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Dopamine: the Rewarding Years

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Dopamine: the Rewarding Years British Journal of Pharmacology (2006) 147, S136–S144 & 2006 Nature Publishing Group All rights reserved 0007–1188/06 $30.00 www.nature.com/bjp Dopamine: the rewarding years *Charles A. Marsden School of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Neuroscience, Medical School, Queen’s Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2UH Dopamine has moved from being an insignificant intermediary in the formation of noradrenaline in 1957 to its present-day position as a major neurotransmitter in the brain. This neurotransmitter is involved in the control of movement and Parkinson’s disease, the neurobiology and symptoms of schizophrenia and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. It is also considered an essential element in the brain reward system and in the action of many drugs of abuse. This evolution reflects the ability of several famous names in neuropharmacology, neurology and psychiatry to apply new techniques to ask and answer the right questions. There is now excellent knowledge about the metabolism of dopamine, dopamine receptor systems and the structural organisation of dopamine pathways in the brain. Less is known about the function of the different receptors and how the various dopamine pathways are organised to produce normal behaviour, which exhibits disruption in the disease states mentioned. In particular, we have very limited information as to why and how the dopamine system dies or becomes abnormal in Parkinson’s disease or a neurodevelopmental disorder such as schizophrenia. Dopamine neurones account for less than 1% of the total neuronal population of the brain, but have a profound effect on function. The future challenge is to understand how dopamine is involved in the integration of information to produce a relevant response rather than to study dopamine in isolation from other transmission systems. This integrated approach should lead to greater understanding and improved treatment of diseases involving dopamine. British Journal of Pharmacology (2006) 147, S136–S144. doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0706473 Keywords: Dopamine; dopamine receptors; dopamine pathways; L-DOPA; Parkinson’s disease; schizophrenia; drug dependence; reward; attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Abbreviations: ADHD, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder; CNS, central nervous system; COMT, catechol-o-methyltrans- ferase; CREB, c-AMP response element-binding protein; DAT, dopamine membrane transporter; ECD, electrochemical detection; fMRI, functional magnetic resonance imaging; GABA, g-aminobutyric acid; HPLC, high-performance liquid chromatography; 5-HT, 5-hydroxytryptamine; IUPHAR, International Union of Pharmacology; L-DOPA, L-dihydroxyphenylalanine; MAO, monoamine oxidase; MPTP, 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2- 3,6-tetrahydropyridine; MRI, magnetic resonance imaging; NIMH, National Institute for Mental Health; NMDA, N-methyl-D-aspartate; 6-OHDA, 6-hydroxydopamine; PET, positron emission tomography; phMRI, pharmacological magnetic resonance imaging; SERT, serotonin membrane transporter; SPET, single-photon emission tomography; VMAT, vesicular monoamine transporter; VTA, ventral tegmental area Introduction This is an age in which celebrity status appears to be a human recently, attention deficit hyperactivity disorders (ADHD)). aim. Dopamine has certainly achieved that status in the Dopamine also has a social importance as the neurotransmit- neurotransmitter world with a highly successful book (Awa- ter that plays a central role in the mechanism of action of the kenings by Oliver Sachs), which inspired a play by Harold major substances of abuse and, in particular, those associated Pinter and was then converted to an equally compelling film in with dependence and addiction. The impact of dopamine 1990 starring Robin Williams and Robert De Niro. The book extends beyond treatment of disease to the development of and the film brought to the written word and the silver screen experimental and diagnostic tools with which we have been the dramatic effects of the use of L-DOPA in patients. able to investigate brain neurotransmitter function in the living Dopamine has also made frequent appearances in television human brain and offer important future diagnostic opportu- science programmes so bringing the transmitter to the nities. The early positron emission tomography (PET) studies attention of a wider public. The celebrity status of dopamine, on neurotransmission exploited the availability of suitable in contrast to many present-day ‘celebrities’, is however one of dopaminergic ligands to show dopamine loss in Parkinson’s substance. disease in the living patient. Understanding of the importance of dopamine for normal