepticism,” Fall They wrote: “Sagan sends out an exuberant message: science is 1987, and “Wonder and Skepticism,” January/February not only vital for humanity’s future well being, but it is rous- 1995.) Sagan’s own contributions focused less on critiques of ing good fun as well. Watching with wonder—and no doubt a the media and more on creating news, skillfully using the little envy—the whirling star named Sagan, some of his col- media to inform and entertain about science. He preferred the leagues feel that he has stepped beyond the bounds of science. positive approach, talking about what was correct rather than They complain that he is driven by ego. They also say that he exposing errors in others. tends to overstate his case, often fails to give proper credit to Showman of Science other scientists for their work, and blurs the line between fact and speculation. But they probably represent a minority view. In the later 1970s, between the Viking mission to Mars and Most scientists, increasingly sensitive to the need for public the anticipated Voyager encounters with Jupiter, Sagan support and understanding of science, appreciate what Sagan decided to test the capacity of television to bring science to a has become: America’s most effective salesman of science.” mass audience. In partnership with engineer and entrepreneur Sagan moved back to Cornell after Cosmos, but he could Gentry Lee, a Viking colleague, he formed Carl Sagan not return to the anonymity of the campus. People stopped Enterprises and began marketing a television series modeled him on the street and interrupted his meals in restaurants to on Jacob Bronowski’s Ascent of Man. They developed a script, tell him how much they liked Cosmos or to ask for his auto- raised several million dollars in support, and hired Bronowski’s graph. He mused to me at the time how strangers felt com- director, Adrian Malone. At the same time Sagan fell raptur- fortable approaching him, since after all he had been in their ously in love with Ann Druyan, with whom he worked closely living rooms (on TV). He also received crank calls and death for the rest of his life. He and Annie moved to Los Angeles, threats, requiring police patrols of his home and prompting and production at KCET Public Television started in 1977 on the university to remove his name from his office door and the 13-hour series called Cosmos. from the Space Science Building directory. His commitment to Cosmos finally eclipsed Sagan’s acade- Fame also had its rewards. He bought a spectacular home mic roles. His classes were canceled, and several graduate stu- modeled on an Egyptian temple, perched on the edge of one dents who had come to Cornell to work with him chose other of Ithaca’s wooded gorges, and hired a personal staff. He advisors instead. Colleagues complained, and there was an received an unprecedented advance from Simon & Shuster of effort to force his laboratory out of the Cornell Space Science $2 million for a science fiction novel to be called Contact, Building. In Los Angeles, clashes of will between Sagan and before he had written a word. Contact was published in 1985, Malone almost derailed the entire Cosmos effort. Cosmos aired and later made into a successful film starring Jodie Foster. in September 1980, accompanied by a promotional effort that Sagan’s popularity did me a service at about this time. exceeded anything seen before in public television. Most Driving across West Texas, I was stopped for speeding. As the reviews were enthusiastic, and suddenly Sagan became a police officer started to write a ticket, he asked what I did for a celebrity. The series won the Peabody Award, and eventually living. When I mentioned that I had been Carl Sagan’s student, more than 400 million people saw Cosmos in dozens of coun- he put away his citation book and launched into enthusiastic tries around the world. The accompanying book, also called praise for Carl and, by implication, for his friends and students.

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In 1982, an even more compelling opportunity presented itself, thanks to research involving two of his former students, Jim Pollack and Brian Toon (both at NASA Ames Research Center). With colleagues Rich Turco and Tom Ackerman, they were studying the influence of dust and atmospheric aerosols on global climate, working to understand the effects of mart- ian dust storms and of the dust cloud that enveloped Earth following the asteroid impact that caused the extinction of the dinosaurs. In 1982, they had realized that smoke, especially from petrochemical fires, would have a much greater effect on global climate than naturally occurring dust. In fact, it appeared that the smoke from as few as 100 burning cities, when lofted into the stratosphere, could lead to severe global cooling (nuclear winter). Sagan at Cornell in 1974 with three former students (L to R): David Turco and Toon flew to Ithaca in late 1982 to enlist Sagan’s Morrison, Joseph Veverka, and James Pollack. aid, for both the technical aspects of the research and as a means to overcome NASA objections based on the political Journalist Joel Achenbach, in Captured by Aliens (1999), implications of this work. This collaboration generated the noted that once Sagan achieved superstardom with Cosmos, he TTAPS paper (named for the first initials of the authors, but became the public lightning rod for both the science and the with obvious symbolism) on nuclear winter published in pseudoscience of extraterrestrial life. As the “keeper of the Science in late 1983. The TTAPS authors concluded that even gates” who effectively defined the border between science and a less-than-full-scale nuclear exchange, especially if it were pseudoscience, he was actively courted by many fringe figures directed against cities, could cause global cooling and collapse who sought in his blessing a legitimization of their interests or of agriculture. The massive loss of life would hit victor, van- beliefs. As an example, Achenbach reported this interview with quished, or non-combatant nations alike. Richard Hoagland, the popularizer of the “Face on Mars.” Sagan used his prestige to argue that these new findings Hoagland explained that in a public meeting in 1985, Sagan rendered nuclear war obsolete and undermined the concept of commented that those planning NASA missions to Mars massive nuclear retaliation. The debate was international, should be open to discovering the unexpected. According to including within the USSR, where it stimulated a rethinking Hoagland, when Sagan made these remarks, he briefly made of nuclear war-fighting strategies. But the pro-nuclear forces in direct eye-contact with Hoagland, who was in the audience. In the United States counterattacked vigorously, vilifying Sagan the weird world of pseudoscience, Sagan’s innocent comment personally in the process. The National Review called nuclear was interpreted as a coded message encouraging Hoagland to winter “a fraud” and titled one cover story “Flat-Earth Sagan pursue his advocacy of an artificial origin for the Face—which Falls off the End of the World.” he continues to this day, in spite of all the evidence to the con- Edward Teller, who at seventy-three was probably the sec- trary. (See some of Sagan’s thoughts on the Hoagland/Mars ond best known scientist in America, debated Sagan on Face matter in “Carl Sagan Takes Questions: More from his nuclear winter before a special convocation of Congress. Sagan ‘Wonder and Skepticism’ CSICOP 1994 Keynote,” SKEPTICAL also led a delegation to meet with Pope John Paul II, who sub- INQUIRER, July/August 2005.) Sagan’s role is especially interesting because he himself was sequently issued a papal statement against the build-up of accused of straying beyond the limits of proper science in his nuclear arsenals. Many people credit this theory, and its advo- pursuit of evidence for life on other planets and his defense of cacy by Sagan, as influential in the move toward nuclear disar- SETI. As Achenbach argues, it was precisely because of his mament and the end of the cold war. apparent open-minded attitude toward fringe topics that Sagan oscillated between roles as scientist and political many on the fringe became so bitter when Sagan turned advocate. In this period, while attending a meeting of the against them. imaging science team for the Galileo spacecraft, Sagan apolo- gized to his teammates for his inability to commit more time Making a Better World to this mission, saying he was “putting most of my energy into Sagan’s rise to celebrity occurred simultaneously with Ronald saving the world from nuclear holocaust.” Most team mem- Reagan’s escalation of arms spending and cold war rhetoric. He bers agreed that this effort should indeed have a higher prior- told colleagues that he intended to return to the life of a pro- ity for Sagan than planning imaging sequences for the moons fessor, but he also felt he should use his new wealth and power of Jupiter. to accomplish objectives of more global scope. As an early In parallel with its escalation of the arms race, the Reagan opponent of Reagan’s Space Defense Initiative (SDI) or “Star administration cut back drastically on NASA’s program of plan- Wars,” he was able to rally vocal objections from the academic etary exploration. In 1981 they threatened to close down the community that questioned both the technical basis for SDI highly successful Voyager 2 spacecraft before its Uranus and and its potential destabilizing effect on the nuclear balance. Neptune encounters and to turn the Jet Propulsion Laboratory

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into a defense contractor lab. After the space shuttle Challenger accident in 1986, the momentum seemed to have left NASA, just when Sagan was advocating an accelerated exploration program in his books and lectures. At the same time the USSR, under the influence of Mikhail Gorbachev’s reforms, seemed more open to international collaboration. Sagan saw an opportunity to achieve two goals of noble dimension. By working together on missions to Mars, the US and the USSR could build confidence and gain experience that would ultimately defuse the cold war and permit cooper- ation in other areas. By pooling their resources, these two space-faring nations could accomplish together what neither could afford alone—extending human presence into the solar system—and simultaneously ensure peace on Earth. Sagan formed a close working relationship with Roald Sagan with the author at a planetary science meeting in 1983. Sagdeev, the director of the Space Research Institute in Moscow, and together they opened up the Soviet planetary disrupting the coastal ecosystem, but there were no climatic exploration program, with unprecedented live reporting of the effects, even on a local scale. Sagan was widely criticized, and Soviet flybys of Comet Halley in 1986. In Russia, he associ- the episode had the further effect of undermining the credi- ated with Soviet cosmonauts and government officials as well bility of the entire nuclear winter scenario. as scientists. For a few years, under his leadership, anything The next year Sagan was nominated for membership in the seemed possible. Then the USSR disintegrated, and many of National Academy of Sciences. Academy membership requires its space scientists found themselves unemployed. With the distinguished research scholarship, but that is rarely sufficient failure of Russia’s last three planetary missions (all destined for to ensure membership. Considerable weight is also given to Mars), both the motivation and the capability of Russia to public service, as well as more political factors such as where a partner in exploration of the solar system evaporated. nominee works and whom he or she knows. Most colleagues agreed that Sagan’s research record was more than adequate Disappointments (Shermer 1999), and that his additional journal editorship, By the time of the final Voyager encounter with Neptune in government service, and contributions to public understand- 1989, it was apparent that Sagan’s campaign to promote ing of science should have ensured his election. But Sagan was human expansion to Mars was doomed. His Russian friend blackballed in the first voting round, requiring a full debate Sagdeev was emigrating to the United States and marrying (of and vote by the Academy membership. In the final vote he all people) Dwight Eisenhower’s granddaughter. And after a barely received 50 percent yes votes, far short of the two-thirds decade of budget cuts, NASA seemed unable to summon the majority required for election to membership. resources even to maintain a modest program of robotic space Two years later, the National Academy awarded Sagan its exploration. The high hopes of the Viking and Voyager era prestigious Public Welfare Medal, perhaps in partial compensa- were gone. In a 1989 lecture at JPL, Sagan could not conceal tion for his earlier rejection. The damage was done, however: his frustration and disappointment—the first time I had seen not only a stinging personal blow, but also an attack on his cred- him unable to summon an optimistic perspective. However, ibility as a spokesperson for science. For all his accomplish- worse personal blows were about to fall. ments—or perhaps because of some of them—influential mem- In the autumn of 1990, Sagan made his most serious sci- bers of the academic “old boys” network never accepted him. entific blunder. Threatened with military opposition to its Other problems multiplied. In 1993 the NASA SETI pro- invasion of Kuwait, Iraq threatened to set fire to the nation’s gram, which he had defended on critical occasions in the past, oil wells. Sagan became concerned that the quantity of petro- was abruptly terminated by Congress. His book on nuclear chemical smoke generated by these oil-field fires could gener- winter, written with Turco, sold only a few thousand copies; ate a small-scale nuclear winter, endangering crops across Asia no one cared much any more about issues of nuclear war. and threatening world food production. Of his four TTAPS Perhaps worst of all, a book that he and Annie put a great deal co-authors, only Turco supported this hypothesis; Pollack, of themselves into, Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors, did not Toon, and Ackerman could not see how sufficient smoke receive the enthusiastic welcome they expected. Although could get into the stratosphere. However, Sagan went public some reviewers consider it one of Sagan’s best works, it was not with dire predictions. While he kept his predictions condi- a best seller. No longer a media star, Sagan was slipping from tional, saying only that we could not show that massive oil- public consciousness. field fires would not have major climatological consequences (a “double negative” logic that he used frequently), his doomsday A Candle in the Dark warning was widely reported. The oil fields were torched in Sagan’s most important contributions in his final years were in January 1991, blackening the sky over most of Kuwait and the struggle against pseudoscience. Throughout the last decade

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of the millennium, this scourge of public irrationality grew, as global warming, say, or ozone depletion, air pollution, toxic astrology, alien abductions, alternative medicine, and any and radioactive wastes, topsoil erosion, tropical deforestation, number of other New Age and “millennial” fads and cults exponential population growth. . . . How can we affect gained in popularity. Sagan fought back, and after the death of national policy—or even make intelligent decisions in our his friend Isaac Asimov, his was the voice most often heard in own lives—if we don’t grasp the underlying issues?... Plainly defense of scientific reason in the United States. there is no way back. Like it or not, we are stuck with science. His most influential platform was provided by the weekly We had better make the best of it. When we finally come to newspaper-supplement magazine Parade, one of the two most terms with it and fully recognize its beauty and power, we will widely read publications in America. His column appeared there find, in spiritual as well as in practical matters, that we have regularly for more than a decade, providing a unique opportu- made a bargain strongly in our favor.” nity for outreach and education. He discussed the latest discov- Sagan’s example has contributed to increasing efforts by sci- eries in science, debunked the purveyors of flimflam, and also entists to reach out to the press and the public. For the first delved into sensitive topics of public concern such as abortion time in the 1980s, such professional organizations as the and animal rights. His articles in Parade provided the basis for American Astronomical Society and the American Geophysical many chapters in his final three books, Pale Blue Dot, The Union appointed full-time press officers and began sponsoring Demon-Haunted World, and Billions and Billions. press conferences at their annual meetings. NASA missions also The Demon-Haunted World, subtitled Science as a Candle in undertook to identify and encourage project scientists to speak the Dark, was a passionate defense of science against pseudo- with the press, both informally and as official NASA spokesper- science and irrationality, as illustrated in the following quotes. sons. In the late 1990s this extended to welcoming commercial “It is far better to grasp the Universe as it really is than to per- HDTV crews into high-level NASA meetings and spacecraft sist in delusion, however satisfying and reassuring [that may encounters. Breaking with tradition, the space agency was now be].... Superstition and pseudoscience keep getting in the way anxious to show the human side of scientific exploration. In the [of understanding nature], providing easy answers, dodging 1960s, Sagan was almost alone in his work with the press, but skeptical scrutiny, casually pressing our awe buttons and cheap- such activity had become relatively common among space sci- ening the experience, making us routine and comfortable prac- entists two decades later. None, however, has approached titioners as well as victims of credulity.... [Pseudoscience] rip- Sagan’s level of charisma or public name recognition. ples with gullibility.... The tenants of skepticism do not Cornell’s President Frank Rhodes, speaking at Sagan’s sixti- require an advanced degree to master, as most successful used eth birthday celebration, summarized his impact: “I want to car buyers demonstrate. The whole idea of democratic applica- salute Carl Sagan . . . as the embodiment of everything that is tion of skepticism is that everyone should have the essential best in academic life . . . in scholarship, teaching, and ser- tools to effectively and constructively evaluate claims to knowl- vice.... Carl is an inspiring example of the engaged, global cit- edge.... But the tools of skepticism are generally unavailable izen .... [He is] a master of synthesis, and he has used that skill to the citizens of our society. . . .Those who have something to to engage us as a society in some of the biggest issues of our sell, those who wish to influence public opinion, those in time.... With the conscience of a humanist and the consum- power, a skeptic might suggest, have a vested interest in dis- mate skill of the scientist, he addresses the needs of the society couraging skepticism” (Sagan 1995). in which we live, and we are the richer for it” (Terzian and While vigorously advocating the concepts of scientific Bilson 1997). skepticism, Sagan also raised questions about strategy. He References wrote that “The chief difficulty I see in the skeptical move- Achenbach, Joel. 1999. Captured by Aliens: The Search for Life and Truth in a ment is in its polarization: Us vs. Them—the sense that we Very Large Universe. New York: Simon and Shuster. [skeptics] have a monopoly on the truth; that those other peo- Bauer, Henry. 1984. Beyond Velikovsky: The History of a Public Controversy. ple who believe all these stupid doctrines are morons.” He was Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press. Chapman, Clark. 1977. The Inner Planets. New York: Scribner. especially troubled by anti-religious attitudes. While not a Davidson, Keay. 1999. Carl Sagan: A Life. New York: Wiley. believer himself, Sagan had constructive interactions with reli- Hartmann, William. 1974. Review of The Cosmic Connection. Science 184: gious leaders, including the Pope and the Dalai Lama. He 663–664. Morrison, David. 1999. Sagan and skepticism: Review of two Sagan biogra- wrote “There is no necessary conflict between science and reli- phies. Skeptic 17, (4): 29–31. gion. On one level, they share similar and consonant goals, Poundstone, William. 1999. Carl Sagan: A Life in the Cosmos. New York: and each needs the other.” Henry Holt. Sagan, Carl. 1973. The Cosmic Connection: An Extraterrestrial Perspective. New Although more demanding and hence less popular than his York: Doubleday. (Reissued 2000 as Carl Sagan’s Cosmic Connection: An books about astronomy and planetary exploration, The Extraterrestrial Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.) Demon-Haunted World is arguably his most mature and valu- ———. 1987. The burden of skepticism. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER 12(1): 38–46. ———. 1995. Wonder and skepticism. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER 19(1): 24–30. able publication. Expressing his concerns about the irrational- ———. 1995. The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark. ism that pervades modern society, he wrote: “I know that the New York: Random House. consequences of scientific illiteracy are far more dangerous in Shermer, Michael. 1999. The measure of a life: Carl Sagan and the science of biography. Skeptic 17(4): 32–39. our time than in any time that has come before. It’s perilous Terzian, Yervant, and Elizabeth Bilson, eds. 1997. Carl Sagan’s Universe, and foolhardy for the average citizen to remain ignorant about Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Do They Have Your Numb3r?

CBS’s popular Friday night drama uses—surprise!—mathematics, reason, and rationality to help the FBI solve major crime mysteries. This is network television? KENDRICK FRAZIER

Direct Network Flow Problem. Probabilistic Graph Theory. Soap Bubble Theory. Isospectral Geometry. Social Network Analysis. Gaussian Plume Dispersion Model. Linear Discriminant Analysis. hat television series would you guess discussed and demonstrated these mathematical concepts W this past year? Nova? Scientific American Frontiers? A documentary on the Discovery Channel? No, these mathematical techniques were integral to the prime-time dramatic television series Numb3rs, which began its third season September 22 on CBS.

