ISSUE 131
MARCH 2009
What’s Wrong with the Navy’s Values? Remilitarising the Australian Hydrographic Service
Virtual Memorial of HMAS Sydney
Sailing into History: The 1908 Voyage of the US Navy’s Great White Fleet to Australia, As Seen Through the Eyes of the Media
The Influence of History Upon Sea Power
Maintaining Flexibility: Multi Role Vessels & Mission Based Modular Payloads Journal of the Shipyards: Australia and USA Email: [email protected] Fax +61 8 9410 2564 Tel: +61 8 9410 1111
WWW.AUSTAL.COM Issue 131 3 President’s Message Contents
Welcome to the firstHeadmark for publish a number of essays from the New Directions for Headmark 2009 3 2009. On the 25th of this month I will two essay competitions that were report to those of you at the AGM that conducted last year. I hope that you I think we have had an outstanding find this a useful initiative which is What’s Wrong with the Navy’s Values? 4 year with strong membership growth aimed at exposing the views of our and well attended functions in both younger and more junior members Canberra and Sydney. and, of course, sparking some debate. Remilitarising the Australian I think 2009 will be as busy as last I would like to take this opportunity Hydrographic Service (or ‘Why the year and I hope that you will support to thank the Council members who Droggies Need Disbanding’) 9 our activities as enthusiastically as you devoted a considerable amount of did last year. It was impressive that we their time in organizing and marking had nearly 500 members and guests the essays for last year’s competition. Application of Geographic Information attend our functions in 2008. This year Through their efforts we have seen that System & Statistical Methods for Effective we will again be putting a deal of effort our future leaders care about the Navy Marine Fisheries Law Enforcement in the into our Midshipmen at ADFA through in which they serve and are passionate South China Sea 15 a series of breakfast presentations enough to put their thoughts down on and other activities. In July we will be paper. We are already running the two supporting the keynote speaker for essay competitions again this year and Virtual Memorial of HMAS Sydney 22 the King Hall History Conference in I hope that they are now becoming Canberra and of course we will have well known amongst our more junior the Vernon Parker Oration on a cold personnel. I would encourage all our Sailing into History: The 1908 Voyage winter’s night and the 3rd annual ANI Lieutenants, Sub Lieutenants and of the US Navy’s Great White Fleet to Warfare Seminar at HMAS Watson in Midshipmen to enter for the chance Australia, As Seen Through the Eyes October. We also hope to have a major to win one of two great overseas trips. of the Media 23 ANI event in Western Australia this The essay competitions close on the year. 3rd of July. You will see a brief article by the Yours Aye, The Influence of History Upon Vice President outlining our plan to Davyd Thomas Sea Power 30
Front page: HMAS Manoora ship’s company fall in HMAS BETANO during the ceremony of HMAS Sydney II Maintaining Flexibility: Multi Role Vessels & Mission Based Modular conducts an Aviation Sea Payloads 37 Safety Assessment with a 109E Visions from the Vault 45 AgustaWestland Helicopter from 723 Squadron Book Reviews 46
Style Notes for Headmark 48 Issue Number 131
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Australian Naval Institute Info 50 ISSN 1833-6531 ATI - AUSTAL - AUSTRALIAN DEFENCE CREDIT UNION - BOOZ ALLEN & HAMILTON FRIEND - EDS - KBR - LOPAC Design & DTP: ANI Membership Application Form 51 Diane Bricknell - RAYTHEON AUSTRALIA - SAAB [email protected] Journal of the Australian Naval Institute 4
New Directions for Armidale Class Patrol Boats HMAS Maryborough with Headmark 2009 Landing Craft Heavy HMAS Betano sail in company from Darwin Harbour This year inHeadmark we are embarking on an aggressive campaign to get the views of our younger members into print. We have been able to achieve this through the vehicle of the two Essay competitions that were inaugurated last year. This has been a significant initiative for the Institute. The two overseas trips offered as prizes among the most generous of essay competition prizes anywhere and have had the right effect in stimulating interest. In our first year we attracted a combined total of 36 entries to the two competitions. The topics were wide ranging and the views expressed varied from considered to some that were less so. Some entries showed deep thought and research, some were provocative and others were written by those clearly in a hurry! Regardless, they have demonstrated what we always knew, that our younger members care about the Navy in which they serve and have a range of views worth being aired and listened to. We hope to publish around 15 of these essays during the year Some of the views expressed will no doubt annoy some people or even sections of the naval community. We have already had some reaction even prior to publication. Some of the essays will not quite be what we would normally publish. However, the value of these essays is not how well written or referenced they are, but their freshness of thought and candour. They might not show that the author has the ‘whole picture’ but it has never been a crime to present ones views in these pages without the ‘whole picture’- few of us have. This does not invalidate the contributions these essays make and in many ways the unencumbered views of our younger members provide a fascinating window into what our younger and more junior members think. This Journal has historically been one where there was little fear in expressing strong views. Sadly the passion and energy in the debates that have raged at various times in the past has not been as evident in recent times. Our aim in the ANI remains, as it has always been, to foster debate. We hope that these essays will act as a catalyst to return to a more energetic debate in these pages. Because we have had a relatively lengthy period without strong debate it may take some time for people to get used to it again. It is some time since we have had letters to the editor or papers rebutting another or offering a counter view. I hope that all concerned will respect how difficult it is to put yourself ‘out there’ in print and applaud those who have. One of the risks in putting your views in print is that others can counter them, as long as this is done constructively and remains focused on the issues and not the author, this helps sustain the debate in a positive and robust way. Ray Griggs Vice President Journal of the Australian Naval Institute Issue 131 5 What’s Wrong with the Navy’s Values? BC y oMMANDER Tony Mullan, RAN, Deputy Director of the Centre for Defence Leadership Studies
