Being at Home in One's Body

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Being at Home in One's Body Being at home in one’s body Body image in light of identity development Being at home in one’s body Body image in light of identity development Johanna Kling Doctoral Dissertation in Psychology Department of Psychology University of Gothenburg June 5, 2019 © Johanna Kling Cover picture: Charlie Styrbjörn Cover layout: Charlotte Persson Printing: BrandFactory, Gothenburg, Sweden, 2019 ISBN: 978-91-7833-473-5 (PDF) ISBN: 978-91-7833-472-8 (Print) ISSN: 1101-718X Avhandling/Göteborgs universitet, psykologiska inst. Internet link to Gupea: http://hdl.handle.net/2077/60176 Abstract Although the importance of the body to people’s identities has long been theoretically inferred, research linking body image and identity development is scarce. The objective of this thesis was to address this research gap by exploring body image from an identity perspective. Study I aimed to examine how trajectories of body image development from early adolescence to emerging adulthood are related to young people’s sense of identity. A community sample participated from the age of 10 years (N = 967, 53% females) to the age of 24 (N = 542, 56% females). Results of Study I indicated that body image development is connected to sense of iden- tity in emerging adulthood, such that individuals in trajectories with more negative body image displayed less identity coherence. Results also indicated that girls and women (particularly those with higher body mass index) are more likely to display disadvantageous development in terms of more nega- tive body image and more identity problems. The aim of Study II was to explore the many ways in which people might experience their bodies as salient to their identities. Young adults (N = 121, 51% women; community sample) were interviewed, and a thematic analysis of the interviews identified four main themes: (1) identification with the body, (2) body functionality in performing identity-relevant tasks, (3) appearance and identity in social interactions, and (4) identity-relevant bodi- ly engagement. Both positive and negative ways in which the body is salient to identity were described within all four themes, and descriptions highlight- ed functionality, embodied experiences, and social environments. Gender differences were generally not found, with one exception: more women than men described experiences of identifying with their bodies. Study III was performed in two parts with the aim of exploring the soci- ocultural context in which both body image and identity are formed. This was done by investigating young Swedish women’s perceptions of and conformi- ty to feminine norms. In Part 1, a community sample of 317 young women participated in a cross-national comparison, showing that Swedish women generally display less gender role norm conformity than do their counterparts in Canada, the USA, and Slovakia. In Part 2, a focus group study conveyed a more nuanced picture of feminine norms, by showing that even though tradi- tional gender roles might be less pronounced in Sweden, gender role con- formity is still a pressing issue. Specifically, appearance norms were consid- ered the most important feminine norms to conform to. In conclusion, the thesis supports theoretical notions of a connection be- tween body image and identity. It also shows that this connection can be ex- perienced in both positive and negative ways and that more women than men experience both negative body image and identification with their bodies, highlighting the importance of the sociocultural context. Furthermore, the thesis opens up the possibility of a new theoretical approach by including and discussing body image as part of developmental psychology in general and identity theory in particular. In this way, the thesis not only offers innovative results about the connection between body image and identity development, but is also of theoretical importance. Keywords: body image; identity development; longitudinal development; emerging adulthood; young adulthood; gender role norms Sammanfattning (Swedish summary) Begreppet kroppsuppfattning innefattar en persons tankar och känslor relate- rade till sin kropp och sitt utseende. Även om dessa tankar och känslor kan vara positiva, brukar forskning kring kroppsuppfattning mestadels fokusera på negativa aspekter, det vill säga kroppsmissnöje. Tidigare forskning har konstaterat att missnöje med den egna kroppen och utseendet är väldigt van- ligt och förekommer i alla typer av grupper (t.ex., alla åldrar, kön, etnicite- ter). Forskningen visar emellertid även att kroppsmissnöje tenderar att öka under tonåren, samt att flickor och kvinnor generellt sett rapporterar mer kroppsmissnöje än pojkar och män. Vad flickor/kvinnor respektive poj- kar/män generellt sett