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Just as the trio of CSI dramatic programs has brought the ested in a show featuring mathematics,” she says, “and we importance of forensic science to the masses in the U.S. and knew we would have to put it into a format that would appeal abroad (SI May/June 2005; CBS says CSI: Miami is now the to the execs—a crime show.” most watched television show in the world), Numb3rs is now “We were sure it was going to be a very hard sell,” she says. demonstrating to millions of viewers each Friday night that A twenty-minute “pitch” meeting was set up. Five minutes mathematics can also have surprising relevance to everyday into the pitch the answer came: “Let’s go ahead” (with a pilot). problems. And all the while providing quality entertainment. “That each step went so well remains to Nick and me com- Mathematics is not just a sideshow in the popular television pletely shocking,” she says. mystery series, which stars David Krumholtz as brilliant young From the beginning, mathematics was to be featured, not mathematician Charlie Epps, who helps his FBI agent brother downplayed. Episodes begin with a spoken tribute about the Don (Rob Morrow) tackle particularly puzzling cases. More importance of mathematics: “We all use math everywhere. To often than not, it is Charlie, seeking mathematical patterns tell time, to predict the weather, to handle money.... Math is and applying novel mathematical concepts, who plays a cen- more than formulas and equations. Math is more than num- tral role solving the cases. Judd Hirsch plays Charlie’s and bers. It is logic. It is rationality. It is using your mind to solve Don’s widowed father, a semi-retired city planner. The quirky the biggest mysteries we know.” Peter MacNicol also stars as Dr. Larry Fleinhardt, Charlie’s When was the last time you heard characters in a prime- physicist mentor and sounding board for new ideas and time television series tout mathematics and rationality? Let broader scientific thinking. Navi Rawat plays a former gradu- alone really using the mind? ate student of Charlie’s from CalSci (a close stand-in for Heuton says in an early test, twelve women who watched Caltech) and as a bright and attractive woman provides some the show were asked why. “They said, ‘We love the math.’ The continuing love interest. head of Paramount TV turned to me and said, ‘I’m flabber- Science, reason, and rational thinking play such a promi- gasted.’” nent role in the stories that the American Association for the Some previous movies and shows have included mathemat- Advancement of Science hosted an entire afternoon sympo- ics, notes Tony F. Chan, as of October 1 the assistant director sium at its 2006 annual meeting on the program’s role in for mathematics and physical sciences at the National Science changing the public’s perception of mathematics. Nobel laure- Foundation. (At the time of the AAAS symposium, which he ate David Baltimore, the president of CalTech, took part, and moderated, Chan was dean of the Division of Physical I counted two other Nobel laureates in the audience. Sciences and former chairman of the Mathematics Depart- And this past spring, Numb3r’s co-creators and executive ment at the University of California at Los Angeles.) He men- producers, Cheryl Heuton and Nicolas Falacci, a husband- tions Beautiful Mind, Good Will Hunting, and Straw Dogs. But, and-wife team, were honored with the Carl Sagan Award for he says, “Numb3rs is mathematics.” the Public Understanding of Science. The award was pre- When Numb3rs premiered January 25, 2005, it had sented by the Council of Scientific Society Presidents, honor- 25,000,000 viewers. It is still one of the two most watched ing those who have become concurrently accomplished as shows on Friday nights. Although it had somewhat higher rat- researchers, educators, and magnifiers of the public’s under- ings earlier, its 2006–2007 season opener drew 11,400,000 standing of science. viewers, good enough for a ranking of 32nd among all shows on “What I especially appreciate about Numb3rs,” CSICOP television. Fellow and Temple University math professor John Allen Gary Lorden, chairman of the department of mathematics Paulos told the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, “is that more often than at Caltech, serves as the program’s math consultant. The show not the math is somewhat integral to the show, and isn’t just recruited him in 2004. “I come up with math ideas, tech- decorative. Also there’s little irrelevant and intimidating dia- niques,” he says. He produces pages of papers. The equations logue like, ‘Ah yes, that’s a locally compact Hausdorf space we that fill the blackboard (or, more often, transparent plastic for have here.’” Paulos is author of Innumeracy and other books more dramatic display) when Charlie extemporizes are real. championing better understanding of mathematics and a “All that stuff on the blackboard is real mathematics,” he says. recipient of the 2003 AAAS Award for Public Understanding Lorden says Charlie’s character is loosely based on Richard of Science and Technology. Feynman. “He’s really smart, creative. Give him a problem and How did a show incorporating mathematics as a key com- let him go.” And he notes, sometimes Charlie’s wrong. “Just as ponent ever get sold to hard-nosed, cynical Hollywood pro- in math.” ducers? David Krumholtz, the actor who plays Charlie, is certainly First of all, points out Heuton, “CBS is not in the business one of the key reasons for the show’s appeal. With long hair, of teaching math. CBS is in the business of reaching viewers.” dark, expressive eyes, and an ability to convey simultaneously She acknowledges that the wild success of the three CSI (crime an intense passion for mathematics and a kind of endearing scene investigations) series produced for CBS by Jerry vulnerability, he’s an attractive character. He is self-deprecating Bruckheimer helped pave the way for the idea. “We were inter- about his character’s combination of awkward intelligence and good looks. “Charlie’s a ‘geek/sheik, a smart/throb,’” he laughs. Kendrick Frazier is editor of the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. And although he is definitely not a mathematician (“I flunked

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algebra I twice”), Krumholtz says he has quickly become a fan not only of the value of math “but of reason and rationality.” “Once you understand the Fibonacci sequence,” which played a central role in one episode, “you can’t get past that without becoming a different person,” he says. “I’ve become a deductive reasoner. I try to embody the character as best I can. I spend a lot of time at Caltech, wandering around, going into some of the classes. I listened to some [recordings of] Feynman lectures.” He says he passionately believes in the message Charlie speaks in one episode:

“Math is the real world. It’s everywhere. Numb3rs co-creator Nick Falacci, NSF/UCLA mathematician Tony Chan, Numb3rs star David Math is nature’s language. It is nature’s way Krumholtz, co-creator Cheryl Heuton, Caltech math chairman Gary Lorden, and Bill Nye (“The of communicating with us.... Applying Science Guy”) at AAAS session devoted to Numb3rs’ contribution to improving the public’s perception of mathematics. Photo by Kendrick Frazier this stuff to real-life applications is very powerful.” supporters of this show. We are proud of Gary’s involvement, Every show features a turning point where Charlie explains and we have opened the campus to the show. Anything that a mathematical idea, and here the show’s visual effects depart- says math and science is important is worth supporting.” ment stepped up from the beginning. The graphics are visually Television science popularizer and CSI Fellow Bill Nye stunning, and often very creative in simply explaining a diffi- (“Bill Nye the Science Guy”) is also a supporter. He even cult concept. appeared in one episode last season, as a combustion “We visualize the math,” Krumholtz says. “When we cut researcher. “What’s impressive to me,” he said at the AAAS ses- away to these visuals, it’s not vacuum. I do it in real time. It sion, “is how passionate these people are. It’s been fun to hang gives it spontaneity.” around with these guys.” “The visuals are indeed key,” says co-creator Nick Falacci. Krumholtz says he feels fortunate to be involved in “First the episodes have to be written. Then we look for visual Numb3rs. “I am the major receptacle of gratitude for the show metaphors. Then we have a team of special effects people try because I’m its public face,” he says. “It is really inspiring to be to make it as simple and direct as possible. I knew that people the beacon for that. I’m glad that they have allowed me to do wouldn’t try to solve the equations, but I knew that if people this show. I want him [Charlie] to be as believable as possible.” could understand the basic concepts behind the math, it really The show has changed him, he says. “In general I am a more could be very exciting.” logical thinker. My friends hate this. . . . I love it. I used to hate CBS was pleased with the first visual sequence but sug- math. I felt stupid, inept. Now I feel I’m more whole. If there’s gested it could be recycled for each episode. Says Falacci: “We one kid out there that Numb3rs helps to feel not stupid, inept, had to tell CBS, just as every math concept is different, so then that’s a wonderful thing to do. My dream is that thirty to every metaphor is different.” forty years down the line I might meet someone who says, ‘I Even though the show is a drama, Caltech’s Lorden says he won the Nobel Prize because I watched you in Numb3rs.’” thinks it serves as a model for how “educational TV” could have been, or perhaps still might be. Heuton, a television pro and a realist, cautions, however: Numb3rs Math Education “Numb3rs was designed to be a prime-time network show. Numb3rs was not designed to be an educational show.” And Program on Web she’s right. It is, it should be remembered, a crime drama. As Numb3rs also hosts a Web-based educational outreach such it has numerous side plots involving human interactions program for teachers and students, providing activities of its many characters (I especially like the family interactions relating to each episode’s mathematics. Texas Instruments among Charlie, Don, and their father) and its fair share of sponsors this “We All Use Math Every Day” Web site (www.cbs.com/prime-time/numb3rs/ti/) in partnership intense moments, chases, violence, shootings, explosions, and with CBS and in association with the National Council of other expected fare of the genre. Nevertheless, the repeated Teachers of Mathematics. Each activity has been derived emphasis and use of mathematical thinking as a core plot ele- from the math used in the TV show and created by prac- ment is, well, unique. ticing classroom teachers and mathematicians especially for grades 7–12. Is the university in Numb3rs really Caltech? Very close. “I Numb3rs stars David Krumholtz and Navi Rawat have was a supporter of its being Caltech, not CalSci,” says Caltech helped promote the education initiative at annual meet- president David Baltimore, a Nobel laureate in medicine. But ings of NCTM and other professional organizations. Caltech’s lawyers felt otherwise. “We [Caltech] are very strong

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The ‘Vise Strategy’ Undone Kitzmiller et al. v. Dover Area School District

Here’s an inside look at the first legal case testing intelligent design, Kitzmiller et al. v. Dover Area School District, by one of the expert witnesses for the pro-evolution side. The “Darwinists” won the landmark case, establishing the first legal precedent restricting the teaching of intelligent design in public-school science classes. BARBARA FORREST

n a post on his Uncommon Descent (UD) blog on May 6, 2005, intelligent-design (ID) creationist William IDembski was talking tough. He offered a lesson for “Darwinists” drawn from the then-ongoing hearings held before the Kansas Board of Education on May 5–7 to discuss the Kansas science standards. The creationist-dominated board had hoped that pro-evolution scientists and ID creationists would debate revisions proposed by the creationist minority on the board’s Science Curriculum Writing Committee. These revisions included redefining science to allow the supernatural as a scientific explanation. Refusing to lend legitimacy to this “Kansas kangaroo court,” scientists boycotted the hearings. The only pro-evolution participant,

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Dover Area High School

representing pro-science groups, was attorney Pedro scrutiny by not having to undergo cross-examination” when he Irigonegaray, who cross-examined many of the twenty-three cre- withdrew from the case on June 10. ationists who were brought in at taxpayer expense to testify. Not only did I show up for my deposition, but I also testified These twenty-three are supporters of Dembski and his associates, at the trial despite being delayed by Hurricanes Katrina and Rita. who have promoted ID for a decade from the Center for Science Moreover, I had the distinction of being the only witness whom and Culture (CSC), the creationist arm of the Discovery the defense tried to exclude from the case. When they failed, the Institute (DI), a conservative Seattle think tank. Discovery Institute tried to discredit me with ridicule. Grousing that “only the evolution critics are being interro- gated,” Dembski was “waiting for the day when the hearings A Brief History of the Kitzmiller Case are not voluntary but involve subpoenas in which evolutionists In October 2004, the Dover [Pennsylvania] Area School are deposed at length.” When “that happy day” comes, District Board of Directors decided that “Students will be made Dembski predicted, the Darwinists “won’t come off looking aware of gaps/problems in Darwin’s theory and of other theo- well.” On May 11, Dembski portrayed “evolutionists” as too ries of evolution including, but not limited to, intelligent chicken to participate: “. . . evolutionists escaped critical design.” In November, they announced that Dover High scrutiny by not having to undergo cross-examination . . . by School’s ninth-grade biology teachers would read a statement boycotting the hearings.” He proposed a “vise strategy” for informing students that “Darwin’s Theory . . . is not a fact” and “interrogating the Darwinists to, as it were, squeeze the truth that “intelligent design is an explanation of the origin of life out of them,” childishly illustrated with a photograph of a that differs from Darwin’s view.” The statement referred stu- Darwin doll with its head compressed in a bench vise. On May dents to the creationist textbook, Of Pandas and People, to learn 16, he outlined his strategy: “interrogating Darwinists” about “what intelligent design actually involves.” On December 14, “five terms: science, nature, creation, design, and evolution.” eleven parents filed suit in the Middle District of Pennsylvania, Under subpoena, they would be compelled to answer, hence represented by attorneys from the ACLU, Americans United the “vise” metaphor. for Separation of Church and State, and Pepper Hamilton, a Dembski already knew that such a day of legal reckoning Philadelphia law firm. The Thomas More Law Center was approaching. Exactly one month later, on June 6, he sat (TMLC), a Michigan Religious Right legal organization, repre- across from me when I was deposed as an expert witness for the plaintiffs in the first ID legal case, Kitzmiller et al. v. Dover Barbara Forrest is a coauthor, with Paul R. Gross, of Area School District. He attended my deposition as the adviser Creationism’s Trojan Horse: The Wedge of Intelligent Design to the lead defense attorney, Richard Thompson of the (Oxford University Press, 2004; forthcoming in paperback in Thomas More Law Center, and was scheduled to be deposed early 2007); see www.creationismstrojanhorse.com. She is a pro- himself on June 13 as a defense witness. Besides being on fessor of philosophy in the Department of History and Political opposite sides, there was another big difference between us: I Science at Southeastern Louisiana University. E-mail: showed up for my deposition. Dembski “escaped critical [email protected].

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sented the board. United States District Judge John E. Jones III and had hired a court reporter to take Campbell’s long-sched- was assigned to hear the case. uled deposition. Everything was proceeding on schedule until Dover’s problems actually started in 2002. Bertha Spahr, chair only minutes before the deposition was to begin, when defense of Dover High School’s science department, began to encounter attorney Patrick Gillen announced that TMLC would “no animosity from Dover residents toward the teaching of evolu- longer retain” Campbell as a witness because Campbell had tion. In January 2002, board member Alan Bonsell began press- “retained counsel through Discovery Institute” and had “dis- ing for the teaching of creationism. In August, a mural depicting cussed matters [with DI] to which I am not privy.” Gillen human evolution, painted by a 1998 graduating senior and learned of “these developments” only the night before. Behe donated to the science department, disappeared from a science and Minnich, already deposed, remained as witnesses along classroom. The four-by-sixteen-foot painting had been propped with Nord, Fuller, and Carpenter. on a chalkboard tray because custo- Why would three of the most dians refused to mount it on the important ID experts withdraw? wall. Spahr learned that the build- They had already submitted expert- ing and grounds supervisor had witness reports and scheduled ordered it burned. In June 2004, depositions. Moreover, DI had board member William Buck- hoped for years to precipitate a test ingham, Bonsell’s co-instigator of case and had even prepared legal the ID policy, told Spahr that he arguments. The problem, however, “gleefully watched it burn” because was that DI did not want this case, he disliked its portrayal of evolu- because the Dover board, urged on tion. He also blocked purchase of a by TMLC, had explicitly crafted its new science textbook that included policy to promote “intelligent evolution, forcing teachers to design.” Having come to view that accept Pandas as a reference book term as a legal liability after encoun- in exchange for new textbooks. In tering opposition in Ohio, Kansas, January 2005, science teachers and elsewhere, DI tried unsuccess- refused to read the ID statement; fully to persuade the board to either administrators read it themselves. restate the ID policy in sanitized The situation worsened. When the language or withdraw it. (DI now next school year began in strategically sanitizes its terminol- September 2005, the board’s policy ogy, using euphemisms and code and ID itself were on trial in words in appeals for the teaching of Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. ID.) They were scared to death of a Barbara Forrest case they had not initiated and Trouble behind the Scenes could not control. Besides myself, the other expert witnesses for the plaintiffs were The exodus of Dembski, Meyer, and Campbell is explained scientists Kevin Padian and Kenneth Miller, theologian John by their fear of cross-examination. The public shredding that Haught, science-education expert Brian Alters, and philosopher Irigonegaray had given ID creationists in Kansas one month ear- of science Robert Pennock. Our combined work addressed all lier was still fresh. As Pat Hayes stated it in a report on his blog, relevant aspects of ID creationism. The National Center for dated May 9: “The knockout punch came when . . . Pedro Science Education (NCSE) staff were consultants for the plain- Irigonegaray compelled the intelligent design witnesses to con- tiffs’ team. Everyone on the plaintiffs’ team, including the attor- fess, during a series of withering cross-examinations, that they neys, served pro bono. (None of the defense’s expert witnesses par- hadn’t bothered to read the science standards draft . . . before ticipated pro bono. All listed their fees—typically $100 per hour, coming to Kansas at taxpayer expense.” Moreover, Dembski, but $200 per hour in Dembski’s case—in their expert witness Meyer, and Campbell knew what the plaintiffs’ expert witnesses reports.) Our pretrial preparations went smoothly, but things would say in court, because they had our reports. DI must have weren’t going as well for the defense. known that our case would be devastating to the defense—and Dembski’s CSC associates, Stephen C. Meyer, John Angus thus to ID—if it was argued before a judge who respected the Campbell, Scott Minnich, and Michael Behe, were also to be truth and the Constitution. witnesses for the defense, along with ID supporters Warren Nord, Steve William Fuller, and Dick M. Carpenter II. When My Role in the Kitzmiller Trial TMLC rejected Meyer, Dembski, and Campbell’s demand for I was called as a witness because of my coauthorship, with Paul legal representation independent of TMLC, the three with- R. Gross, of Creationism’s Trojan Horse: The Wedge of Intelligent drew from the case by refusing to continue without their own Design (Oxford University Press, 2004) and other publications attorneys.1 In the case of Campbell, Pepper Hamilton attorney about ID. In our book, we analyze a document titled “The Thomas Schmidt had flown to Memphis with a legal assistant Wedge Strategy,” CSC’s tactical plan, showing how CSC

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creationists are executing every phase except producing scientific meaning that he—and the whole world—would hear what both data to support ID. We show that ID is creationism, thus a reli- DI and TMLC had hoped they could bar from the record: the gious belief, using the best evidence available: the words of ID truth about ID. leaders such as Phillip E. Johnson, William Dembski, and their I had two tasks: to demonstrate to Judge Jones (1) that ID is ID colleagues. We also show ID’s continuity with earlier cre- creationism, thus a religious belief, and (2) that Of Pandas and ationism. My job was to present this evidence to the judge. People is a creationist textbook. As part of the evidence for my It probably wasn’t difficult for DI and TMLC to figure out first task, I included the words of two leading ID proponents, that, armed with my work and that of the other witnesses for Phillip E. Johnson and William Dembski. Under direct exami- the plaintiffs, halfway decent attorneys would make legal nation by Eric Rothschild, I related Johnson’s definition of ID as mincemeat of them. And the plaintiffs’ attorneys were more “theistic realism” or “mere creation,” by which he means that “we than decent—they were superb. Pepper Hamilton’s Eric affirm that God is objectively real as Creator, and that the reality Rothschild, one of the lead attorneys, prepared me well.2 of God is tangibly recorded in evidence accessible to science, par- Dembski had seen a preview of my testimony at my deposition. ticularly in biology.” To that, I added Dembski’s definition: DI also knew I was inspecting documents related to Of Pandas “Intelligent design is just the Logos theology of John’s Gospel and People that our attorneys had subpoenaed from the restated in the idiom of information theory.” If the judge had Foundation for Thought and Ethics (FTE), which holds the heard nothing except these two quotes, he would have had all the Pandas copyright. Consequently, although DI and TMLC were evidence he needed that ID’s own leaders regard it as not only squabbling behind the scenes, they shared a common goal: to creationism but also as a sectarian Christian belief. But I had either forestall or discredit my testimony. much more, such as CSC fellow Mark Hartwig’s 1995 Moody On September 6, 2005, the defense filed a motion requesting Magazine article, in which he referred to a 1992 ID conference my exclusion from the case. DI and TMLC had apparently over- at Southern Methodist University as a meeting of “creationists come their differences long enough to collaborate on the accom- and evolutionists,” calling Dembski and Stephen Meyer “evan- panying brief, because it contained clear evidence of DI’s input. gelical scholars.” During those early years, when they needed Although I was not called as a scientific expert, the defense money and supporters, ID proponents openly advertised both argued that I should be excluded because I had no scientific their religiosity and their creationism. expertise and because I am, in their words, “little more than a However, none of the evidence for ID’s religious, creationist conspiracy theorist and a web-surfing, ‘cyber-stalker’ of the identity was more important than “The Wedge Strategy,” prob- Discovery Institute . . . and its supporters and allies.” Five years ably written in 1996, when the CSC was established, but revised earlier, Dembski had accused two of his critics, Wesley Elsberry in 1998. Known informally as the “Wedge Document,” it was and Richard Wein, of being “Internet stalkers who seem to mon- leaked from a Seattle office and posted on the Internet in early itor my every move.” DI had responded to Creationism’s Trojan 1999. DI did not acknowledge ownership of it until 2002, after Horse by labeling me as a conspiracy theorist.3 Judge Jones denied I independently authenticated it and wrote about it in 2001. The the motion on September 22. technical team hired by Pepper Hamilton to create computer Scheduled to testify the following week but delayed by “demonstratives” projected the Wedge Document onto a screen Hurricane Rita, I used the extra time to prepare for my testimony in court, and I walked Judge Jones through it, explaining the and to stay current on ID activities by visiting DI’s Web site. On most important parts. My first slide made its significance clear: September 29, I noticed that DI had posted a transcript of an “. . . could I have the first slide, please? This is the first page of interview I had done—except that I hadn’t done it. The tran- the Wedge Strategy, and this is the opening paragraph of it. script was fake. Apparently meant (though not marked) as a par- Quote, ‘The proposition that human beings are created in the ody, the organization whose self-described goal is “to support image of God is one of the bedrock principles on which western high quality scholarship . . . relevant to the question of evidence civilization was built.’ This . . . states very well the foundational for intelligent design in nature” ridiculed me by, among other belief behind the intelligent design movement and the reason things, having fictitious radio host “Marvin Waldburger” refer to that they have rejected the theory of evolution.” As I continued, me as “Dr. Barking Forrest Ph.D.” If DI thought this would the judge heard the strategy’s explicitly Christian goals: “Design unsettle me, they were ignoring the fact that I had just been theory promises to reverse the stifling dominance of the materi- through two killer hurricanes. I could only shake my head at alistic worldview and to replace it with a science consonant with their doing something so jaw-droppingly stupid. If they were Christian and theistic convictions.” The folks at DI probably hoping Judge Jones would see and be influenced by this silliness, never imagined that an “obscure philosopher in Louisiana,” as it was just another sign of the disrespect for his intelligence and they once called me, would be using their strategy document in integrity that began before the trial and continues today (more a trial—or that it would be so effective in their legal undoing. on this shortly). (Though actually, they probably did suspect its legal significance, which explains their taking three years to acknowl- On the Witness Stand edge it.) When I was sworn in on October 5, the defense spent the entire To counter the defense’s predictable denials that ID is cre- morning presenting arguments as to why I should not be quali- ationism, I also explained, using an account by ID proponent fied as an expert witness. Judge Jones again denied the motion, and CSC fellow Paul Nelson, how Phillip Johnson had master-