These advances have been achieved by an impressive cast of brain function has had a major impact on the treatment of scientists from around the world, making the best use of the important neurological (such as Parkinson’s disease) and methodology available at the time to provide vital information psychiatric disorders (such as schizophrenia and, more that has gradually filled in at least some of the missing pieces of the dopamine jigsaw. Both Arvid Carlsson with Paul Greengard and Eric Kandel (2000), and Julius Axelrod, with *Author for correspondence; E-mail: [email protected] Ulf von Euler and Sir Bernard Katz (1970), were awarded C.A. Marsden Dopamine S137 Nobel Prizes. Arvid Carlsson for his work on dopamine striatum in high concentrations where there was very little systems and Julius Axelrod for his work on catecholamine noradrenaline (Bertler & Rosengren, 1959). These findings led metabolism including the identification of the importance of to the subsequent work by Hornykiewicz on post-mortem O-methylation (Axelrod, 1957). Many other famous names in Parkinsonian human brain (Ehringer & Hornykiewicz, 1960). pharmacology have been involved in the story and it is fitting The next important step was the development of the in the present context of the 75th Anniversary of the BPS that fluorescence histochemical method by Hillarp & Falk for it was Henry Dale who first examined the biological activity of the visualisation of catecholamine and indoleamine (5-HT) dopamine in the same year (1910) as George Barger and James neurones and their pathways in the brain (for details of the Hill who synthesised 3,4-dihydroxyphenylethylamine at The methodology, see Corrodi & Johnsson, 1967). With this Wellcome Laboratories in London, and indeed it was Henry method, Kjell Fuxe and Annika Dahlstrom together with Dale who first suggested the shorter name dopamine in 1952 others, including a young Urban Ungerstedt who later played (Hornykiewicz, 1986). an essential role in the development of the microdialysis The aim of this short review is to highlight some of the technique, produced the first evidence for neuronal pathways important steps that have taken place in the evolution of our containing dopamine that projected from the substantia nigra understanding of the function of dopamine with specific to the striatum and the ventral tegmental area (VTA) to the reference to its role in the brain. This does not attempt to be limbic areas of the rat brain (Dahlstro¨ m & Fuxe, 1965; Ande´ n a balanced account as there is an obvious bias to the event et al., 1966). This relatively simple plan of the dopamine this special issue celebrates – 75 years of the BPS and British pathways in the brain has been refined over the years with Pharmacology. The major examples that I draw on are the dopaminergic input to the frontal cortex being identified (see involvement of dopamine in Parkinson’s disease and the later), but the basic plan remains. It was at this point that I development of symptomatic treatment for this disease. entered research and my PhD used the fluorescence histo- Another example is the importance of dopamine in the treatment of schizophrenia and emerging ideas about the neurodevelopmental aspects of mental disorder with a shift in interest from dopamine in the accumbens to understanding the complex interaction between dopamine function in cortical areas, the prefrontal cortex in particular and subcortical dopaminergic systems. The final area is the role of dopamine in reward and the mechanism of action of drugs of abuse. The emphasis on brain function purely reflects the research interests of the author and it is important to stress that dopamine is not restricted to the brain, but has important functional implications outside the brain including cardio- vascular function. A brief history of dopamine While dopamine was first synthesised in 1910, it was not until the mid-1950s that it began to emerge as a substance of importance in its own right rather than just an intermediary in the formation of noradrenaline. There are excellent reviews of the early history of dopamine by Oleh Hornykiewicz (1986; 2002), who himself played such an important role in the initial studies showing loss of dopamine in post-mortem brains from Parkinsonian patients and the subsequent use of L-DOPA in such patients (Birkmayer & Hornykiewicz, 1961). The present account will be restricted to the key steps in the story. Herman Blaschko at Oxford, who worked on monoamine oxidase (MAO) in the early years (see also Youdim & Bakhle, this issue), was one of the first to suggest that dopamine may be physiologically significant, a view substantiated by studies showing that dopamine could lower blood pressure and this effect was potentiated by inhibition of MAO (Blaschko, 1957). Incidentally, my first viva voce examination was conducted by Figure 1 Giant dopamine-containing
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