är missnöjda med skiljer sig också åt då kroppsuppfatt- ning är tydligt kopplat till stereotypa könsroller och föreställningar om kvinn- lighet och manlighet. Förenklat så innebär det till exempel att kvinnor ofta är missnöjda med vikten och vill vara smalare, medan män upplever mer miss- nöje med sina muskler och vill vara mer vältränade. Kroppsmissnöje är inte bara vanligt förekommande, det är även relaterat till en mängd skadliga bete- enden såsom tvångsmässig träning och ohälsosam bantning, samt innebär en ökad risk att utveckla psykisk ohälsa i form av depression och ätstörningar. En bidragande orsak till att det stora kroppsmissnöjet återfinns i vårt omgi- vande samhälle där vi hela tiden är omgivna av bilder på, och budskap om, hur vi bör se ut. I många moderna samhällen, däribland Sverige, ses kroppen ofta dessutom som något som vi själva bör forma i enlighet med idealen och att inte uppnå den perfekta kroppen upplevs således som ett personligt miss- lyckande. På så vis blir kroppen en representation för vilka vi är och arbetet med att forma kroppen kan ses som ett identitetsprojekt. Identitet brukar definieras som en känsla av att vara samma person över tid och sammanhang. Även om vi antar olika roller i olika situationer och tider i livet så har vi oftast en sammanhängande upplevelse av vilka vi är. Identitetsutvecklingen sker i nära samspel med omgivningen (t.ex. så påver- kas vår identitet av hur vi bemöts av andra) och är en process som pågår hela livet. Hur förhåller sig då en persons tankar och känslor kring sin kropp till hens känsla av vem hen är? Teoretiskt sett är sambandet mellan kroppsupp- fattning och identitetsutveckling väldigt tydligt. Till exempel påpekade Erik- son (1956), en av pionjärerna inom identitetsforskningen, att om en person ska kunna uppnå en sammanhängande identitet så krävs bland annat en känsla av att vara hemma i sin kropp. Även inom kroppsuppfattningsforsk- ningen har kroppsliga erfarenheters betydelse för förståelsen av individers utveckling framhållits (se t.ex., Piran, 2017). Trots dessa teoretiska antagan- den har väldigt lite tidigare forskning fokuserat på att förstå hur kroppsupp- fattning förhåller sig till identitetsutveckling. Syften med den här avhandling- en är således att utforska kroppsuppfattning utifrån ett identitetsperspektiv. Avhandlingen innehåller tre studier som i huvudsak utgår från två pågående longitudinella projekt vid Psykologiska institutionen, Göteborgs universitet: MoS (Mobbning och Skola) och GoLD (Gothenburg Longitudinal study of Development). Studie I bygger på enkätdata från MoS-projektet, medan Stu- die II bygger på intervjudata från projektet GoLD. Studie III bygger dels på enkätdata från projektet MoS, men även på fokusgruppsintervjuer med stu- denter. I Studie I var syftet att undersöka utvecklingen av kroppsuppfattning från tidiga tonår till unga vuxenår, samt förhållandet mellan kroppsuppfatt- ningsutveckling och identitet. Samma deltagare svarade på enkäter vid sex tillfällen från 10 till 24 års ålder. Av de ursprungliga 967 deltagarna, deltog 542 (56 %) vid 24 år. Könsfördelningen var jämn vid varje mättillfälle. Tre aspekter av kroppsuppfattning inkluderades i studien: (1) tankar kring det egna utseendet, (2) tankar kring den egna vikten och (3) tankar kring hur en tror att andra uppfattar ens kropp. Resultaten från Studie I visade på tre olika utvecklingsvägar för var och en av de tre olika kroppsuppfattningsaspekterna. I de vägarna med mest kroppsmissnöje fanns flest kvinnor och personer med högre body mass index (BMI). Resultaten visade även på en koppling mellan kroppsuppfattningsutveckling och upplevelsen av en sammanhängande iden- titet i unga vuxenåren. Till exempel så uppvisade flickor/kvinnor, i synnerhet de med högre BMI, inte bara en problematisk utveckling i form av genomgå- ende mer kroppsmissnöje, utan även mer identitetsproblem som unga vuxna (i form av att de uttryckte mer förvirring kring vilka de är och vad de vill få ut av livet). Sammanfattningsvis så pekar resultaten i Studie I på betydelsen av att sammantaget studera kroppsuppfattningsutveckling och identitetsut- veckling för att bättre förstå hur olika aspekter av unga människors, och framförallt unga kvinnors, liv hänger ihop. För att vidga förståelsen av förhållandet mellan kropp och identitet till att inkludera mer än negativa aspekter i form av kroppsmissnöje och identi- tetsproblem, syftade Studie II till att undersöka på vilka olika sätt unga vuxna själva upplever att kroppen är av betydelse för deras identitet. Inter- vjuer genomfördes med 121 unga vuxna (51 % kvinnor), med en medelålder på 33 år. Alla intervjuer utgick från följande fråga: ”Finns det aspekter som har att göra med din kropp som är viktiga för vem du är som person? I så fall, vilka aspekter?’. Intervjuerna, som
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