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minded creationism’s transformation into “intelligent design” The Defense after the United States Supreme Court outlawed creationism in The combined testimony of the plaintiffs’ expert witnesses pre- public schools in its 1987 Edwards v. Aguillard ruling. According sented a formidable obstacle for the defense—as did the testi- to Nelson, creationists believed that Edwards meant the death of mony of defense witnesses themselves. Nord and Carpenter were the “two-model approach to origins,” in which creationists rec- withdrawn without testifying, leaving only Behe, Fuller, and ognize only two alternatives, either evolution or creation, hoping Minnich.4 Behe and TMLC attorney Robert Muise escorted the to win by default after undermining evolution. But Nelson judge through a long explanation of irreducible complexity using explained that “a revolution from an unexpected quarter . . . was Behe’s stock example, the bacterial flagellum. During about to occur.” The revolutionary was Johnson, who decided Rothschild’s cross-examination, however, Behe admitted that that, for creationism to survive Edwards, creationists had to rede- under his own definition of a scientific theory (which he has confine science: “Definitions of science, [Johnson] argued, could be veniently loosened in order to classify ID as science), astrology contrived to exclude any conclusion we dislike or to include any also qualifies. Most unhelpfully, Fuller had affirmed in his depo- we favor.” Not only was Johnson’s deliberate but nominal trans- sition—under oath—that ID is creationism. Presented by ACLU formation of creationism into ID important for demonstrating attorney Vic Walczak with the relevant statements, he had no ID’s true identity, but it also provided important support for my choice but to admit this: testimony about Pandas: to survive after Edwards, Pandas would require a similar transformation. (When the book was first pub- Walczak: “And then your answer beginning on Line 24, ‘It [ID] is a kind of creationism, it is a kind of creationism.’ I lished in 1989, Johnson was already allied with chemist Charles didn’t read the same passage twice. It’s actually twice on there. Thaxton, author of the creationist book The Mystery of Life’s Did I read that accurately?” Origin and “academic editor” of Pandas.) The subpoenaed FTE Fuller: “Well, it looks like that is what the sentences say.” documents, which contained several earlier Pandas drafts, Fuller also described his role in the trial as that of an advocate for revealed that precisely such a transformation had been effected. “disadvantaged theories” needing an “affirmative action strategy.” A Pandas coauthor, CSC fellow Dean H. Kenyon, had been By the time Minnich, the last witness, was asked to offer still a creationist witness in the Edwards case and had submitted a more testimony about bacterial flagella, he understood fully the sworn affidavit testifying that “creation-science is as scientific position in which he found himself: “I kind of feel like Zsa Zsa’s as evolution.” I discovered a letter Kenyon wrote to FTE pres- fifth husband, you know? . . . I know what to do but I just can’t ident Jon Buell, showing that he was working on the 1986 make it exciting. I’ll try.” draft of Pandas, then called Biology and Creation, while also assisting in the Edwards case! All pre-Edwards drafts of Pandas The Verdict on ID (there were at least five) were written using creationist termi- On December 20, 2005, Judge Jones delivered a powerful opin- nology. The earliest drafts had overtly creationist titles. In ion—a marvel of clarity and forthrightness—giving no quarter 1987, the title was changed to Of Pandas and People, and there to either the school board or ID. He was not fooled by ID pro- were two drafts in that year. One was written in creationist ponents’ denials that they are creationists: “ID cannot uncouple language; in the other, creationist terminology had been itself from its creationist, and thus religious, antecedents.” He replaced by “intelligent design” and other design-related terms, was especially displeased that board members Buckingham and suggesting that the Edwards decision prompted this change. Bonsell had lied under oath during their depositions: “. . . the The clincher was a new footnote in the latter draft explicitly inescapable truth is that both Bonsell and Buckingham lied at referencing Edwards, indicating that this draft was produced their January 3, 2005 depositions about their knowledge of the after the June 19, 1987, decision in an effort to evade the rul- source of the donation for Pandas.... This mendacity was a clear ing. I also found a letter from Buell to a prospective publisher and deliberate attempt to hide the source of the donations . . . to in which Buell made profit projections for Pandas contingent further ensure that Dover students received a creationist alterna- upon the Court’s decision: “The enclosed projection showing tive to Darwin’s theory of evolution.” Presented with the truth revenues of over 6.5 million in five years are based upon mod- about the board’s policy and the ID creationism it promoted, est expectations for the market, provided the U.S. Supreme Jones ruled accordingly: “A declaratory judgment is hereby issued Court does not uphold the Louisiana Balanced Treatment Act. in favor of Plaintiffs . . . such that Defendants’ ID Policy violates If by chance it should uphold it, then you can throw out these the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment of the projections. The nationwide market would be explosive.” Constitution of the United States and . . . the Constitution of the These excerpts reflect the general content of the evidence I Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.” [The SKEPTICAL INQUIRER produced during my day and a half of testimony. When reported on the decision and published two pages of excerpts Richard Thompson cross-examined me, he did what we antic- from Judge Jones’s ruling in the March/April 2006 issue.] ipated: avoiding the substance of my testimony and my published work, he attacked my credibility. He apparently hoped Judging the Judge the judge would consider my association with civil-liberties and Reflecting the ID movement’s status as an integral part of the humanist organizations unsavory enough to discredit me, ask- Religious Right, their mean-spirited attacks on Judge Jones have ing questions such as, “When did you become a card-carrying amplified right-wing screeching about federal judges, revealing member of the ACLU?” their contempt for the judicial system they have long wished to

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exploit on their own behalf. As Kevin Padian and Nick Matzke tactics: lacking scientific evidence for ID, they make things up or wrote in a commentary for NCSE, “DI immediately tried to slander their opposition. DI’s attacks on Judge Jones stem partly ‘swift-boat’ the judge.” (ID sympathizers were similarly enraged: from his reliance on my testimony and pre-trial reports, as he harsh e-mails sent to Jones’s office led federal marshals to place indicated in his opinion: “Dr. Barbara Forrest . . . has thoroughly him and his family under guard for a short period.) Given the and exhaustively chronicled the history of ID in her book and warmed-over creationism that was the only thing Dembski, other writings for her testimony in this case. Her testimony, and Meyer, and Campbell could have offered in court, they would the exhibits . . . admitted with it, provide a wealth of statements have needed either a political partisan or a fool on the bench. by ID leaders that reveal ID’s religious, philosophical, and cul- Antics such as the “Barking Forrest” interview suggest that DI tural content.” Consequently, CSC fellow Jonathan Witt has regarded Judge Jones as the latter. One of Dembski’s regular interwoven attacks on the judge with attacks on me: “Several Uncommon Descent bloggers apparently regarded him as both. newspapers . . . are highlighting Judge John Jones’s spurious Dembski declined to comment on his blog when the opinion determination that intelligent design is creationism in disguise. was filed: “I have little to add to what I wrote in September, so They’re accurately reporting the judge’s opinion here, for his I’ll just leave it there.” On September 30, he had calculated prob- decision reads like a condensation of atheist-activist Barbara abilities for various outcomes: (1) 20 percent that Jones would Forrest’s mythological history of intelligent design.... In follow- uphold the ID policy; (2) 70 percent that he would overturn it ing Barbara Forrest’s fallacious reasoning and mythological his- but leave the “scientific status of ID” unchallenged; and (3) less tory of intelligent design, Judge Jones has erred badly.” than 10 percent that he would both overturn the policy and rule On April 12, 2006, presenting long-discredited pro-ID argu- ID unscientific. He hedged his bets by appealing for intelligent ments at the University of Montana School of Law, CSC fellow assistance: “I trust that Providence will bring about the outcome and law professor David DeWolf complained that Jones that will best foster ID’s ultimate success.” Blogger “DaveScot” “thought it was his job to declare what was orthodox in science urged optimism: “Have more faith, Bill! This is all about Judge . . . [and] to decide theological questions.” Asserting that Jones’s Jones. If it were about the merits of the case we know we’d win. opinion “effectively targeted” DI as “the author of this Wedge It’s about politics.... Judge John E. Jones . . . is a good old boy Document,” DeWolf lobbed a double ad hominem: “Judge brought up through the conservative ranks . . . appointed by Jones’s reliance on the Barbara Forrest testimony in the trial GW hisself.... Unless Judge Jones wants to cut his career off at makes the John Birch Society look rational.” He also told the the knees he isn’t going to rule against the wishes of his political audience—falsely—that “there is a letter from Barbara Forrest, allies.” Post-verdict, however, Scot shifted from cocksure confi- one of the witnesses in the Dover trial, a letter to an editor of a dence in the “good old boy” to insults. When Time magazine journal saying basically don’t publish things from people who are named Judge Jones one of 100 “people who shape our world,” advocates of intelligent design.” At a May 5, 2006, luncheon we Scot offered some unflattering comparisons: “The magazine who both attended at the Massachusetts School of Law (MSL), I made these men ‘Man of the Year’—1938–Adolf Hitler; asked him publicly whether he had seen this letter. He admit- 1939–Joseph Stalin; 1942–Joseph Stalin; 1957–Nikita ted—before an audience of his legal peers—that he had not. Krushchev; [and] 1979–Ayatullah Khomeini—now brings you (The luncheon was held prior to a taping of MSL’s television pro- Judge John Jones as a 2006 Honorable (pun intended) gram, Educational Forum, and was attended by law-school fac- Mention.” Dembski responded appreciatively: “Thanks, Dave, ulty and administrators.) This time he was telling the truth: I for contextualizing this milestone in our proper appreciation of never wrote such a letter. However, DeWolf continues to pro- important personages.... What a crock.” (Of course, Time’s mote ID using the same debunked arguments that he and his ID Person of the Year designation is not an honorific title but an associates used before the trial. In an article with former DI attor- assessment of the designee’s influence on the year’s events.) ney Seth Cooper, he complains that Jones’s ruling was “based In a December 20, 2005, post on DI’s Evolution News & upon evidence and characterizations of intelligent design that Views blog, CSC associate director John West sniped, “Judge have been sharply contested by leading proponents of intelligent Jones . . . wants his place in history as the judge who issued a design.” Yet, like Dembski, Meyer, and Campbell, neither definitive decision about intelligent design. This is an activist DeWolf nor Cooper was anywhere in sight when they had a judge who has delusions of grandeur.” DI then hastily self-pub- chance to defend ID in court. lished a book, Traipsing into Evolution: Intelligent Design and the The legal defeat of ID is forcing Wedge strategists to seek new Kitzmiller vs. Dover Decision, charging that Jones “repeatedly mis- markets for their creationism and to work their conservative represented both the facts and the law in his opinion, sometimes Christian market more thoroughly. They are peddling ID egregiously.” The nastiness of DI’s attacks on the judge can be abroad: DI has added international signatories to “A Scientific seen as directly proportional to his opinion’s power and accuracy. Dissent from Darwinism.” Even during the trial, they held an ID conference in Prague. Domestically, Dembski has been reduced The Aftermath to riding the coattails of conservative pundit Ann Coulter, who Probably anticipating a future legal case, for which Jones’s opin- devoted four chapters of her latest book, Godless, to attacking ion would serve as a strong precedent and for which I might be evolution. These chapters contain the standard creationist called as an expert witness, ID creationists continue their efforts canards, but with Coulter’s recognizable stylistic stamp: “Imagine to discredit both Judge Jones and me. They employ their usual a giant raccoon passed gas and perhaps the resulting gas might

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have created the vast variety of life we see on Earth. And if you Notes don’t accept the giant raccoon flatulence theory for the 1. According to Richard Thompson, TMLC had agreed to allow Stephen origin of life, you must be a fundamentalist Christian nut who Meyer, as “an officer of the Discovery Institute,” to have his attorney present but would not allow Dembski and Campbell “to have attorneys, that they were going believes the Earth is flat. That’s basically how the argument for to consult with . . . and not with us.” DI corroborates Thompson’s statement evolution goes.” Coulter credits her ability to write these chapters about the offer to Meyer but says that Meyer “declined the offer because the pre- to “the generous tutoring of Michael Behe, David Berlinski, and vious actions of Thomas More had undermined his confidence in their legal judgment.” William Dembski, all of whom are fabulous at translating com- 2. In addition to Rothschild, the primary attorneys were Stephen Harvey, plex ideas.” Dembski acknowledges his assistance: “I’m happy to Thomas Schmidt, and Alfred Wilcox of Pepper Hamilton; Witold “Vic” Walczak report that I was in constant correspondence with Ann regarding of the Pennsylvania ACLU; and Richard Katskee of Americans United for Separation of Church and State. Other attorneys who were not in court helped her chapters on Darwinism—indeed, I take all responsibility for with pre-trial preparations. any errors in those chapters.” He has dubbed Coulter “the Wedge 3. A document is available on the Discovery Institute Web site, “The ‘Wedge for the masses.” Document’: ‘So What?’” which the DI falsely claims was “originally published in 2003.” But it was written in response to my book, which was published in These tactics by DeWolf and Dembski highlight the bank- January 2004. The document’s properties show that CSC associate director John ruptcy of ID and the blustering cowardice of its leaders, who West created it on January 8, 2004, and the Internet Archive shows no such doc- must capture support with brazen deceit and sarcastic pun- ument on the DI Web site at the end of 2003. It does show a page with a link titled “What Is the Wedge Document?” that’s dated February 10, 2004, indicat- ditry. The trial was Dembski’s moment to shine, to explain on ing that the document was on the site at that time. the legal record why ID is a “full scale scientific revolution,” as 4. Despite the fact that Carpenter played no real role in the trial, he wrote an he wrote in The Design Revolution (InterVarsity Press, 2004, p. article for the February 2006 American School Board Journal, titled “Deconstructing Dover: An Expert Witness for the District Shares Lessons from 19). Instead, plaintiffs’ witness Robert Pennock read to Judge ‘Scopes 2005.’” In this article, he implements DI’s deceptive strategy of trying to Jones Dembski’s statement regarding ID’s revolutionary sta- disconnect teaching ID from “teaching the controversy about evolutionary the- tus—and then dismantled it. Ironically, Dembski had his arch- ory” (code talk for teaching ID) and offers “lessons” for school boards: “For school board members interested in ‘teaching the controversy’ about evolutionary critics right where he wanted us—on the witness stand and theory, the lessons here are clear: Conduct the public’s business in and with the under oath. He could have been there, implementing his strat- public. Make sure your policies are justified with a clear and secular purpose. egy, helping to “squeeze the truth” out of us, “as it were.” In Neither officially advocate nor prohibit intelligent design. Seek out and pay attention to expert advice” (pp. 21–22). School boards would be well advised to ignore November 2005, after the trial ended, Dembski posted on his Carpenter’s article and steer clear of teaching this nonexistent controversy in any “Design Inference” Web site a combined version of his May 11 form. As an “Education Correspondent” for Focus on the Family (FoF), and 16, 2005, “vise strategy” blog pages, labeled as a Carpenter also wrote what appear to be variants of the ASBJ article for FoF’s “Document prepared to assist the Thomas More Law Center Citizen magazine. in interrogating the ACLU’s expert witnesses in the Dover case.” He appended a list of “Suggested Questions,” which, he Selected Bibliography wrote, “will constitute a steel trap that leave the Darwinists no Davis, Percival, and Dean H. Kenyon. 1993. Of Pandas and People: The Central Question of Biological Origins, 2nd ed. Dallas, Texas: Haughton Publishing room to escape.” (It is worth noting that after his last question, Company. Dembski conveniently noted that “with these questions, we Kitzmiller et al. v. Dover Area School District, Memorandum Opinion. December don’t need to get into the positive ID program—i.e., what ID 20, 2005. Available at www.pamd.uscourts.gov/opinions/jones/ 04v2688a.pdf. is doing specifically to advance ou[r] understanding of biology. Forrest, Barbara, and Paul R. Gross. 2004. Creationism’s Trojan Horse: The Wedge That will come out under cross-examination of our side.”) But of Intelligent Design. New York: Oxford University Press. when he had an opportunity to witness firsthand how his trap Dembski, William A. 2005. The Vise Strategy: Squeezing the truth out of Darwinists. Uncommon Descent (May 11, 2005). Available at www. would operate, he was nowhere to be found. He “escaped crit- uncommondescent.com/index.php/archives/59. ical scrutiny” by quitting rather than face cross-examination. ———. 2005. The Vise Strategy II: Essence of the strategy. Uncommon Descent He is apparently $20,000 richer for it, however, marking yet (May 16, 2005). Available at www.uncommondescent.com/ index.php/archives/72. another difference between us: whereas I served pro bono, National Center for Science Education. Legal issues, lawsuits, documents, trial Dembski charged $200 per hour and threatened to sue TMLC materials, and updates. Evolution Education and the Law. Available at for payment for one hundred hours of work he claims to have www2.ncseweb.org/wp/?page_id=5. done prior to quitting. In late June 2005, he told Canadian ID supporter Denyse O’Leary that TMLC had agreed to pay him. After ID’s dramatic, unequivocal defeat in Kitzmiller, Note about References Dembski’s priorities remained remarkably consistent: “This gal- For space reasons, most of the author’s seventy endnotes, vanizes the Christian community.... People I’m talking to say totaling the equivalent of 2,750 words, have been omitted we’re going to be raising a whole lot more funds now.” If failure from this printed version, with her approval. Instead, four is that lucrative, one can only imagine how well-remunerated he of the notes and a short selected bibliography she prepared and his ID colleagues would be if they could tell the truth and appear at the end. An electronic version of the article with back up their claims about “intelligent design theory.” all of the author’s endnotes, most with hyperlinks for opening full texts, is on CSI’s Web site at www. Acknowledgement csicop.org.—EDITOR I would like to thank Glenn Branch and Nick Matzke of the National Center for Science Education for their comments and suggestions.

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Strange Visions Haloes, Dust Storms, and Blood on the Walls

Unusual events within the eye such as the tearing of retinal capillaries or the detachment of intraocular structures may cause visual phenomena that have sometimes been attributed to supernatural sources. A. CHARLES CATANIA

or centuries, strange visions have been taken as evidence of paranormal phenomena. The stimuli that Fmay be their sources have typically been sought and located in the external visual world. Illusions of perspective, for example, may sometimes make a downhill slope look like an uphill one, so that water seems magically to flow in the wrong direction. In the false recognition of random patterns, a recognizable face may be seen on a piece of toast or in a reflection from a tarnished window. A less obvious source of strange visions is when something unusual occurs within the eye itself. When I experienced such an event, I had the good fortune to be well-prepared to

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that contains the opacity. If you see such a shadow, you can figure out Lens which eye it is in by closing one eye and then the other. The retina is the photosensitive Vitreous Capsule lining at the back of the eyeball. It includes not only the light-sensitive Cornea Retina visual receptors, rods and cones, but also blood supply and other structures. In fact, light entering the eye Pupil Fovea has to pass through some of these Light structures to reach the rods and cones. Iris Optic Disk (This arrangement is often cited to Optic Nerve rebut the claim that the eye was intel- ligently designed.) The cones are con- centrated in the central part of the retina, in and around the fovea; they serve color vision and the sharp acuity of the central part of the visual field. The rods are distributed in the periphery; they are much more light sensitive than the cones, but they provide poorer detail and color vision. Light is no longer involved if Floater A something happens at the level of the Retina rods and cones or past them in the optic nerve or a visual area of the Intraocular Fluid brain. Under such circumstances, Fovea you cannot figure out whether the Floater B Rear Wall of Eye problem is specific to a given eye by closing one eye or the other.

Blood on the Walls On January 23, 2001, my wife and I traveled from our home in Columbia, Maryland, to her mother’s The lower image, a detail from the cross section of eye anatomy, shows floaters within the intraocular retirement apartment near Lancaster, fluid. Floater A is farther away from the retina than floater B, and so will produce a blurrier shadow; it is also farther away from the fovea, where visual receptors are more tightly packed, and will look blur- Pennsylvania. We arrived at about rier for that reason as well. 11:30 A.M. I carried a moderately heavy bag with a shoulder strap, and interpret what was happening. I now work in areas related to as we entered the apartment, I heaved the bag from my shoul- learning and language and behavior, but in my days as a grad- der to set it on the floor. Straightening up, I saw a stream of uate student in experimental psychology in the late 1950s my blood beginning to run up the far wall. As soon as I moved my research included sensory systems and vision. head the blood moved with it. I covered my left eye and then I knew, for example, that when light enters the eye, passing my right eye and saw the blood only with my right eye uncov- through the lens on its way to the retina, any opacity along the ered, so I quickly concluded that something was happening way will block the light, creating a retinal shadow. The closer inside that eye. the opacity is to your retina, the sharper the shadow will The blood was in sharp focus, so it must have been very appear to you, and the shadow will be visible only in the eye close to my retina. Furthermore, images on the retina are inverted: light from above falls on the lower retina and light Charles Catania is a professor in the Department of Psychology at from below falls on the upper. The blood was running up the the University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC), where wall, so it must have been moving downward inside my eye. It he teaches courses in learning, cognition, and verbal behavior. He followed that the blood was denser than the fluid within which has served as editor of the Journal of the Experimental Analysis it was moving. That puzzled me at the time, because the vitre- of Behavior and currently serves as associate editor of Behavioral ous humor that fills the eyeball is thicker and more gelatinous and Brain Sciences. E-mail: [email protected]. than the aqueous humor between the cornea and the lens. I

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learned later, however, that the thinner fluids within the eye blood cells of my intraocular hemorrhage, stirred up by the are not confined to the space in front of the lens. vibrations created as our tires met the road. But if I hadn’t Some years earlier, I had received laser treatment for a thin- known better, I’d have thought it was a dust storm. ning of the peripheral retina in my left eye. I was therefore The ophthalmologist I saw that day examined the debris aware of the possible importance of seeing “floaters,” dark that had caused my visual events and said that the bleeding spots or masses that are the shadows on the retina created by material drifting in the intraocular fluid that surrounds the vitreous capsule. Visual phenomena such as When I looked at someone who was in front of a these or flashes of light may sometimes be precursors of retinal detachment or other bright background, such as the sky or a light- problems that must be dealt with promptly. I told my wife and my mother-in-law what seemed to be going on and sat down colored wall, that person seemed to wear a halo. to telephone our medical center. While I waited to be connected to the ophthalmol- As the person moved and my gaze followed, ogy department, I watched the blood in my eye darken and break into web-like fil- the halo moved accordingly, so I had to aments and go out of focus as it dispersed. Once I was connected, I explained my sit- deliberately look elsewhere to separate uation, and we discussed whether I should go to a local hospital or return to the halo from the person. Maryland. The bleeding had stopped, and we agreed that it would probably be useful to be where my ophthalmological history was known. The earliest available appointment was in late was probably from a torn retinal capillary in or near the mac- afternoon. Even though the drive back would take about two ula or the foveal area of my retina, the central area of sharpest hours, it would get us there in plenty of time, and I might acuity. The bleeding had loomed large for me, but its capillary have had to wait that long in a local emergency room anyway. source in my eye was tiny. The bleeding had stopped long Since it wouldn’t affect how soon I’d be seen, my wife and before, so he was unable to find it. I decided to have lunch with her mother before we set out on Intraocular bleeding occurs under various circumstances. our return trip. It was an impromptu arrangement, and my For example, in women, the rise in blood pressure during the chair leg got caught on a rug as I pulled my chair up to the contractions of childbirth may produce it. Those who experi- table. The chair jerked sharply as I freed it and the bleeding ence it typically see a golden or yellowish coloration in the began again. It seemed as if a small hole had opened in midair periphery of the visual field. It rarely occurs so close to the cen- near the far end of the room. The blood this time was a single tral foveal area that it clearly appears as a flow of blood. narrower stream as it rose upward, and the hole from which it The gelatinous vitreous capsule that fills the inside of the emerged gradually closed down and cut off the flow as I eyeball between the lens and the retina usually shrinks some- watched. what with age, and sometimes the capsule and the retina, nor- That vision changed the standards by which I judge those mally separated by only a thin layer of intraocular fluid, adhere science-fiction special effects in which something abruptly to each other in places. As the shrinkage separates the capsule materializes out of another time or space. In any case, this from the retina, the chance increases that such an adhesion episode was much shorter-lived than the first one. It also sug- might cause a small retinal tear (see, for example, Eagle 1999). gested that I should avoid sudden, jarring movements. No treatment was necessary, but observation and follow-ups with my regular ophthalmologist were recommended. I was to Dust Storms discover that the visual phenomena had not run their course. My wife drove, so I was able to take in the rural scenery of southern Pennsylvania and northern Maryland. It was a bright Haloes winter day with a clear sky and snow on the ground, and when Within a few days of my initial symptoms, I began to see a we came to relatively open stretches of road, I could see clouds dark annulus or ring around my central area of vision. It too of dark particles in the sky. I covered one eye and then the was in my right eye, so I assumed that something about the other, discovering that the particles were visible only to my configuration of the area had led the debris to collect there in right eye. Furthermore, their swirling movement became more that way. Its most striking aspect was that when I looked at agitated when we went over rough portions of road and someone who was in front of a bright background, such as the became fairly calm when the road was smooth. The most likely sky or a light-colored wall, that person seemed to wear a halo. explanation seemed to be that I was seeing the individual As the person moved and my gaze followed, the halo moved

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accordingly, so I had to deliberately look elsewhere to separate you cannot tell which eye they are in. I had seen such flashes the halo from the person. from time to time, especially around the time of the laser Gradually, the halo effect waned. Over a few weeks, the surgery for my left retina. ring shrank and blurred and became irregular as it moved to Another phenomenon, called visual migraine, occurs when the right and slightly above midline. For about a week, its constrictions of blood vessels or other events in the brain stim- irregularity included two smaller rings on the top and upper ulate activity in the visual cortex. The most common manifes- right of the main ring and a very small ring at the lower left. It tation of visual migraine is a crescent-shaped flashing pattern looked disconcertingly like a spectral Mickey Mouse, and of around the center of vision. It has a crystalline look and course whenever I tried to get a closer look it moved away includes scintillating white facets speckled with bright colors. from my gaze, maintaining its fixed position in my visual field. After its initial onset, it usually fades slowly over a period of a It continued to dissolve and blur and change its shape over few minutes. I saw it for the first time about a decade ago and subsequent weeks. Though now quite faint, it remains visible have seen it only a few times since then. as I write this, roughly five years later. When I was examined by my opthalmologist in my subse- Rare Events Need Not Be Interpreted as Messages quent visits, he remarked that it was unlikely that the annulus My symptoms were improbable, especially in combination. could have been made up of debris from my hemorrhage. I According to my doctor, they are sufficiently few and far should not have been surprised. After all, I had seen the blood between that on average, an ophthalmologist might encounter moving upward, and so I had concluded that it was moving a case like mine every few years. I had seen blood on the walls, toward the bottom of my eyeball. Why should it have moved dust storms, and people with haloes. Their precursors years back up again? before had been flashes and crystals, but these are more com- The doctor instead suspected another unusual event: a poste- mon than my more recent visual events. I did not at any point rior vitreous detachment, sometimes called a Weiss ring (Espaillat feel that I was chosen to receive these visions. But what if I had et al. 1999). Near the back of the eyeball, somewhat removed not known enough about vision to interpret them and had from the fovea in the direction of the nose, is the optic disk, the lived in a time or place in which there were no knowledgeable place where the neural processes from the rods and cones of the experts to consult? retina come together to leave the eyeball as the beginning of the The human eye has not changed very much over the past few optic nerve. The rods and cones themselves are absent at this millennia. Though rare, these sorts of visions must have location, so the optic disk is a blind spot. You can locate it in appeared to many individuals throughout human history. What your visual field by closing one eye while looking straight ahead stories about their visions some of them must have told! It is a and moving your fingertip around along the horizontal edge of good bet that some features of those stories have come down to your visual field on the side of your open eye until you find a us in one form or another, even if we cannot say whether any place where it disappears. Once that happens, you can get an particular report of blood or dust storms or haloes originated idea of the size of your blind spot by watching your fingertip with intraocular phenomena instead of other sources, such as reappear and disappear as you move it slightly up and down illusions or dreams or real events. Based on the things I’ve seen and back and forth. and what I know about their sources, however, I’d be pretty The optic disk differs from the retinal areas that surround it, skeptical about any claims that such visions should be taken as and a ring of the vitreous capsule typically becomes differenti- signs of the paranormal. ated along the boundary between the optic disk and the rest of the retina. Sometimes this ring breaks away and drifts around Acknowledgments in the ocular media between the vitreous capsule and the inner I thank Dr. David B. Glasser for several very helpful discussions of walls of the eyeball. It is of roughly the same density as the my visual experiences and my colleague, Dr. Victor G. Laties of the intraocular fluid, so there is no reason for it to drift in any par- University of Rochester Medical Center, for some guidance in explor- ticular direction. In this instance, it seems to have drifted hori- ing the literature on Weiss rings. I do not have the name of the oph- zontally and come to rest neatly around my fovea. The foveal thalmologist who first saw me after the capillary hemorrhage, but area, or macula, is in a slight concavity or pit at the rear of the perhaps that is just as well. To both my surprise and Dr. Glasser’s, he retina, and perhaps that topography kept the ring in a stable had not believed that the particles of my “dust storm” could have been individual blood cells. Yet the sizes of blood cells and of visual position for a while. In any case, as the ring dissolved, it grad- receptor cells are of a similar order of magnitude, so that the former ually lost its shape and moved away from the fovea. can in fact cast visible shadows on the latter. Finally, I thank my wife, Constance Britt Catania, and not just for driving me home. Flashes and Crystals My two unusual visual events do not exhaust the possibilities. References Adhesions between the vitreous capsule and the retina can tug Eagle, R. C., Jr. 1999. Eye Pathology: An Atlas and Basic Text. Philadelphia: at the retina even if they do not tear it, and sometimes that tug Saunders. Espaillat, A., L.P. Aiello, R.M. Calderon, J.D. Cavellerano, R.W. Cavicchi, is strong enough to excite the visual receptors directly, so that and G. Cordahl. 1999. Preservation of vision through Weiss ring after you see small flashes of light. You are most likely to notice such dense vitreous hemorrhage. American Journal of Ophthalmology 128(3): flashes when in dim lighting or when your eyes are closed, and 376–378.

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Pep Talk How to Get Rid of the Energy You Don’t Need

Had a hard time getting up this morning? Haven’t got much energy lately? Maybe you need an energy bar or perhaps a little pep talk? On the other hand, chances are you have too much energy and you need to get rid of some. That could be difficult; energy is so confusing. WILLIAM H. BAARSCHERS

aving energy” is a desirable attribute. It means health and happiness. Energy is about vitality, “Habout how we feel. Unfortunately, energy is often very poetic and abstract. Essayist Susan Sontag wrote about “bleeding energies” (Andrews 1998), and Prometheus used “aethereal energy” when he made the earth (Ovid 1965). Dictionaries offer synonyms like vigor or bounce. Those are about how we feel, about getting things done. “I have no energy” means “I feel lousy.” Energy we don’t have is about our mood (Dinges 2001). Some see energy in the mind-body connection (Weiss– Miller 1998). They look for “subtle energies” that affect our health and well-being (Krizhanovsky and Lim 2004).

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Others pursue vitalism, the mysterious force that all living The energy from the physics textbook is usually associated things are said to possess, a “vital principle” that cannot be with motion: the kinetic energy of a moving body, and the elec- measured with instruments (Humber and Almeder 1998). trical energy of electrons moving in a metal wire. We observe However, it is in the things we eat that “vital force” becomes energy changes with the tools of physics and describe them in “energy.” This energy has to do with physics and biology, and the language of mathematics. We measure electrical energy in it can be measured. This energy represents the “capacity for watts or kilowatts and the thermal energy equivalent of fuels, doing work” (Parker 1989), and we find it in many things, like wood or porridge, in calories or kilocalories. including our food. Energy that represents the capacity to “do Energy is an abstract, mathematical concept that we can work” belongs in the world of biochemistry. The “how-do-you- use for describing complex events. Energy is not a substance; feel” energy belongs in the mind, where it is difficult to mea- it is a property of a substance or an object (Davies and Brown sure. It fits better in the world of poetry and spirituality. 1989). We cannot touch it or see it, yet it is so common in our There is nothing wrong with using the same word for two dif- language that we perceive it as a concrete entity, something we ferent concepts. There are plenty examples in the English lan- can “have.” For describing conversions of energy from one guage, and the meaning is usually clear from the context. But form into another, we need words like thermodynamics, entropy, and quantum mechanics. Entropy and quantum are words that health writers especially like to toss into their recipes. They are fine ingredients for adding that We cannot touch or see energy, yet it is so special flavor of scientific respectability. The energy density of food is the energy common in our language that we perceive it equivalent in kilocalories per gram. Carbohydrates and proteins represent four as a concrete entity, something we can “have.” kilocalories per gram. Oils and fats are more energy-dense, at nine kilocalories per gram. Plants don’t need to carry their energy resources around; their chemical energy is mostly in the form of carbohy- health-book writers often mix these different kinds of energy into drates. We must carry our stored energy with us, so the most the same recipe, causing no end of trouble. That is why there are efficient way for us to store that energy is as fat, which, as was so many “energy foods” and “energy beverages” in the supermar- stated previously, is more energy-dense. A surplus of that ket, to help us “get our energy levels [up]” (Childs 2001). stored energy gets in the way, literally, of converting it into mechanical energy. Too much energy stored around our waist How Many “Energies?” is the very opposite of vitality and vigor. Since “being energetic” is obviously a good thing, “eating Energy density also relates to food processing. Starchy energy” must be good for you. However, don’t “eat calories,” crops, from which most plant “waste” has been processed because calories make you fat. So we have a dilemma: eating away, yield much more chemical energy per mouthful than the energy is said to be good for you, but when the same thing is whole plant. Removing leaves and husks concentrates the called “eating calories,” it is not. Explaining makes it worse chemical energy in food. With a few exceptions, most diet and leads to confusing language like “burning calories” and books do not explain this problem clearly (e.g., Pritikin 1998). “caloric energy,” which aims at explaining this mysterious rela- There is one unfortunate wrinkle. When nutritionists talk tionship between energy and calories. Health writers don’t about nutrients, they don’t mean macronutrients, like fats, pro- explain what happens to these calories when they burn. teins, and carbohydrates, they mean micronutrients, like min- In poetry and religion, metaphor and symbolism evoke erals, vitamins, and other phytochemicals. The concept of feelings or arouse passion or commitment. In science, preci- nutrient density, the amount of a specific nutrient in a given sion with words is essential. Philosopher Paul Kurtz (1991) food, relative to the energy provided by that food, supposedly called it “linguistic and logical clarity,” which demands that we helps us to look at the nutrient-to-calorie ratio rather than just do not confuse the meanings of words in different usages. looking at calories. However, figuring out the nutrient density of one food relative to a dozen nutrients requires a calculator William H. Baarschers is a professor emeritus of chemistry at and very carefully reading the label on the jar (Zelman and Lakehead University in Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada. His Kennedy 2005). research interests include the chemistry of medicinal plants, syn- thetic chemistry, environmental science, and industrial toxicology. Counts and Balances He is currently the advisor to the university’s Resource Center for Discussions at the blurry end of the energy-food relationship Occupational Health and Safety. He is the author of Eco-Facts & often emphasize the importance of “balance” and “harmony.” Eco-Fiction: Understanding the Environmental Debate One health writer sees wellness as “the graceful dance of energy (Routledge, 1996). E-mail: [email protected]. in balance” (Taub 1999). However, “balance” requires two

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things—you can’t play on the seesaw by yourself, so something measuring “energy levels.” We have no way of knowing must be in balance with something else. “Harmony,” as a syn- whether they are high or low. Are these energy levels about onym, does not help. The question becomes: what is in har- thermodynamics or about us having a good day? mony with what? In the language of science, we know that “balance” does indeed involve two entities. In physics, biology, The “Quality” of Energy or chemistry, nothing is in balance by itself. It can only be in Chemical energy, unlocked from carbohydrates and fats, is balance with something else. often needed quickly. Muscle cells use energy that is instanta- Fortunately, behind the fuzzy words, we find clear labels for neously available from other high-energy molecules. To drive the events that take place in our bodies. Breaking down larger such fast chemical changes, we need the highly efficient cata- molecules into smaller ones is called catabolism. The reverse, lysts called enzymes. Some writers ascribe near-magical prop- building larger molecules, is anabolism. Together, these chem- erties to them; they are said to be “alive,” and we are not sup- ical changes are our metabolism in action. posed to cook our food, so that we don’t “kill” the enzymes Balance, in nutrition language, is the important equilib- (e.g., Cichoke 1999). However, most enzymes are quite spe- rium of the amount of energy taken in as food with the amount converted into other energy forms, like mechanical energy, or with the amount used for fueling the chem- Health-related energy ideas readily move from ical changes involved in our metabolism. Balance occurs when our energy intake is thermodynamics into pseudoscience, and equal to our energy expenditure. When intake and output are unbalanced, one of sometimes right into the paranormal. two things happens: we either starve or we get fat (Simopoulos 1990). Energy balance is all-important for successful weight control, which cannot be achieved without a rea- cific. Enzymes that help an apple to ripen were made accord- sonable level of physical activity. Exercise capacity is a reliable ing to instructions in the apple’s DNA to serve the chemistry predictor for cardiac health (Balady 2002). If your favorite diet of the apple. These enzymes don’t give us a healthy blush, just book does not pay attention to this crucial part of your energy a minute amount of digestible protein. balance, throw it out. Food that is “alive” is also the subject of another diet book, Human bodies are energy converters. Plants convert solar which suggests that all cultures, except “Western medicine,” see energy into the chemical energy, mainly associated with carbo- energy as the vital force that flows through everything living in hydrates. We eat the plants and convert this chemical energy the universe (Taub 1999, 82). This leads to the confusing con- into other forms: electrical energy for transmitting nerve signals, clusion that fresh fruit, which supposedly is “alive,” but consists heat energy for keeping us at an operating temperature of about of 80–90 percent water, somehow contains more energy than 37° Celsius. Food energy is also used for building the chemicals candy, which is nearly all sugar and gram for gram contains that make up our bodies and breaking down chemicals we no vastly more energy than fruit. longer need; it is also converted into mechanical energy for mus- If you truly suffer from a lack of energy, in the nutritional cle movement, which in turn gets converted into waste heat. sense, the advice to eat less protein, fat, and high-glycemic car- We cannot “excrete” excess energy, like excess water or salt. bohydrates makes no sense at all (Weil 2000). Why reduce your The “burning” of fat is a metaphor for the oxidation of fat, energy intake if you suffer from a lack of energy? However, if somewhat like burning wood, although it happens at body you carry excess energy around your waist and you have little temperature. It means that the energy associated with the fat is “get up and go,” the advice is well worth remembering. converted into another form, but that other form has to go somewhere. If it is used to move muscles, and generate heat, Beyond Physics the energy from the fat is dissipated outside the body. So, fat Health-related energy ideas readily move from thermodynam- “burns” only if there is a demand for another form of the ics into pseudoscience, and sometimes right into the paranor- released energy. Food energy that we don’t convert into mal. That is where disease, or a “lack of wellness,” has to do another form is surplus, and it has to be stored. Eating “spe- with the “energy field” that surrounds our bodies. Disease is cial” foods or herbs does not help to “burn” fat if there is no said to be a disturbance, an “imbalance” of that energy field, demand for energy. and adept healers can detect these “energy imbalances” by As long as we keep energy beliefs and food biochemistry placing their hands above afflicted parts of the patient’s body. each in their own domains, we have no problems. The believer An “energy transfer” from healer to patient constitutes the accepts the first, and the skeptic measures the second. When Therapeutic Touch by which “human energies can be we mix the two, we get, for example, the pseudoscience of the directed” to heal (Krieger 1993). use of specific foods, or supplements, for improving our Such energy fields are not in the physics textbooks, so a energy levels. Medical laboratories have no procedures for nine-year-old student decided to investigate. She showed that

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two dozen Therapeutic Touch practitioners, who agreed to The frequent use of this terminology in modern diet books participate in a simple test, could not detect the presence of is clearly an example of what David Morrison (2005) recently the “energy field” around her hand near theirs. Her report was called “framing the issue.” It is therefore important that we see published in The Journal of the American Medical Association where the science ends and the belief systems begin. and promptly criticized by many believers (Rosa et al., 1998). Clearly, the ambiguous or intangible thing that we call Criticisms varied from flawed methodology to the assertion energy is a rich source of inspiration for authors who like to that “it doesn’t matter as long as it benefits the patient.” But dress their stories about calories in more romantic language. At the experiment did not address these issues. It was not even worst, such language leads to pseudoscience. At best, fuzzy about whether or not such energy fields exist. The question words obscure the simple rule that the only way to get rid of was whether such energy fields can be detected by practition- our surplus chemical energy is to convert it to thermal and ers who say they can. And the answer was no. The author’s mechanical energy (Laird, Birmingham, and Jones 2002). In rebuttal to the criticisms mentioned the challenge to show, other words, we don’t need poetic language or “subtle energies” under testable conditions and with a one million-dollar award, for turning fat into sweat. We just have to go down to the gym that such energy fields actually exist (Randi 2006). At the time and do it . . . although that may require a little pep talk. of this writing, this award remained unclaimed. Things become even stranger in the field of “bioelectro- References magnetic” therapies. This story starts with the well-known Andrews, R. 1998. The Columbia Dictionary of Quotations. New York: Columbia University Press. phenomenon of north-south polarity in magnets. Somehow, Balady, G.J. 2002. Survival of the fittest, more evidence. New England Journal this magnetic polarity gets morphed into positive and negative of Medicine 346(11): 852–854. energy, and we are led to believe that the Chinese concept of O’Connor, B. 1995. Healing Traditions, Alternative Medicine and the Health Professions. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press: 30. positive and negative qi follows naturally from Physics 101. Childs, N.M. 2001. Consumer perceptions of energy. Nutrition Reviews What could negative energy be? Would it be analogous to neg- 59(1): S2–S4. ative weight? Would negative energy levitate us straight into Cichoke, A.J. 1999. The Complete Book of Enzyme Therapy. New York: Avery Publishing. science fiction? Clearly, “negative energy,” whether called qi or Davies, P.C.W., and J. Brown. 1989. The Ghost in the Atom. Cambridge: something else, is a matter of belief. It does not belong in the Cambridge University Press: 26. science of health and nutrition. Dinges, D.F. 2001. Stress, fatigue, and behavioral energy. Nutrition Reviews 59(1, part 2): S30–S32. These attempts to press a scientific stamp of approval on Fernstrom, J.D. 2001. Diet, neurochemicals, and mental energy. Nutrition Eastern philosophic thought can be expanded endlessly. Reviews 59(1): S22–S24. Energy conversions are a part of physics known as thermody- Foster, S. 1996. Tapping into the powerful energy of herbs. Better Nutrition. 54(9): 70. namics, which is governed by the laws of thermodynamics. Humber, J.M., and R.F. Almeder, eds. 1998. Alternative Medicine and Ethics. The first law, about the conservation of energy, readily leads to Totowa, New Jersey: Humana Press: 6. “balance” and “constant energy levels,” and we get the impres- Krieger, D. 1993. Accepting Your Power to Heal: The Personal Practice of Therapeutic Touch. Santa Fe, New Mexico: Bear. sion that the story is about elementary physics, while in actual Krizhanovsky, E., and Lim Kwong Choong. 2004. Influence of subtle ener- fact, it is about a belief system or about a metaphoric meaning getic change in water on the human energy state. Subtle Energy & of the word energy. It is important to understand that ideas Medicine 15(3). (Abstract accessible at www.issseem.org). Kurtz, P. 1991. The Transcendental Temptation: A Critique of Religion and the about “balancing energy” and about “blocked” or “stagnant” Paranormal. Amherst, New York: Prometheus: 51. energy flow come from philosophical and spiritual approaches Laird Birmingham, C., and P.J. Jones. 2002. Clinical nutrition: How much that are common in so-called vernacular health-belief systems, should Canadians eat? Canadian Medical Association Journal. 166(6): 767–770. where “energy imbalance” is seen as the cause of many health Morrison, D. 2005. Only a theory? Framing the evolution/creation issue. problems (O’Connor 1995). SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, 29(6): 37–41. Nevertheless, energy concepts that are clearly outside the world Ovid. 1965. Metamorphoses, Book 1, The Creation of the World. (English trans- lation by A. Golding). New York: Macmillan. of physics cannot be summarily dismissed. For example, an herbal- Parker, S., ed. 1989. McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, ist, who calls energy an “ambiguous” or “intangible” element of 4th Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. life, and discusses the herbs to improve it, is obviously addressing Pritikin, R. 1998. The Pritikin Weight Loss Breakthrough: 5 Easy Steps to Outsmart Your Fat Instinct. New York: Penguin. the issue of mood, of “feeling energetic” (Foster 1996). Dried herbs Randi, J. 2006. James Randi Educational Foundation. Available at www.randi. contain very little chemical energy such as starch or fat: their calo- org/research/index.html; accessed January 2006. rie equivalent is virtually zero. Using herbs to increase chemical Rosa, L., et al. 1998. “A close look at Therapeutic Touch,” The Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) 279(13): 1005–1010. Comments: energy intake is undoubtedly an exercise in futility. 1998. JAMA. 280(22): 1905–1908. But the effects of some of these low-energy herbs on our Simopoulos, A.P. 1990. Energy imbalance and cancer of the breast, colon, and perception of well-being is well known. Their effects may have prostate. Medical Oncology and Tumor Pharmacotherapy 7(2–3): 109–20. to do with energy supply to the brain in the form of glucose Taub, E.A. 1999. Balance Your Body, Balance Your Life: Dr. Taub’s 28-Day Permanent Weight Loss Plan. New York: Kensington Books. (Fernstrom 2001), or with facilitating other metabolic conver- Weil, A. 2000. Eating Well for Optimum Health: A Comprehensive Guide to sions. But when the label on these stimulants claims that they Food, Diet, and Nutrition. New York: Random House, p. 274. “promote long-lasting energy” and “support healthy levels of Weiss–Miller, D. 1998. More on information, energy, and mind-body medicine. Advances in Mind–Body Medicine, 14(4): 287–293. energy,” remember that such claims, although allowed by the Zelman. K., and E. Kennedy. 2005. Naturally nutrient rich: Putting more FDA, do not involve counting calories. power on Americans’ plates. Nutrition Today. 40(2): 60–68.

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Mass Hysteria at Starpoint High

Though mass hysteria is alive and well in the twenty-first century, it remains an unpopular diagnosis. In the face of compelling evidence to the contrary, it is often denied on emotional grounds as a phenomenon that happens only to others. ROBERT E. BARTHOLOMEW and BENJAMIN RADFORD

What’s in a name? That which we call a rose By any other name would smell as sweet.... —William Shakespeare

n the twenty-first century, there is a new bogeyman lurk- ing in the same shadowy underworld that was once the Idomain of ghosts and goblins: mass hysteria. Phantom odors, mystery illnesses, and terrorism scares are undermining science and costing businesses and workers millions of dollars in lost productivity and wages. Known by the more formal (and politically correct) term mass psychogenic illness, mass hysteria refers to the rapid spread of illness signs and symptoms without any biological basis.

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Mass hysteria is a serious, unrecognized problem that cre- symptoms spread by suggestion. A student would first hear of ates a financial burden on responding emergency services, gov- an existing case, then develop an itch—only then did the rash ernment agencies, and the affected school or work site (which appear, and only on parts of the body that were easily accessi- may be closed for days or weeks). Taxpayers must often shoul- ble to the hands (forearms, abdomen, neck, shoulders, and der the burden while public-health and environmental officers middle and lower back). Investigating physicians noted that investigate. Fear and uncertainty may also lead to other anxi- during exams, “children were actively scratching. . . . Several ety disorders and stress-related health problems. There are children who were surreptitiously observed a half hour after many recent examples. the interview exhibited no scratching, and their rash disappeared.” The rash also disappeared when students left the • In mid-December 2005, in the war-ravaged Republic of school or during recess, and returned once they reentered the Chechnya, dozens of schoolchildren were stricken with building. The school’s small size and high pupil-interaction breathing difficulties, headaches, and numbness amid rumors rate in the halls appear to have contributed to the outbreak that they had been deliberately exposed to nerve gas as retri- (Robinson et al. 1984). bution for the school massacre in Belsan that killed over 300 A similar outbreak of itching and rash occurred in South in 2004. As a result, schools were closed, political tensions Africa in February 2000, affecting more than 1,400 students rose, and medical specialists from Russia were mobilized. A in thirteen schools. Students reported itching upon entering Chechen government commission concluded that the symp- the school grounds; only a tiny fraction said that the itching toms were psychosomatic, resulting from “intense psycholog- continued when they returned home. The incident occurred ical pressure caused by lengthy hostilities in the republic” amid stories that the itching was caused either by Satanists or (Mosnews.com 2005). by itching powder that had been placed in the bathrooms. Interviews and questionnaires determined that the spread of • Throughout 2005, a mysterious odor at the West Cedar symptoms occurred by line of sight after observing others Elementary School in Waverly, Iowa, was blamed for fatigue, scratching (Rataemane et al. 2002). headaches, itchy eyes, and dry throats in about 10 percent of Schools aren’t the only area where mass hysteria has recently the student body. After the school district spent $170,000 taken a toll. In February 2005, a chemical leak was blamed for trying to find the cause, experts from the Environmental nausea, heart palpitations, and dizziness that struck down Protection Agency and Iowa Department of Public Health fifty-seven workers near the Virgin Blue terminal at Australia’s reported that they could find nothing out of the ordinary. Melbourne Airport. The victims quickly recovered, and no EPA spokesman Craig Crable said that every test “available leak or toxic agent was ever found, but the shutdown cost to science” was negative. Despite this, a survey of 131 par- Virgin an estimated $3 million and disrupted air traffic across ents found that 41 percent still wanted their children relo- the continent. An investigation concluded that the cause was cated (Spannagel 2005). mass hysteria (Bartholomew 2005). • On December 5, 2005, twenty-nine students were sent home Writing in The New England Journal of Medicine, Timothy from Ridge Meadows Elementary School in Wildwood, Jones says that he has heard similar “war stories” from col- Missouri, after mysterious red blotches appeared on the upper leagues, suggesting that hysteria is underreported (Jones et al. bodies of students and several faculty members. The school was 2000). In fact, the case that Jones and his colleagues investi- closed the next day, and a disinfectant team sanitized the build- gated—the sudden illness at Warren County High School in ing; but when classes resumed two days later, two new cases Tennessee in 1998—is typical. Eighty students and nineteen were reported. The cause was never found (Shapiro 2005). staff members were taken for treatment after a teacher detected a “gasoline-like” odor in her classroom. At first, only a few stu- Incidents similar to those at Ridge Meadows often prove to dents reported smelling the odor and feeling ill, but then the be mass psychogenic illness. One incident investigated by sci- fire alarm sounded as scores of police and rescue personnel entists took place on February 22, 1982, when two fourth from three counties converged on the school. In full view of graders at a West Virginia school complained of itching and the evacuees, the first teacher who was stricken and several rashes. By noon, thirty-two students were affected, and the pupils were loaded into ambulances and rushed to hospital. number later jumped to fifty-seven. Medical exams and tests Soon more students reported headaches, dizziness, nausea, of the air, water, and food were negative, as was an examina- drowsiness, tightness in the chest, and difficulty breathing. tion of the school grounds. Based on interviews with the vic- Several days later, a second, similar outbreak took place. In tims, doctors found that after the first two high-profile cases, all, 170 students and teachers were affected. A questionnaire found that symptoms were associated with being female, “seeing Robert Bartholomew is the author of Hoaxes, Myths, and another ill person, knowing that a classmate was ill, and report- Manias: Why We Need Critical Thinking, 2003, with ing an unusual odor at the school” (p. 96). The odor in the Benjamin Radford. E-mail: [email protected]. school—and the massive, rapid response to the scene by emer- Benjamin Radford is the managing editor of the SKEPTICAL gency personnel—appear to have further heightened anxieties. INQUIRER and author of three books. His Web site is www.rad An army of personnel from government health agencies fordbooks.com. E-mail: [email protected]. conducted an array of tests on the building and the students.

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Blood and urine samples were taken, as were 220 air samples, five water samples, eight wipe specimens from a variety of sur- faces, and soil tests. All of them came back negative. The estimated cost of emergency care alone was $100,000, and the school was closed for two weeks (Alligood 2000). After the “mass hysteria” diagnosis was published, many locals were upset, and devised elaborate alternative theories (Paine 2000). Part of the problem is that no one wants to be labeled hysterical. When Dr. Joel Nitzkin accurately diagnosed mass hysteria at a Florida elementary school in 1974, he became the subject of community wrath and even death threats (Nitzkin 1976). More recently, with the publication of Elaine Showalter’s book Hystories (on the prevalence of modern-day hysteria, everything from Gulf War Syndrome to child sex- Starpoint High School, near Buffalo, New York. Photo by Jennifer M. Griffith. abuse panics fostered by unwittingly encouraged false memo- holiday concert that evening. At 9:20 A.M., a student felt ill. ries), the author received threats. Even noted psychologist (and Before long, more and more chorus members began to feel CSICOP fellow) Elizabeth Loftus received hate mail after unwell. Within an hour, thirty-one were complaining of dizzi- arguing there was an American epidemic of false child sex- ness, headaches, nausea, and feelings of flushness and lethargy; abuse reports. She didn’t hire a bodyguard, though she bought at least one student vomited. Some students noted a strange a gun and took up target practice (Abramsky 2004). odor. Amid concerns of a possible bioterrorism attack, an army But what is hysteria? Simply put, it is the conversion of psy- of response teams converged on the school: state police, FBI chological stress into symptoms that mimic illness. In 1994, agents, officials from the State Department of Environmental the American Psychiatric Association renamed the phenome- Conservation, firefighters, ambulance personnel, and other non, opting for the more politically correct conversion disor- first responders. Hazardous materials specialists wearing “space der—a term devised by Sigmund Freud to describe the trans- suits” and breathing apparatus were also dispatched. The stu- formation of emotional conflict into physical symptoms. dents were rushed to local hospitals and the rest of the school Weighed down by heavy political baggage from widespread was locked down and eventually evacuated. Those affected misuse of the term over the past two centuries (especially to quickly recovered and were released within hours. Environ- stigmatize women), it was deemed that a name change was in mental tests at Starpoint were conducted by a private firm, and order. Yet hysteria remains as popular as ever, as evidenced by a separate team of experts on hazardous materials from its continuing widespread use in medical and psychiatric jour- Niagara County. All tests were negative. When the school nals. The public often misuses the term to describe overreac- reopened on Friday, December 17, the matter remained unex- tions to everything from environmental gloom and doom plained and no cause for the illnesses had been pinpointed. As (“green hysteria”) to drug use in baseball (“steroid hysteria”), a result, there were 308 student absences (Nemeth 2004a). and share-market crashes (“Wall Street hysteria”). Further, On January 10, press reports cited local fears that Starpoint when a person, especially a female, is emotionally distraught, was wedged between two former toxic dumps that may have she is sometimes described as hysterical. Of course, rarely are been responsible for the “mystery illnesses” (Nemeth 2005b, any of these people suffering from actual, clinical hysteria— 2005c). (It is notable that the notorious Love Canal is located hence the widespread confusion and upset over the word. in the region, likely adding to the perception that unexplained illnesses may be the result of toxic waste.) Three days later, there Tense Times at Starpoint High was yet another health scare, as an ammonia-like odor was In 2004, Starpoint High School, in Niagara County, not far detected in three classrooms. More tests were ordered. Then, on from Buffalo, New York, gained a reputation for being a Friday, January 28, school-bus diesel fumes were blamed for a “tainted” school after a series of health scares. In February, a rash of nausea and headaches among students. Superintendent Spanish classroom was closed for over a week after parent com- C. Douglas Whelan theorized that the fumes didn’t dissipate in plaints that one of the students was made ill by a substance the near-zero temperatures and were sucked back into the that smelled like rotten eggs. Some theorized that it was mold building through the air-vent system (Lindsay, 2005). But contamination, though no cause was found. In September, a surely on cold mornings, hundreds of schools in northern states math classroom was shut down after students and teachers and throughout Canada let their buses idle so they don’t stall— reported smelling an ammonia-like odor. Again, nothing and yet none report mass illness. Why Starpoint? harmful was found (Nemeth 2004d), though rumors began to When pressed for an explanation, Starpoint school officials abound that there was “something in the school.” initially speculated that the chorus members “were overcome Within this backdrop of fear and uncertainty, by mid- by the heat of the lights in the auditorium.” This is possible, December, events began to escalate. On Tuesday morning, but doesn’t answer the question: why Starpoint? Why the cho- December 14, fifty-two chorus members were rehearsing rus? Thousands of chorus rehearsals are held across North Christmas carols in the auditorium, preparing for a big America each year, during which students practice for their

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upcoming concerts under hot lights and they don’t fall ill in and more tests to be ordered, or different consultants hired. droves. When the “hot-lights” theory proved untenable in Negative or inconclusive results aren’t seen as evidence that the light of other incidents at the school, the “stale-air” hypothesis threat is not there, but instead that the tests are faulty or the was evoked. On January 7, results from the initial tests on the sample isn’t large enough. While those investigating should not school’s auditorium and its air filter were released. The report give up after a few tests do not reveal a cause (false negatives do stated: “No unexpected particles were identified in significant occur), the possibility of mass hysteria should be considered. quantities” (Chopra 2005, 7). An analysis of clothing worn by Under the right circumstances, any school can be the epi- students during the episode turned up nothing unusual. The center of an outbreak. Starpoint had developed a reputation report concluded that “there is no air quality factor that has for being a “sick” school. The earlier outbreaks of mysterious been identified by the testing . . . that can explain or point to illness at Starpoint served as proof that there was something in a cause for the incident that occurred at the Starpoint High the school making kids sick and kept the issue alive. The School Auditorium” (Chopra 2005, 8). Lockport incident occurred just a week after the Starpoint “mystery illness,” and the prominent newspaper and television Ever-increasing Circles coverage which ensued. A week after the Starpoint choral incident, twenty-six pupils It is important to trust the scientific evidence and not com- and four teachers at the nearby North Park Middle School in pound the problem with exotic, implausible theories that are Lockport suddenly fell ill with similar symptoms, only to not supported by scientific investigations. Perhaps labeling quickly recover. Under pressure to explain what happened, outbreaks as group anxiety or collective panic attacks would school officials suggested that low levels of carbon monoxide reduce the stigma and controversy that often accompanies were given off by the boiler and the weather conditions were episodes. Often, the illness and symptoms are real enough, but just right (or wrong) to allow the gas to be sucked back into the diagnosis is very wrong. the ventilation system. This is such an unlikely scenario that exhaust from a flying saucer may seem more plausible. References Thousands of schools operate under similar conditions each Abramsky, Sasha. 2004. Memory and manipulation: The trials of Elizabeth Loftus, defender of the wrongly accused. LA Weekly (August 20–26). day in North America during winter without apparent out- Alligood, Leon. 2000. Anxiety caused illness at school, study finds. The breaks of sudden illness. Every one of the thirty people treated Tennessean (January 13). Available at www.tennessean.com/sii/00/01/13/ at area hospitals after the incident had carbon-monoxide levels hysteria13.shtml. Bartholomew, Robert E. 2005. “Mystery illness” at Melbourne Airport: Toxic within the normal range. Superintendent Bruce Fraser seized poisoning or mass hysteria? Medical Journal of Australia 183(11/12): on the claim that some carbon-monoxide levels were slightly 564–566. elevated but “well below the level of a smoker” (Westmoore Chopra, Paul S. 2005. Chopra-Lee test report NY412046. Issued December 23, 2005. 2005). Yet people are exposed to slightly elevated carbon- Jones, T.F., A.S. Craig, D. Hoy, E.W. Gunter, D.L. Ashley, D.B. Barr, J.W. monoxide levels all the time and nothing happens—when Brock, and W. Schaffner. 2000. Mass psychogenic illness attributed to crossing the road in traffic, walking in an underground car toxic exposure at a high school. The New England Journal of Medicine 342(2): 96–100. park, even standing next to idling school buses. The carbon- Lindsay, Mark. 2005. A familiar situation at Starpoint. Lockport Journal monoxide theory is wishful thinking. Fraser is quoted as say- (January 29). ing that the flu situation may have worsened the students’ Mosnews.com. 2005. War stress blamed for mystery ailment afflicting Chechen children. December 30, 2005. Available at www.mosnews. reaction to the carbon monoxide. But what school doesn’t have com/news/2005/12/30/diagnos.shtml; accessed February 4, 2006. some illness going around, especially during the winter season? Nemeth, Sarah. 2004a. Starpoint reopens, but with 308 absentees. Lockport Fraser conceded that some of the affected students “may Journal (December 18). Nemeth, Sarah. 2005b. Starpoint takes paper to task over story. Lockport have had their own situations aggravated when they saw other Journal (January 11). kids get sick” (Westmoore 2005). Given the negative test Nemeth, Sarah. 2005c. A chemical link? Lockport Journal (January 10). results, it may have been entirely anxiety—fed by rumors. Nemeth, Sarah. 2004d. Starpoint students complain about ammonia-like smell. Lockport Journal (January 14). Nitzkin, Joel L. 1976. Epidemic transient situational disturbance in an ele- The Power of the Mind mentary school. Journal of the Florida Medical Association 63: 357–359. An explanation of hysteria for the events at Starpoint and Paine, Anne. 2000. Hysteria article angers Warren County residents. The Tennessean (February 7): 1B. Lockport schools does not mean that their students are crazy Rataemane, S.T., L.U.Z. Rataemane, and J. Mohlahle. 2002. “Mass hysteria or prone to overactive imaginations. Nor does it mean that it among learners at Mangaung schools in Bloemfontein, South Africa. was “all in their heads”—the reactions were real, but they were International Journal of Psychosocial Rehabilitation 6: 61–67. Robinson, P., M. Szewczyk, L. Haddy, P. Jones, and W. Harvey. 1984. also generated by anxiety. Outbreak of itching and rash. Archives of Internal Medicine 144: The incidents at these schools are tantamount to a collective 1959–1962. panic attack. Indeed, many panic-attack sufferers doubt their Shapiro, Mary. 2005. Rash causes Ridge Meadows to cancel classes. Chesterfield (Missouri) Journal (December 14): A1. diagnoses and think they have heart problems or other maladies Showalter, Elaine. 1998. Hystories: Hysterical Epidemics and Modern Media. that the doctors somehow missed. They often seek second New York: Columbia University Press. opinions—and third and fourth opinions. They may refuse to Spannagel, Brian. 2005. Smelly Waverly school given clean bill of health. The Waterloo Cedar-Falls Courier (December 13). see psychologists or psychiatrists. By the same token, when Westmoore, Paul. 2005. Unusual weather conditions apparently led to ill- environmental tests are negative, it is not uncommon for more nesses. The Buffalo News (January 1).

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BOOKBOOK REVIEWSREVIEW

Smart Scientists on Intelligent Thought (If Not Design)

MATT YOUNG

Intelligent Thought: Science versus the Intelligent Design Movement. Edited by John Brockman. Vintage Books, New York, 2006. ISBN 0-30727-722-4. pp. Paperback, $14.

ntelligent Thought is a collection of intelligence, or SETI. The chapter ram- sixteen essays by contributors to the bles a bit, but Dawkins makes the essen- Ionline magazine The Edge, and is tial point that an ETI would have edited by the literary agent and author evolved by natural selection, whereas a John Brockman. Many of the chapter deity (presumably) would not have; authors are household names, at least in thus, ID creationism solves nothing, my household: Richard Dawkins, because it does not specify any of its Daniel Dennett, Tim White, Steven designer’s properties. Consequently, Pinker. The topic is timely, and the when we are looking for an ETI, we are book is well written and well edited; the tacitly looking for an entity with only infelicity I can recall is an incorrect roughly human intelligence; when we use of the phrase, “begs the question.” are looking for the intelligent designer, Why, then, can I muster only two we have no idea what we are looking for. cheers? In part, because the book is not Although I have read a bit about well organized and not entirely about Darwin and his famous voyage, histo- intelligent design (ID) creationism; it is rian Frank Sulloway’s essay really a collection of mostly unrelated essays The opening essay by Jerry Coyne is brought home the fact that Darwin was presented as unnumbered chapters right on task: Coyne shows why ID cre- a creationist when he set out. whose only connection is that they are ationism is not scientific and distin- Observations are theory-laden, and bound in the same volume (and that guishes between the “strong” and Darwin made serious errors, such as fail- Brockman, wearing his literary agent’s “weak” forms, that is, between what ID ing to note on which island he had col- hat, represents some or all of the creationists say to each other and what lected various specimens. The nonscien- authors). In addition, in a most serious they say on the witness stand. Several tists on the ship made no such mistake. omission, the book has no index and chapters later, Daniel Dennett explains Anthropologist Scott Atran’s essay, most chapters have no references—criti- how the hoax (his word) of ID creation- “Unintelligent Design,” notes some cal parts of any nonfiction book. ism is perpetrated, in part, by conflating truly unintelligent designs in nature and design with purpose. Coyne’s and then goes on to discuss religion. He did Matt Young is Senior Lecturer in Physics Dennett’s chapters are among the only not convince me that religion is not at the Colorado School of Mines and, most chapters in the book with literature cita- adaptive behavior simply by providing recently, coeditor of Why Intelligent tions, though I thought each could have some examples of rituals that are proba- Design Fails: A Scientific Critique of the been beefed up considerably. bly not adaptive; religion, as such, may New Creationism. Copyright ©2007 by Richard Dawkins asks what we can well be adaptive, even if not all its ritu- Matt Young. learn from the search for extraterrestrial als are. Like Atran, physicist Leonard

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BOOK REVIEW

Susskind ascribes religious belief in large also left me kind of cold. What matters MYSTERIOUS ENTITIES OF THE part to fear of death but, unlike Atran, is not how many “computations” the PACIFIC NORTHWEST, PART I argues briefly that it may be selected for. universe is making but, in Mark Perakh’s Continued from page 22 Susskind’s is one of the weakest essays in terms, whether it can produce a mean- the book, in part, because he documents ingful message. Lloyd’s chapter never- References almost nothing he claims. Susskind con- theless had a nice section on William Alley, J. Robert. 2003. Raincoast Sasquatch. Surry, cludes, however, with the wise advice to Dembski’s misuse of the no-free-lunch B.C.: Hancock House. write off the “benighted zealots who theorems. Bord, Janet, and Colin Bord. 1982. The Bigfoot Casebook. Harrisburg, Penn.: Stackpole Books. would prefer that intellectual history Theoretical physicist Lisa Randall Cahill, Adrianna. 2006. Interview by Joe Nickell, had ended in the fifteenth century” and takes a very conventional look at evolu- May 30. try to convince the majority. tion but discusses problems with termi- Cohen, Daniel. 1982. The Encyclopedia of Monsters. New York: Dodd, Mead & Co. Steven Pinker’s essay complements nology, for example, the use of the word Coleman, Loren, and Jerome Clark. 1999. Atran’s in a way, by showing that reli- theory by scientists as opposed to layper- Cryptozoology A to Z. New York: Fireside. gion need not hijack morality, and fur- sons. Stuart Kauffman discusses Colombo, John Robert. 1988. Mysterious Canada. Toronto: Doubleday Canada ther, that morality is not inconsistent preadaptations (exaptations) and the Limited. with evolution and may well have a bio- impossibility of predicting the path of Daegling, David J. 2004. Bigfoot Exposed: An logical origin. evolution to argue unconvincingly Anthropologist Examines America’s Enduring Legend. Walnut Creek, California: AltaMira Paleontologist Scott Sampson’s essay, against both reductionism and ID cre- Press. “Evoliteracy,” gratuitously blames ationism; he further states incorrectly Dennett, Michael. 1982. Bigfoot jokester reveals reductionism for some of the ailments of that ID creationism predicts that in no punchline—finally. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER 13:3 (Spring), 266–267. education and recommends that we case will an intermediate form be found. Graff, Terry. 2006. Quoted in “Eyewitness comes structure the science curriculum around The rest of the essay pleads for a mar- forward with possible Caddy report,” ecology and evolution. Psychologist riage between natural selection and self- BCSCC Quarterly No. 60 (publ. of British Columbia Scientific Cryptozoology Club, Marc Hauser decries blurring the organization, Kauffman’s specialty, but winter, 3). boundaries between science and reli- does not clearly relate to ID creationism. Green, John. 1978. Sasquatch: The Apes Among Us. gion, and argues for adding new courses Finally, in an especially weak chapter, Saanichton, B.C.: Hancock House. Hunter, Don, with René Dahinden. 1993. or new material on the history of a spe- Nicholas Humphrey writes about the Sasquatch/Bigfoot: The Search for North cific science and on the relation between evolution of consciousness, noting that America’s Incredible Creature. Toronto: that science and society. Both essays consciousness seems otherworldly and McClelland & Stewart. Kane, Paul. 1847. Journal entry for March 26, offer good recommendations that are asking why ID creationists have not quoted in Hunter 1993, 17–18. unlikely to be implemented. seized on consciousness with a Paley-like Long, Greg. 2004. The Making of Bigfoot. Buffalo, Tim White’s essay on human evolu- analogy. I thought that his chapter in N.Y.: Prometheus Books. Napier, John. 1973. Bigfoot: The Yeti and tion and Neil Shubin’s essay on the tran- particular suffered from a lack of docu- Sasquatch—Myth and Reality. New York: E.P. sition from water to land suffered from mentation and did not find it convinc- Dutton & Co. far too much personal narrative. Biolo- ing, possibly because neither Humphrey Nickell, Joe. 1997. Extraterrestrial iconography. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER 21:5 (September/ gist Shubin makes the interesting point nor I have the foggiest idea what con- October), 18–19. that existing fish have many adaptations sciousness is. ———. 2006. The Ogopogo expedition. In that might enable their descendants to The book concludes with an excerpt Radford and Nickell 2006, 111–120. Patterson, Roger. 1966. Do Abominable Snowmen live on land; tetrapods are interesting from Judge John Jones’s decision in the of America Really Exist? Yakima, Washington: only because they succeeded. Presum- Kitzmiller case. If I wanted to be unkind, Franklin Press. ably, if they had not, another form I might deduce that the book’s major Radford, Benjamin, and Joe Nickell. 2006. Lake would have. purpose was to appear while the buzz Monster Mysteries: Investigating the World’s Most Elusive Creatures. Lexington, Kentucky: Lee Smolin, in “Darwinism All the from Kitzmiller was still audible. The University Press of Kentucky. Way Down,” to some extent plays into book is both good and original, but a lot Radford, Benjamin. 2006. Please pass the globster. the hands of the creationists by asking of it is not devoted to ID creationism SKEPTICAL INQUIRER 30:4 (July/Aug.), 25. Shuker, Karl P.N. 1996. The Unexplained: An why the universe is improbably friendly nor even to evolutionary biology or Illustrated Guide to the World’s Natural and to life. Who says it is? His answer to the descent with modification. It is a hodge- Paranormal Mysteries. North Dighton, Mass.: question depends on his plausible but podge with no real structure and no real JG Press. Stein, Gordon, ed. 1993. Encyclopedia of Hoaxes. unproven multiverse theory and the point: a good beginning in Coyne’s Detroit: Gale Research. application of natural selection to the chapter but then no coherent body and Thompson, David. 1811. Daily journal, quoted in individual universes in the multiverse. no conclusion. Read it, but do not Hunter 1993, 16–17. Welfare, Simon, and John Fairley. 1980. Arthur C. And quantum engineer Seth Lloyd’s expect it to be a serious blow against ID Clarke’s Mysterious World. New York: A & W article on the universe as a computer creationism. Visual Library.

60 Volume 31, Issue 1 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER SI J-F 2007 pgs 11/13/06 11:42 AM Page 61

NEW BOOKS

Listing does not preclude future review. complex organ functions? A Perennial, New York. 2006. distinguished neurophysiol- 500 pp. Softcover, $15.95. A CHALLENGING NATURE: The ogist (University of North distinguished young profes- Clash of Science and Spirit- Carolina School of Medicine) sor of physics and leading uality at the New Frontiers here provides a crash course expert on particle physics, of Life. Lee M. Silver. on how the brain works. string theory, and cosmology HarperCollins, New York. Topics include consciousness, (her research of the past five 2006. 444 pp. Hardcover, unconsciousness, and brain years is the most cited of any $26.95. A provocative look at death; learning, memory, physicist in the world) here the collision of science, reli- and the role of genes; moti- presents a readable inquiry gion, pseudoscience, and vation, aggression, and emo- into the idea that there may politics surrounding biotech- tions; and the plasticity of the growing brain. Steen be an extra dimension, in fact another universe, just a nology. Molecular biologist also delves into such questions as: Where does creativ- few inches away. She explores a raft of new concepts Lee Silver (Princeton University), a hands-on scientist ity come from? What is personality? Can we distinguish including parallel universes, warped geometry, and who has actually manipulated genes, here leaves the between brain and soul? three-dimensional sink-holes. This is in part her own cloistered laboratory to explore a world of humanity story of how she found herself immersed in these multi- whose worldview is dominated by soul and spirits. How FOLLIES OF SCIENCE: dimensional topics and in part a story of particle physics does science proceed within that cultural context? Silver Twentieth Century Vi- and string theory, including the kinds of problems that is a thoughtful advocate of biotechnology, pointing out sions of Our Fantastic extra dimensions might solve and the questions that are that it is not a new process but is the best hope for pre- Future. Eric Dregni and left wide open. serving and protecting wilderness and wildlife—while Jonathan Dregni. Speck feeding humankind. Our best hope, he says, comes not Press, Denver, Colorado. WORLDS OF THEIR OWN: from banning biotechnology but from embracing it and 2006. 128 pp. Softcover, Insights into Pseudoscience guiding it. $19. We didn’t get jet- from Creationism to the End packs and personal-servant robots, but we did get some Times. Robert Schadewald. DARE TO QUESTION: An of the early twentieth century’s futuristic utopian plans SangFroid Press, Excelsior, Analysis of Christianity’s for your home and lifestyle. A visual delight, this book Minnesota (www.sangfroid- Paradoxes and Enigmas. reproduces in glossy color dozens of imaginative and press.com). 2006. 240 pp. Jack Perrine. Inner Circle speculative cover and inside illustrations from science- Hardcover, $22.95. An an- Publishing. 2004. 436 pp. fiction magazines and publications such as Popular thology of essays and articles Softcover, $21.95. An exami- Mechanics and its predecessors that tried, not always presents a writer-investiga- nation of the many concepts successfully, to envision the future we now live in. tor’s lifetime of research into of Christianity that defy what we might call crank science: why some people common sense or lead to PROMETHEAN LOVE: Paul extend their view of reality beyond factual evidence or paradoxical conclusions. Kurtz and the Humanist deny common reality and create their own. Some of the Perrine scrutinizes more Perspective on Love. Edited topics: creationist propaganda methods, flat-Earth than a hundred myths and miraculous claims based on by Timothy J. Madigan. beliefs today, the end of the world, Immanuel assertions of divine inspiration whose sources have Cambridge Scholars Press, Velikovsky’s final interview, religious dogma versus sci- gone through numerous translations, transcriptions, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, NE5 ence, science versus pseudoscience, how to see a per- and interpretations. Written to identify problems 2JA, U.K. 372 pp. Hardcover, petual-motion hoax, and a skeptical view of alternative involving classical interpretations and to offer alterna- U.S. $69.99; U.K. £34.99. A energy. The writings bear Schadewald’s unique stamp, tive points of view, the book’s objective is to encourage collection of essays by num- combining skepticism, broad knowledge, interests in objective thinking. erous scholars, growing out the idiosyncratic (e.g., hollow-Earth claims), wit and of a conference on “the phi- humor, and, as CSICOP Fellow John W. Patterson points DNA: How the Biotech losophy of love.” Special emphasis is given to the work out in the introduction, “a uniquely personal, often Revolution Is Changing the and writings of philosopher Paul Kurtz, described as empathetic manner….” Way We Fight Disease. the foremost contemporary defender of humanism as a Frank H. Stephenson. worldview. —Kendrick Frazier Foreword by Herbert Boyer. Prometheus Books, Am- SASQUATCH: Legend herst, N.Y. 2006. 300 pp. Meets Science. Jeff Hardcover, $26. From heart Meldrum. Forge/Tom disease to AIDS, cancer, and Doherty Associates, diabetes, biochemist and lab New York. 2006. 297 researcher Frank Stephen- pp. Hardcover, $27.95. son tells the story of how the tools of biotechnology Meldrum was part of a Become (e.g. monoclonal antibodies, antisense, RNA interfer- team assembled for a Informed! ence, gene therapy, cloning, nuclear transfer, and stem Discovery Channel doc- cells) are being used to combat our most common umentary on the Sasquatch question. An associate pro- afflictions. A primer on the biotechnology revolution fessor of anatomy and anthropology at Idaho State Visit Our for the layperson. University, he examines evidence involving sound Web Site Today! recordings, films, photos, skin-ridge impressions, and THE EVOLVING BRAIN: The Known and the Unknown. plaster casts. Don’t expect debunking here. The tone is R. Grant Steen. Prometheus Books, Amherst, N.Y. 2006. serious and respectful of Bigfoot claims, while claiming 394 pp. Hardcover, $28. With 100 billion neurons, each to be “the definitive summation” of the subject. Skeptical of which makes perhaps 10,000 synapses, the human Inquirer brain is arguably the most complex object known. WARPED PASSAGES: Unraveling the Mysteries of the www.csicop.org What do scientists know about how this amazingly Universe’s Hidden Dimensions. Lisa Randall. Harper

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genetics in paranormal beliefs, Kennedy / Development of beliefs in paranormal and supernatural phenomena, FILL IN THE GAPS IN YOUR Whittle / Religious beliefs and their consequences, Layng / Secularization: Europe yes, United States no, Zuckerman / Not too ‘bright,’ Mooney / Point of honor: On science and Skeptical Inquirer COLLECTION religion, Haack / Benjamin Franklin’s Enlightenment deism, Isaacson / In praise of Ray Hyman, Alcock / Hoaxes, myths, • 15% discount on orders of $100 or more • and manias (report on the Albuquerque conference), • $6.25 a copy, Vols. 1–18 ($5.00 Vols. 19–25). To order, use reply card insert • Frazier / The stigmata of Lilian Bernas, Nickell. 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JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2006 (vol. 30, no. 1): The memory SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2004 (vol. 28, no. 5): Can the sciences help us to make wise ethi- NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2002 (vol. 26, no. wars, Part 1, Gardner / Why did they bury Darwin in 6): Politicizing the Virgin Mary, Eve / Westminster Abbey, Weyant / Paranormal beliefs: An cal judgments?, Kurtz / The Columbia University ‘miracle’ study: Flawed and fraud, Hypothesis testing and the nature of analysis of college students, Farha and Steward / skeptical investigations, Pigliucci / Ogopogo the Chameleon, Radford / The ethics of inves- Flamm / ‘Teach the controversy,’ Camp / The Campeche, Mexico ‘infrared UFO’ video, Intelligent design: Dembski’s presentation tigation, Koepsell / What “they” don’t want you to Sheaffer / The anthropic principle and the without arguments, Perakh / Hugo know: An analysis of Kevin Trudeau’s Natural Cures Big Bang: Natural or supernatural?, Perakh / Gernsback, skeptical crusader, Miller / infomercial, Barrett / Conference report: The First Ibero- Alternative medicine and the biology Alternative medicine and pseudoscience, American Conference on Critical Thinking, Radford / departments of New York’s community col- Mornstein / Are skeptics cynical?, Mole / Ogopogo: The Lake Okanagan monster, Nickell. leges, Reiser / Labyrinths: Mazes and myths, Psychic pets and pet psychics, Nickell. NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2005 (vol. 29, no. 6): Special Radford / Ships of the dead, Nickell. SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2002 (vol. 26, no. 5): issue: Evolution and the ID Wars: Does irreducible com- JULY/AUGUST 2004 (vol. 28, no. 4): Capital Special Report: Circular Reasoning: The plexity imply Intelligent Design? Perakh / Only a the- punishment and homicide, Goertzel / ‘mystery’ of crop circles and their ‘orbs’ of ory?, Morrison / The Intelligent Designer, Rothchild / Defending science—within reason, Haack / light, Nickell, Fourth World Skeptics Why scientists get so angry when dealing with ID pro- Exposing Roger Patterson’s 1967 Bigfoot film hoax, Korff Conference Report / A skeptical look at September 11th, ponents, Rosenhouse / The pope and I, Krauss / Endless and Kocis / Pranks, frauds, and hoaxes from around the forms most beautiful, Carroll / Obfuscating biological Chapman and Harris / Sheldrake’s Crystals, van Genderen, world, Carroll / Seeing the world through rose-colored Koene and Nienhuys / Teaching skepticism via the CRITIC evolution, Shneour / Harris Poll explores beliefs about glasses, Bowd and O’Sullivan / Special report: PBS ‘Secrets acronym, Bartz / Skepticism under the big sky, Schwinden, evolution, creationism, and Intelligent Design / Special of the Dead’ buries the truth about the Shroud of Turin, Engbrecht, Mercer and Patterson / Why was The X-Files so report: Skeptics and TV news expose ‘Magnetic water Nickell / Mythical Mexico, Nickell. conditioner,’ Thomas / Conference report: Developing appealing?, Goode / Winchester mystery house, Nickell. perspectives on anomalous experiences, Santomauro / MAY/JUNE 2004 (vol. 28, no. 3): Darkness, tunnels and JULY/AUGUST 2002 (vol. 26, no. 4): Special Report: Al- Legends of castles and keeps, Nickell. light, Woerlee / Nurturing suspicion, Mole / The Cold War’s classified Skyhook program, Gildenberg / The strange ternative medicine and the White House commission, SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2004 (vol. 29, no. 5): Special fea- odyssey of Brenda Dunne, Stokes / Bridging the chasm Gorski, London / Special Section: Science and pseudo- ture: Einstein and the World Year of Physics: We can between two cultures, McLaren / I am Freud’s brain, Garry science in Russia, Kurtz, Efremov, Kruglyakov / Who still learn lessons from Einstein’s watershed year, and Loftus / ‘Visions’ behind The Passion, Nickell / Belgium abused Jane Doe? Part 2, Loftus and Guyer / The high Bennett / The twin paradox, Thomas / Special Relativity skeptics commit mass suicide, Bonneux / Psychic sleuth after 100 years, Geohegan / Obesity: Epidemic or cost of skepticism, Tavris / Graham Hancock’s shifting cat- without a clue, Nickell. myth?, Johnson / The elixir of life, Baarschers / The god aclysm, Brass / The Mad Gasser of Mattoon, Ladendorf of Eth, Law / Palm readers, stargazers, and scientists, MARCH/APRIL 2004 (vol. 28, no. 2): Special Issue: Science and and Bartholomew / Moscow mysteries, Nickell. Miller and Balcetis / Beware of quacks at the WHO, Religion 2004: Turmoil and Tensions. Why is religion nat- Renckens, Schoepen, and Betz / Mystical Experiences, ural? Boyer / Skeptical inquiry and religion, Kurtz / Exorcising For a complete listing of our back issues, call 800-634-1610, Nickell / Italy’s ‘miracle’ relics, Nickell. all the ghosts, Edis / The roles of religion, spirituality, and or see http://www.csicop.org/si/back-issues.html. SI J-F 2007 pgs 11/13/06 11:43 AM Page 63

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Bigfoot, Pluto, and ?

CHRIS VOLKAY

irst, Bigfoot disappeared. The their existence either. But you know religious insanity, what person would fly family of the gentleman who per- what? Werewolves don’t pass the test of a plane into a building, or blow himself Fpetrated a major hoax came for- being consequential enough. Hmm, up in a pizza parlor? We could eliminate ward after his death. No Bigfoot, just a what could complete the trio? so much hatred, so much division, so guy stomping around in the woods with How about the gods? Not ours, but much rage. Instead of turning people fake feet. Then, recently, scientists took a vote and decided that poor, enfeebled, little Pluto, which always had trouble taking care of itself in the schoolyard, was going to be victimized once again and If we could eliminate religious demoted to the status of non-planet. Sort of like a nonperson. insanity, what person would fly It gets one to thinking. Don’t these things seem to always come in threes, like celebrity deaths? First one, then two a plane into a building, or blow himself celebrities die, and then the death watch goes up all across the nation, waiting for up in a pizza parlor? the trifecta to be completed. Who will it be? Tune in to Extra! As we wait for the third shoe to drop in the Bigfoot, Pluto evisceration lin- eage, I’m offering one up now. Gee, there are so many to choose from . . . those of the other guys. We all know that into soldiers, we could make them into believe me, it was one of the hardest their gods are false. Just made-up fan- citizens, human beings. choices I’ve ever had to make. tasies and delusions about this and that. They would have to give up their Why don’t we pick the biggest one? Rivers of this and virgins of that—oh, notions of reincarnation and the like, Sure, some people believed in Bigfoot please, come on! And look at all the but think of the benefits. People actually and most that Pluto was a planet, but damage they do. Those who believe in living here and now, in this life. Think which is the most universal, the most an afterlife and its rewards can and will how much stronger they would be. powerful, the most consequential, and do anything. And the Hindus and Instead of simply existing until death conversely, the most patently false? Buddhists with their reincarnation. mercifully whisks them away from this Now hear me out, please, just hear Again, oh, come on. veil of crocodile tears, they would be me out before you ignite the torches and While I’m sporting this most modest forced to actually seize the reins of their sharpen the pitchforks. I was going to of all proposals, just think of the ramifi- say werewolves, because really, like cations. Think of the incalculable lives Chris Volkay contemplates the demise of Bigfoot, there isn’t much evidence for we would save. If we could eliminate the the gods from Glendale, California.

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life? All thinking people know it’s true. Oh, but wait, wait a sec. There’s another test, a measuring stick, that needs to be brought to bear here. Damn. We’ve got to include diversity, fair- ness, and equality, if we are to call ourselves truly fair, American. Gee . . . to that end, we’re going to have to put our own god on the pyre along with the others. I mean, we can’t possibly ask them to abandon their phony gods unless we are ready to relegate our own god to the round file as well. Painful as it is, it is something that simply must be done. After all, they would immediately point out that our god is just as, well, how does one put this tactfully, as This undated image taken by the Hubble telescope shows Pluto and its moons: Charon, Nix, and Hydra. The International Astronomical Union announced on August 24, 2006, that it no longer con- whimsical as theirs. siders Pluto a planet, a status it has held since its discovery in 1930. The announcement reduces the There you have it. Bigfoot, darling solar system from nine planets to eight. little Pluto, and god—all gods. If this is lives and make the best they could of tence of werewolves than for that of these how the current spate of debunking them right here and now. imagined gods of the other guys. I mean plays out, it would be a consummation Revolutionary? Yes, yes, I like this idea come on, aren’t their gods just their own devoutly to be wished for, as humanity, better than the werewolves. Besides, there fantasy creations to help them weather for the first time in its history, would is so much more evidence for the exis- the storms of a short, nasty, and brutal finally be on the path to maturity. Skeptical Inquirer DVD or CD-ROM Series 1 Volumes 1 through 29 (Fall/Winter 1976 – November/December 2005)

As the official publication of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry, Skeptical Inquirer magazine has provided critical, science-based examinations of a wide variety of topics, from 29 Years alternative medicine to zombies. This DVD and CD-ROM spans ONLY twenty-nine years of the magazine, from its origins as a $150.00 bi-annual skeptics magazine (first called The Zetetic) to its modern incarnation as The Magazine for Science and Reason.

To order call toll-free 1-800-634-1610 Have your credit card information available.

64 Volume 31, Issue 1 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER SI J-F 2007 pgs 11/13/06 11:43 AM Page 65

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

range survival of what CSICOP pioneers message needs to be spread. Let us each have established these past thirty years. induce our local libraries to subscribe to this Effective public education in science and journal. My personal score to date is two scientific reasoning requires consistent lead- libraries: one in Virginia and one in Florida. ership across the ages. And as U.S. President Shipmates, spread the word. Harry S. Truman once stated, “Leadership is Leo Shatin the art of persuading people to do what they (Professor of Clinical should have done in the first place.” Psychiatry, retired, Mount E.A. Kral Sinai School of Medicine) Wilber, Nebraska Boca Raton, Florida

As a subscriber to the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER Professor Kurtz submitted that the and Free Inquiry over the years, and as a fan SKEPTICAL INQUIRER and CSICOP should of CSICOP, I have been vaguely aware of the investigate other kinds of intellectually chal- impact you have had in propagating and lenging and controversial claims, including defending skeptical humanism. biogenetic engineering, religion, economics, However, in reading Paul Kurtz’s recent ethics, and politics. While the topics of inter- essay, “Science and the Public: Summing Up est to readers will naturally change over time, Thirty Years of the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER,” it I hope that SI does not broaden so much as The SKEPTICAL INQUIRER’s dawned on me what a truly amazing job you to lose its core. and your fellow humanists/skeptics have I have read SI for over four years now, and Thirty Pioneering Years accomplished during the past generation. I subscribed (and still do) chiefly for the sci- We are now living in an age in which reli- entific investigations, news and discussions on Paul Kurtz’s review of the pioneering years of gion is not only growing in political influence fringe/pseudoscience claims and the so-called the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER (September/October worldwide but threatens to usher in another paranormal, and the science-religion debate. I 2006) reminds us all of the positive impact epoch of “holy wars.” That our current pres- see this core as what makes SI a distinct mag- CSICOP has had in establishing an effective ident believes he decries on the horizon a azine worth subscribing overseas for. If I want antidote to runaway irrationalism and non- third “great awakening” of his own faith, to read an intelligent scrutinizing of bio- sense in our society and, indeed, the world. while urging Americans to fight “Islamo- genetic engineering, religion, economics, Before 1976, I had to search long and hard fascists” worldwide, does not bode well. ethics, or politics, I can buy New Scientist, The for books by reliable yet readable authors who I suppose these dire developments might Humanist, The Economist, The Philosopher’s could explain why various theories were erro- tempt one to question the influence of the Magazine, or Prospect, respectively. I am sure neous. Aside from Klass, Menzel, and Sagan skeptical-humanist movement. But I think readers can think of other magazines, newspa- on UFO claims, I found books by Joseph that there are many skeptics, as well as mod- pers, journals, etc. that cover those topics as Jastrow and Martin Gardner helpful for erate believers, who take heart from the well. However, from the ones I can think of, claims in the soft sciences. But that’s about all calm, rational, and humanistic voice of the they hardly cover any of what I regard as the that existed for the general reader. Then, in skeptics led by people like you. core SI content, and certainly not to the same the Spring/Summer 1977 issue of The Zetetic, As a retired college professor in a state depth and quality of analysis. Where else I found Ray Hyman’s “‘Cold Reading’: How bristling with religious zealots, but which also could you read anything like Joe Nickell’s bril- to Convince Strangers You Know All about contains a strong countervailing movement liant “Investigative Files”? Them,” after which the pace of my liberation among both believers and nonbelievers, I am Keep up the good work. from gullibility increased, knowing that simi- hopeful that the spirit of the Enlightenment Glyn Bradley lar articles exposing many other types of bunk will hold the fanatics in check. And I am Cheshire the establishment avoided confronting were hopeful in part because of the influence of United Kingdom sure to appear. your organization. My wife and I have Aside from offering reliable knowledge decided to change our will to include the I want to assure Mr. Bradley and other readers on fringe subjects, CSICOP and SI have New Future Fund as a beneficiary. promoted the values of responsibility and that SI’s gradual “broadening,” which has been Keep up the good fight! leadership, much like parents should, going on for years, will not be at the expense of because the use of science and scientific rea- Chandler Davidson our “core” topics, where we have—and intend to soning are fundamental in explaining why Radoslav Tsanoff Professor of maintain—a unique niche.—K. Frazier, Editor ideas may be useful or useless. True, discus- Public Policy Emeritus sion of Santa Claus-like beliefs is more likely Rice University to attract an audience, but developing com- Houston, Texas Three comments on Paul Kurtz’s summing mon sense and healthy skepticism is far more up of thirty years of CSICOP battling astrol- practical for us all in the long run, even if it ogy. (1) The Mars effect is said to be most may be less enjoyable at first. This letter is inspired by every article pub- likely due to “biased data selection by the Moreover, the involvement of like- lished in the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. SI is a Gauquelins.” But as pointed out in my minded scientists and investigators world- god-send (sic) in this age of bunkum, super- reanalysis in the May/June 2002 SKEPTICAL wide ought to increase the chances of long- stition, and wishful thinking. Its rational INQUIRER, the Mars effect may be a social

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effect with no need of appeals to data selec- tives, prosecutors, and “tough-on-crime” People may disapprove of these activities. tion. I concluded that “data selection and judges happy—not to mention prison con- They may even believe the activities should fraud can be rejected because Gauquelin tractors and employees—it hardly serves the be illegal. But they are almost certainly not could hardly be selective or fraudulent about interests of society at large. Nor, as the arti- what people have in mind when they picture social effects he was unaware of.” (2) CSI- cle correctly points out, does such fear mon- a predatory sex offender that their loved ones COP is said to have “encouraged” my tests of gering by the media and law enforcement have to be protected from. astrology, implying that without CSICOP, officials serve its original purpose, which is And many laws that govern sex are so little would have happened. True, my articles protecting the children. broad that they criminalize behavior that have always received unfailing courtesy and I hope the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER will do a most of us would consider fairly innocent. consideration from SI’s editors, but much of follow-up article on the “Predator Panic” For example, “statutory rape” makes many my more important work was finished well soon, one which addresses the importance of people think of a forty-year-old man molest- before CSICOP began. The real encourage- distinguishing between serious sex offenses ing a twelve-year old, but it can also cover an ment has come from associates on both sides and lesser offenses, which cause no physical eighteen-year-old girl and her seventeen- of the skeptical divide who are still support- injury to a child and where no physical year-old boyfriend. And while “public inde- ive and wonderfully argumentative after injury was even intended. Obviously, our cency” often creates an image of an invasive, nearly thirty years of joint endeavor. (3) My law-enforcement officials need a reminder. raincoat-clad flasher, it can also include col- results were “invariably negative” only in the In the current environment of fear, many lege kids who get busted for skinny dipping sense that no useful effect sizes were found. parents, grandparents, uncles, and family at the local pond. As long as laws against Also, the claimed truth of astrology is friends are nervous and even afraid to show consensual sexual activity are still on the readily explained by the same cognitive physical affection to children in public or books, statistics on sex criminals will con- biases that underlie proven invalid ap- even in private, for fear it will be misinter- tinue to paint an absurdly inaccurate picture proaches such as phrenology. Unfortunately, preted by someone. Things parents, grand- of how much of a threat we actually face. this obscures the genuine role that astrology parents, uncles, and family friends once used Greta Christina can play as an aid to counseling without to do all the time with kids, such as rough- San Francisco, California itself needing to be true. You can find more housing, tickling, swinging them around for on this at www.astrology-and-science.com. rides, or giving them piggyback rides, are fast becoming less common. Not too many want Geoffrey Dean Evolution Education: CSICOP Fellow to risk getting the accusing finger pointed at Perth, Western Australia them simply because a child’s or adult’s hand Science Revels in Unknowns Australia may accidentally touch the wrong “private part” by mistake. How denying physical In his Editor’s Note in the September/ affection to children is supposed to “protect” October 2006 issue, Kendrick Frazier rumi- them is also unclear. nated over a letter from a reader who was fed Cheers for Predator Panic Many thanks again to the SKEPTICAL up with scientists who fail to address “unan- INQUIRER for having the courage and the swered” questions about evolution. Frazier The article, “Predator Panic: A Closer intelligence to publish this article and to lamented the writer’s ignorance of evolution Look,” by Benjamin Radford in the Radford for writing it. As far as I’m con- and applauded the writings of Sean Carroll, September/October 2007 SKEPTICAL IN- cerned, “Predator Panic” should be read by one of the new, effective voices bringing evo- QUIRER was excellent, thought-provoking, every “lawmaker” across the nation, and by lutionary thinking to the public. I am in full and long overdue. It seems that a certain every citizen of this country who may one agreement with him here and welcome group of people is getting a great deal of day serve as a juror. Jurors who make deci- Carroll to the fray. mileage out of this overblown fear of “sex sions based on intelligent reasoning rather However, it strikes me that more is offenders” or “sexual predators” . . . and in than fear and ignorance may be far more needed than educating the public about evo- my opinion, that group is none other than likely to think twice before convicting an lution and the mechanisms of evolutionary law enforcement. innocent person on nonexistent “facts” and biology. There is a deeper difficulty that has With no real criteria of what separates the flimsy excuses for “evidence.” At least, one gone largely unaddressed. The average layper- real sexual predators, those who commit vio- can hope so. son, unschooled in science, is seemingly lent offenses against children, such as murder, unaware that the very foundations of a kidnapping, rape, sodomy, etc., from those Susan S. Levine mature science are the unknowns, the ques- who may be have committed mild misde- Dale City, Virginia tions to which we do not have answers. meanors such as “flashing,” or “touching” Frazier’s letter writer was following a standard (just an accidental brushing of the hand gambit of creationists, paranormalists, and against the wrong “private part” can do these Thank you so much for your article on sex- other defenders of the fringe: pose “unan- days), more so-called “sex offenders” will con- offender hysteria. I would like to point out swered” questions as though they reveal that tinue to be arrested, tried by biased courts, yet another way that this threat is exagger- the standard model is somehow flawed. convicted, and sentenced to long prison terms ated and the panic is amplified. In many Frazier did the usual thing. He sighed meant only for the serious violent offenders. U.S. states, “sex-offender” crime statistics and then responded by pointing out that, in How locking up such innocent parties is “pro- include people who have committed consen- fact, the “problems” identified had already tecting the children” is a mystery. sual sex crimes, such as prostitutes and their been worked out and posed no particular While locking up more people for ques- customers. (It’s not just conservative “red” difficulties. I suspect that the recipient of this tionable “offenses” may make police detec- states, either—California is one of them.) riposte was not particularly impressed. Most

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likely, he was delighted that he managed to particularly the case with intuitively more dif- Is Deception in tweak a respected defender of evolutionary ficult concepts such as kin selection. To give a science and headed back to some creationist slightly different example, the idea that you Investigations Ethical? Web site to find another “problem that evo- look after your sister because her children carry I was dismayed to read in the September/ lutionists haven’t solved.” a quarter of your genes is not easy to relate to October 2006 issue’s News and Comment In addition to carrying the evolutionary one’s day-to-day experience of family life. section (“Carla Baron, Psychic Detective? science message outward, we also need to We are presenting these concepts in an Not Quite”) about the Independent impress upon the lay public that scientists are environment often deeply hostile to the the- Investigations Group (IIG) use of lying to not only not bothered by the existence of ory of evolution, and to people who for good discredit Carla Baron. The IIG audience problems that haven’t been solved, we revel in evolutionary reasons, as Geoffrey Miller plants made up stories about themselves and them. If there weren’t such, the whole enter- points out in The Mating Mind, ironically then used the fact that Ms. Baron failed to prise would collapse. The gentleman who favor dramatic and entertaining stories over detect their fabrications as evidence that she wrote to Frazier might have been jolted awake biological accuracy. We need to make sure is not, as she claims, psychic. There are if he’d realized that it is the evolutionary biol- that our descriptions of evolution are based always ways to test claims of the paranormal ogists who keep coming up with “problems on clear and accurate explanations that make that do not involve dishonesty and deceit. that evolutionists haven’t solved,” not the cre- immediate sense of people’s experience, even Skeptics’ use of lying and deceit only puts us ationists. The enigma is the engine of discov- if the common shorthand is appealing. ery; having all the answers is a death notice. in a bad light and gives ammunition to those David Cox For many years, I taught a course titled who would discredit us. How can we expect Ovingham, South Australia “Parapsychology: A Critical Examination” people to trust us if we admit that we are Australia and ended up being invited to engage in vari- willing to use deceit to achieve our ends? ous debates with creationists, paranormalists, Perhaps we need a code of ethics for the con- and other “fringers.” The “how-can-science- duct of investigations of claims of the para- explain-X?” gambit was a ploy I often encoun- Quincey on Quantum normal and SI should refuse to publish the tered. I learned never to answer. Instead, I Mechanics results of any investigation that does not would redirect the discussion to how science conform to that code. is actually “done,” to the importance of hav- I enjoyed Paul Quincey’s recent article on John P. Wendell ing an endless supply of currently unanswered quantum mechanics (July/August 2006), in Kailua, Hawaii questions nagging at us, forcing us to rethink which he took elements from Richard P. matters, stimulating new studies, and encour- Feynman’s view (expressed, for example, in Editor’s note: We asked our Senior Research aging innovative theory. I found that refocus- his book, QED) and carried them even far- Fellow and SI Investigative Files columnist Joe ing the argument in this manner was far more ther. I’m a professional physicist, so I found Nickell for his views on the concerns expressed effective than simply answering the challenge it interesting and challenging to take in the above letter. We share his thoughtful with a sigh and a lament. Quincey’s insights and try to understand response with readers: Yes, we need to educate folks in science, them in the terms to which I’m accustomed. but it may be even more critical to educate I have to admit that I found myself not Regarding the letter about IIG’s tactics with them about how science is done. entirely agreeing with his conclusions on a regard to “psychic” Carla Baron, I have repeatedly stressed ethical conduct in investi- Arthur S. Reber point or two (mainly the uncertainty princi- gations; however, I agree with David Broeklundian Professor of ple), but I consider that a minor quibble; on Koepsell (SI, January/February 2006) that Psychology Emeritus the whole, particularly in his discussion of “where the intent of the investigation is to Brooklyn College and the how systems change over time, I thought he uncover an attempt at defrauding innocent Graduate Center of City did quite a good job tackling a notoriously people, a little trickery may be justifiable.” University of New York difficult subject, and he handled it well. Indeed, Koepsell was referring to some of my New York City, New York I think this article is a good companion to QED and Brian Greene’s Elegant Universe, undercover work aimed at checking psychic as well as the more adventuresome Feyn- and spiritualist claims. man’s original article on path integrals (“The I often saw proof of the old maxim that Language of Evolution Principle of Least Action in Quantum one must “set a thief to catch a thief” when I Mechanics,” Reviews of Modern Physics 20: was an undercover operative for a famous pri- I applaud Susan Bury’s article on the lan- 367–387, 1948) and the graduate textbook, vate-detective agency. I watched from the guage used to describe evolution (“Tell It Quantum Mechanics and Path Integrals, by inside of effective theft operations while those Like It Was,” September/October 2006). Feynman and Hibbs. Explaining difficult who naively thought they could avoid the Like her, I have often worried that the com- scientific concepts to lay audiences is an “dishonesty” of undercover work advocated mon usage (“something evolved to do some- important public service, and I appreciate methods of security that were ineffective. thing else”) plays straight into the hands of Long before Houdini, skeptics decep- Quincey taking it on. I also hope SI will those looking to discredit evolutionary the- tively set traps for psychical claimants—as publish more articles like this, because sci- ory. After all, as it is not true when stated when one secretly smeared printer’s ink on ence is like most other things: it’s easier to that way, it is easy enough to shoot down. the neck of a violin that spirits were expected spot counterfeits if you know the real thing. More important, I find this usage makes it to play in the dark of a Davenport Brothers’ impossible to grasp evolutionary concepts Eric Chisolm séance of the 1850s; afterward, one of the without complex mental gymnastics. This is Los Alamos, New Mexico Davenports had his shoulder besmeared with

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ink, helping prove that the duo was slipping of a system in terms of its interior, holism an the discussions and brings out an important out of their confining rope ties to produce account from an exterior standpoint—the point: no antireductionist rejects the analysis bogus spirit phenomena. view from below and the view from above, of parts as a necessary step for understanding The great magician and psychical investi- respectively. These two views are unavoidable a whole completely; issues only arise when gator Harry Houdini used false names and and inextricably linked: one could not even reductionists go further than analysis and whiskers to enable him to enter séances and begin to make a reductionist explanation of a reduce the reality of the whole or our under- booby trap mediums’ fake phenomena. system without knowing what it is one is standing of it in one or more ways. Similarly, magician Milbourne Christopher called upon to explain—what the system does adopted a false identity to test famed Lady within its context. Richard H. Jones Wonder the Psychic Horse and, by implica- The old adage, “the whole is more than [email protected] tion, her trainer, Mrs. Claudia Fonda. When the sum of the parts,” can nicely illustrate Lady spelled the false name Banks rather how the internal, reductionist perspective than Christopher, the phony psychic trickery and the external, holistic perspective comple- Man in the Iron Mask was exposed. ment each other. To describe an organized More recently, James Randi’s mid-1980s system in the former case requires more Massimo Polidoro’s article on the identity of investigation of faith healers had him and information than just a description of the the Man in the Iron Mask (“Behind the others adopting false personas to test the parts, since the informational structure by Mask,” September/October 2006) does not powers of the Rev. Peter Popoff and others. which those parts are assembled must also be offer any explanation which fits all the As homely “Bernice Manicoff,” California described; in that sense, the reductionist known facts of this mysterious prisoner’s skeptic Don Henvick was “healed” of six dif- description of a house, say, is more complex identity, namely: ferent diseases, including uterine cancer. “By than a description of the bricks from which 1) His face, if revealed, could have been these means,” writes Randi, “he proved it is built. In contrast, to say that a totality is recognized by any Frenchman. beyond any doubt that many faith-healers— an organized totality is to say that there is a 2) Louis XIV respected the prisoner suf- Popoff among them—were obtaining infor- higher-level, external description of its func- ficiently to afford him every comfort except mation by subterfuge and then feeding it tion which is simpler than that of the parts. his liberty. back as if it came from God.” For example, is a modern radio simpler Several years ago, I visited Monte Pinerol Many paranormal claimants refuse to be than an early radio? Yes, in the sense that the in Italy. The locals were intrigued to learn tested under meaningful conditions, yet gar- user (external view) can tune it more easily; that I am a journalist, and several of them ner tremendous publicity with claims that no, in the sense that, to effect that ease of use, boasted to me that Monte Pinerol was the are doubtful to say the least. I believe they the internal design must be more elaborate. birthplace of the Man in the Iron Mask. invite surreptitious tests which—if they are Oft-recurring arguments about whether evo- Further, they cheerfully told me the story of genuine—they should have no reason to fear. lution makes organisms more or less complex his identity, which had been an open secret in Monte Pinerol for centuries. In separate Joe Nickell need to be framed within a similar dual conversations, four different residents of Amherst, New York description, the two-part account of the evolutionary process—genetic variation and Monte Pinerol each told me almost verbatim environmental selection—being an exem- the same account, although this proves only plary case of the internal/external dichotomy. that the locals have had time to get their Reconciling Reductionism story straight. I have managed to verify some and Holism Allan Muir points of it as true. Here it is, minus a few Fron Deg details which I choose to hold in reserve: I was pleased to see Massimo Pigliucci’s discus- Llanfynydd Louis XIV’s father, Louis XIII, was sion of reductionism and holism in your Wrexham known to prefer the company of handsome September/October issue. However, I do not United Kingdom young men to his wife, Anne of Austria. believe it is satisfactory to set these two things After fulfilling his regal duty and fathering so much against each other. Some years ago, I an heir (the future Louis XIV), the king offered an alternative account of reductionism The distinction between methodological showed no further interest in his wife. She and holism that allows their reconciliation reductionism and ontological reductionism did, however, produce another child: (“Reductionism and Holism Are Compatible,” was not discovered by Robert Brandon. Philippe I, Duke of Orleans. As Philippe in Against Biological Determinism, Steven Rose, Drawing distinctions between various types grew older, it was noted that he resembled ed., London: Allison & Busby, 1982). I believe of reductionism is older than his book and is neither his mother nor the king. Philippe the argument given there, framed in terms of becoming increasing well recognized. In my had Italianate features that were strikingly systems theory, still has some merit. book, Reductionism: Analysis and the Fullness similar to the countenance of a certain Briefly summarizing: in a multilevel analy- of Reality (Bucknell University Press, 2000), Italian-born courtier in the French court: a sis of any complex part of reality, it is desirable I differentiated five types: ontological (the young man who had been very kind and from the outset to regard a system as a triad number of substances making up the world), affectionate to the queen while her husband (subsystem, system, super-system); this methodological, conceptual, theoretical, and neglected her. reminds us always to comprehend the thing structural (related to the number of forces at When Louis XIV ascended the throne in we’re studying in a dual manner: internally, by world in the world). Others before me have, 1643, his mother, the dowager queen, was recognizing its component subsystems; exter- of course, also presented various typologies still alive and capable of suffering embarrass- nally, by locating it within the super-system of (e.g., Arthur Peacocke). Distinguishing dif- ment. As Prince Philippe matured, and his which it is a part. Reductionism is an account ferent types of reductionism helps to clarify portrait circulated through the kingdom, it

68 Volume 31, Issue 1 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER SI J-F 2007 pgs 11/13/06 11:45 AM Page 69

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

became obvious to a widening circle of citi- Erin Brockovich diabetic dying from lack of insulin. Birth is zens that the prince greatly resembled his a normal physiologic function; diabetes is a mother’s Italian courtier. Perhaps a footnote to the commentary by disease. A healthy laboring woman choos- Louis XIV recognized that this man had Elizabeth M. Whelan (May/June 2006) and ing to avoid the risks and complications of given his mother many kindnesses, and he the subsequent correspondence (September/ pain medication is not antiscience and was accordingly grateful. But he could no October 2006) would be of interest and should not be compared to someone suffer- longer permit the world to view the counte- enlightening. ing from a disease process. If Radford had nance of a man who, by his strong facial In the movie about Brockovich, there was focused on the decades of scientific litera- resemblance to Prince Philippe, revealed the a scene where she was involved in a serious ture outlining the risks of using pain med- shameful secret of the dowager queen’s infi- automobile accident. This was false. There ication and other elective procedures versus delity. Therefore, by royal whim, the courtier was an accident in Reno in 1991, but the supporting normal, nonpathological birth, was imprisoned for life . . . but he was given speed was at most two miles per hour and he might have actually answered the ques- every comfort, except the right to display his likely less. Brockovich was at fault, but for an tion posed by L. Capps when he asked what face: the Man in the Iron Mask. unknown reason, the defense insurance car- was behind the current move toward the natural-birth process. F. Gwynplaine MacIntyre rier settled the case during trial. A defense Glasgow verdict appeared near certain. I served as an Talitha Sherman Scotland engineering witness for the defense. Natural Childbirth Educator, A medical doctor had stopped his van to Labor Doula Massimo Polidoro replies: drop off his children at elementary school, Gardena, California where the speed limit was fifteen mph. This is an interesting theory for the MIM but not Brockovich was also stopped for the same Benjamin Radford responds: better than others. I have been to Pinerolo several reason and was talking to an adult friend times, but this is the first time I’ve heard such a through her open driver’s-side window. The Sherman misread my piece. Nowhere in my story. I think that the foremost experts on this sub- van was in front of her at ninety degrees to column did I compare natural childbirth to a ject, Jean-Christian Petit-Fils and John Noone, her path, nose to her right. She started for- diabetic dying from lack of insulin. I was quot- whom I quote in my article, are on the right track. ward without sufficient care, moved a few ing Robert Carroll’s definition of natural. feet, and put a small dent in the extreme- right rear corner of the van fender with the right corner of her front bumper. Absence of Flags of Iwo Jima: scratches proved that the van was not mov- Correction and Apology ing and I testified to that in court. Was this movie crash just a Hollywood In my column in the November/December embellishment? Would I permit a story of 2004 issue, “My Wife—and the Dialectics my life to be so distorted? Never, but engi- The letters column is a of External Historicity,” I wrote that neers have a strict code of ethics! It may be Associated Press photographer Joe Rosen- interesting to note that her attorney, the forum for views on matters thal had asked Marines on Iwo Jima to raise same one she worked for in the environmen- raised in previous issues. the American flag over Mount Suribachi a tal case, later contacted me to work on Letters should be no more second time so that he could photograph another case for him, but it was not in my than 225 words. Due to the them in what I said was a posed shot. field. Much is unanswered in this attractive volume of letters not all can Several people wrote in to challenge my young lady’s life. claim and to say that my accusation was be published. Address let- unwarranted. I have since read further on Lindley Manning ters to Letters to the Editor, the matter and now conclude that my chal- Reno, Nevada SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. Send by e- lengers are right and I was wrong. My apolo- gies to all readers, and to the memory of Joe mail text (not as an attach- Rosenthal, who died August 20, 2006. Natural-childbirth ment) to [email protected] Ralph Estling Controversy (include your name and Ilminster address). Or mail to 944 Somerset I am writing regarding your Skeptical Deer Drive NE, Albuquerque, United Kingdom Inquiree article (“‘Natural’ Childbirth,” NM 87122, or fax to 505- March/April 2006) and the letters to the edi- For details on the origins of the misunderstandings tor published in a subsequent issue (July/ 828-2080. about the Iwo Jima flag-raising photo, see Chapter August 2006). 11, “The Flags,” and Chapter 12, “Myths,” in In response to the thoughtful letters sent James Bradley’s excellent, well-researched book, in reply to his article, Benjamin Radford Flags of Our Fathers: Heroes of Iwo Jima. The wrote that he agreed that treating birth as a book is the basis for the Clint Eastwood film pathology was a problem. And yet, he him- released in October. Bradley’s father was one of the self does this very thing early in his original men in the famous photo.—Editor article. He compares natural childbirth to a

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER January / February 2007 69 SI J-F 2007 pgs 11/13/06 11:45 AM Page 70

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Paranormal Investigating Committee Web site:www.iigwest.com. Sacramento Skeptics Cities Skeptics, Michigan. Gary Barker. Tel.: 517-799- of Pittsburgh (PICP) Pittsburgh PA. Richard Busch, Society, Sacramento. Terry Sandbek, President. 4300 4502; e-mail: [email protected]. 3596 Butternut St., Chairman. Tel.: 412-366-1000; e-mail: mindful@tel- Auburn Blvd. Suite 206, Sacramento CA 95841. Tel.: Saginaw, MI 48604 US. erama.com. 8209 Thompson Run Rd., Pittsburgh, 916 489-1774. E-mail: [email protected]. San MINNESOTA. St. Kloud Extraordinary Claim Psychic PA 15237 US. Philadelphia Association for Critical Diego Association for Rational Inquiry (SDARI) Teaching Investigating Community (SKEPTIC) St. Thinking (PhACT), much of Pennsylvania. Eric President: Richard Urich. Tel.: 858-292-5635. Cloud, Minnesota. Jerry Mertens. Tel.: 320-255- Krieg, President. Tel.: 215-885-2089; e-mail: Program general information 619-421-5844. Web 2138; e-mail: [email protected]. Jerry [email protected]. By mail C/O Ray Haupt 639 W. Ellet site:www.sdari.org. Snail mail address: PO Box 623, Mertens, Psychology Department, 720 4th Ave. S, St., Philadelphia PA 19119. La Jolla, CA 92038-0623. St. Cloud State University, St. Cloud, MN 56301 US. TENNESSEE. Rationalists of East Tennessee, East COLORADO. Rocky Mountain Skeptics (RMS; aka MISSOURI. Kansas City Committee for Skeptical Inquiry, Tennessee. Carl Ledenbecker. Tel.: 865-982-8687; e- Colorado Skeptics) Béla Scheiber, President. Tel.: 303- Missouri. Verle Muhrer, United Labor Bldg., 6301 mail: [email protected]. 2123 Stonybrook Rd., 444-7537; e-mail: [email protected]. PO Box 4482, Rockhill Road, Suite 412 Kansas City, MO 64131 US. Louisville, TN 37777 US. Boulder, CO 80306 US. Web site: http://bcn.boulder. NEBRASKA. REASON (Rationalists, Empiracists and TEXAS. North Texas Skeptics NTS Dallas/Ft Worth area, co.us/community/rms. Skeptics of Nebraska), Chris Peters, PO Box 24358, John Blanton, Secretary. Tel.: 972-306-3187; e-mail: CONNECTICUT. New England Skeptical Society (NESS) Omaha, NE 68134; e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]. PO Box 111794, Carrollton, New England. Steven Novella M.D., President. Tel.: Web page: www.reason.ws. TX 75011-1794 US. www.ntskeptics.org. 203-281-6277; e-mail: [email protected]. 64 NEVADA. Skeptics of Las Vegas, (SOLV) PO Box 531323, VIRGINIA. Science & Reason, Hampton Rds., Virginia. Cobblestone Dr., Hamden, CT 06518 US. Henderson, NV 89053-1323. E-mail: rbanderson Lawrence Weinstein, Old Dominion Univ.-Physics www.theness.com. @skepticslv.org. Web site: www.skepticslv.org./. Dept., Norfolk, VA 23529 US. D.C./MARYLAND. National Capital Area Skeptics NCAS, NEW MEXICO. New Mexicans for Science and Reason WASHINGTON. Society for Sensible Explanations, Western Maryland, D.C., Virginia. D.W. “Chip” Denman. Tel.: (NMSR) New Mexico. David E. Thomas, President. Washington. Tad Cook, Secretary. E-mail: K7RA@ 301-587-3827. e-mail: [email protected]. PO Box 8428, Tel.: 505-869-9250; e-mail: [email protected]. PO arrl.net. PO Box 45792, Seattle, WA 98145-0792 US. Silver Spring, MD 20907-8428 US. http://www.ncas.org. Box 1017, Peralta, NM 87042 US. www.nmsr.org. http://seattleskeptics.org. FLORIDA. Tampa Bay Skeptics (TBS) Tampa Bay, Florida. NEW YORK. New York Area Skeptics (NYASk) metropolitan PUERTO RICO. Sociedad De Escépticos de Puerto Rico, Luis Gary Posner, Executive Director. Tel.: 813-849-7571; NY area. Jeff Corey, President. 18 Woodland Street, R. Ramos, President. 2505 Parque Terra Linda, Trujillo e-mail: [email protected]; 5201 W. Kennedy Blvd., Huntington, NY 11743, Tel: (631) 427-7262 e-mail: Alto, Puerto Rico 00976. Tel: 787-396-2395; e-mail: Suite 124, Tampa, FL 33609 US. www.tampabayskep [email protected], Web site: www.nyask.com. Inquiring [email protected]; Web site www.escepti- tics.org. The James Randi Educational Foundation. Skeptics of Upper New York (ISUNY) Upper New York. cor.com. James Randi, Director. Tel: (954)467-1112; e-mail Michael Sofka, 8 Providence St., Albany, NY 12203 US. The organizations listed above have aims similar to [email protected]. 201 S.E. 12th St. (E. Davie Blvd.), Fort Central New York Skeptics (CNY Skeptics) Syracuse. Lisa those of CSI but are independent and autonomous. Lauderdale, FL 33316-1815. Web site: www.randi.org. Goodlin, President. Tel: (315) 446-3068; e-mail: Representatives of these organizations cannot speak GEORGIA. Georgia Skeptics (GS) Georgia. Rebecca Long, [email protected], Web site: cnyskeptics.org 201 on behalf of CSI. Please send updates to Barry Karr, P.O. President. Tel.: 770-493-6857; e-mail: [email protected]. Milnor Ave., Syracuse, NY 13224 US. Box 703 Amherst NY 14226-0703. SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL CONSULTANTS Gary Bauslaugh, educational consultant, Center for Laurie Godfrey, anthropologist, University of Massachusetts Massimo Pigliucci, professor in Ecology & Evolution at Curriculum, Transfer and Technology, Victoria, B.C., Canada Gerald Goldin, mathematician, Rutgers University, New Jersey SUNY-Stony Brook, NY Richard E. Berendzen, astronomer, Washington, D.C. Donald Goldsmith, astronomer; president, Interstellar Media James Pomerantz, Provost, and professor of cognitive and Martin Bridgstock, Senior Lecturer, School of Science, Alan Hale, astronomer, Southwest Institute for Space linguistic sciences, Brown Univ. Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia Research, Alamogordo, New Mexico Gary P. Posner, M.D., Tampa, Fla. Richard Busch, magician/mentalist, Pittsburgh, Penn. Clyde F. Herreid, professor of biology, SUNY, Buffalo Daisie Radner, professor of philosophy, SUNY, Buffalo Shawn Carlson, Society for Amateur Scientists, East Terence M. Hines, professor of psychology, Pace University, Robert H. Romer, professor of physics, Amherst College Greenwich, RI Pleasantville, N.Y. Karl Sabbagh, journalist, Richmond, Surrey, England Roger B. Culver, professor of astronomy, Colorado State Univ. Michael Hutchinson, author; SKEPTICAL INQUIRER representative, Europe Felix Ares de Blas, professor of computer science, Philip A. Ianna, assoc. professor of astronomy, Univ. of Virginia Robert J. Samp, assistant professor of education and University of Basque, San Sebastian, Spain William Jarvis, professor of health promotion and public medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison Michael R. Dennett, writer, investigator, Federal Way, health, Loma Linda University, School of Public Health Steven D. Schafersman, asst. professor of geology, Miami Washington I. W. Kelly, professor of psychology, University of Univ., Ohio Sid Deutsch, consultant, Sarasota, Fla. Saskatchewan Béla Scheiber, systems analyst, Boulder, Colo. J. Dommanget, astronomer, Royale Observatory, Brussels, Richard H. Lange, M.D., Mohawk Valley Physician Health Chris Scott, statistician, London, England Belgium Plan, Schenectady, N.Y. Stuart D. Scott, Jr., associate professor of anthropology, Nahum J. Duker, assistant professor of pathology, Temple Gerald A. Larue, professor of biblical history and archaeol- SUNY, Buffalo University ogy, University of So. California Erwin M. Segal, professor of psychology, SUNY, Buffalo Barbara Eisenstadt, psychologist, educator, clinician, East William M. London, Touro University, International Carla Selby, anthropologist /archaeologist Greenbush, N.Y. Rebecca Long, nuclear engineer, president of Georgia Steven N. Shore, professor and chair, Dept. of Physics William Evans, professor of communication, Center for Council Against Health Fraud, Atlanta, Ga. and Astronomy, Indiana Univ. South Bend Creative Media Thomas R. McDonough, lecturer in engineering, Caltech, and Waclaw Szybalski, professor, McArdle Laboratory, Bryan Farha, professor of behavioral studies in education, SETI Coordinator of the Planetary Society Oklahoma City Univ. James E. McGaha, Major, USAF; pilot University of Wisconsin-Madison John F. Fischer, forensic analyst, Orlando, Fla. Joel A. Moskowitz, director of medical psychiatry, Sarah G. Thomason, professor of linguistics, University Eileen Gambrill, professor of social welfare, University of Calabasas Mental Health Services, Los Angeles of Pittsburgh California at Berkeley Jan Willem Nienhuys, mathematician, Univ. of Eindhoven, Tim Trachet, journalist and science writer, honorary Luis Alfonso Gámez, science journalist, Bilbao, Spain the Netherlands chairman of SKEPP, Belgium Sylvio Garattini, director, Mario Negri Pharmacology John W. Patterson, professor of materials science and David Willey, physics instructor, University of Pittsburgh Institute, Milan, Italy engineering, Iowa State University *Member, CSICOP Executive Council

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