ver the last couple of decades 2002 and sees these as a vital for the reputation management still seems to there has been considerable shaping of its organisational culture, be an important reason for the RAN’s Ointerest displayed by organisations and ultimately the achievement of its values program with the perceptions around the world in the area of mission.3 RAN statements regarding of serving members and the public as corporate values. This is primarily its organisational values say that: to how the RAN treats its personnel as the result of a school of thought seen as very important for recruiting advocating that values-based ‘These values provide a basis for our and retention.7 In addition, when organisations are more likely to enjoy personal and professional conduct reputation is considered, the RAN also long-term success and a competitive and enable us to respond dynamically relies heavily on the public’s perception 1 edge over rivals in their sector. Visit to new situations. They guide how of how successfully we undertake any corporate web site today and operations locally and around the we behave and how we treat each you will invariably find a list of their globe. corporate values. Visit any relatively other. Our values determine what is The RAN’s existing values program modern military organisation around important to us. Navy values are a is essentially focused inwards, towards the world and values statements are source of strength and moral courage.’ 4 its members and how they treat often very visible and prolific.2 each other and behave within the In Australia, not only does Defence Given the focus placed on values organisation. Currently there seems have values, but the three Services and values-based leadership in the to be no conscious, explicit focus on each maintain their own unique values various policy documents, high- the RAN’s external behaviour – that sets that complement, expand and level statements and marketing is – how it conducts operations and overlap Defence’s. One only has to material produced by the RAN, it interacts with ‘outsiders’. It may be caste a cursory eye around the work begs the question – are the values the that this has been taken for granted for environment to see visible evidence organisation espouses optimised to get a long time and that the RAN’s very of the RAN’s values program. Values the best results for the Navy? If values good record in its behaviour during posters adorn walls and publications can be considered ‘organisational operations has created an environment such as the Serving in Australia’s DNA’5 are the RAN’s values growing in which it is simply assumed that the Navy booklet and the RAN Warfare the right sort of culture and the right RAN will always ‘do the right thing’ Officer’s Career Handbook specifically sort of sailor? After all - a small tweak without any further thought being discuss values and the importance of to a DNA strand can turn a butterfly given to the matter. developing a values-based culture. All into a pig! As Robinson points out in the book The aim of this article is to identify Ethics Education in the Military, most two vital areas in which the RAN’s military values sets contain values existing values could be significantly that focus almost exclusively inwards, enhanced to the ultimate benefit of that is, the values that are enspoused individual members and the wider are primarily directed at making the organisation. Those areas being; the military member more effective in focus of the values and their actual a functional sense and concentrate content. more on how he or she should act and The Navy’s values were developed as treat others within the organisation.8 a part of the wider Serving Australia’s This certainly seems to be the case for Navy Program (SANP) which was set the Navy’s current values and this is Courage - HMS of this gives the impression that values up as a direct result of a number of understandable given their genesis. Hermes in WII - Members of the crew are something that the RAN sees as incidents of unacceptable behaviour What the RAN’s values program carrying out the vitally important and integral to the within the Service and are primarily lacks however, is an equally important captain’s last order to future success of the organisation. aimed at improving the RAN’s focus outwards. That is; to also contain abandon ship The RAN has maintained an organisational culture and preserving values that recognise the unique explicit set of values since around and enhancing its reputation.6 Indeed, position that RAN members (and the Journal of the Australian Naval Institute 6 What’s Wrong with the Navy’s Values?
Army and RAAF for that matter) hold were ‘respect’ to be a Navy value, its of the profession of arms and their in our society in that they are legally explaination might be as follows: fundamental duty to maintain the high able to kill others and cause great standards the RAN has historically destruction at the direction of the State. Respect is about treating people as you shown on operations. Importantly, Expanding on the discussion Robinson would wish to be treated yourself. In during a time of high operational has on this issue,9 whilst society expects your day to day job, with the people tempo against a new and often its military personnel to exercise you work and live with, respect is merciless foe it is maintaining these appropriate restraint in the use of force, values that sharply differentiates the about acknowledging everyone’s respect non-combatants, unhold basic RAN from its adverseries and helps human rights and so forth, the RAN individual worth and giving them a cement its excellent reputation in the has no explicit values dealing with ‘fair go’. Respect means recognizing public and international domain. these issues, nor does it mention these and appreciating the inherent dignity Moving onto the content of the within existing values descriptors. of all people and living up to Australian existing Navy values, considerable Given the great responsibility the scope exists for them to be rewritten society’s expectations about how we Australian people see fit to bestow to provide more useful products and upon members of the RAN, ignoring should treat each other. guidance for RAN personnel. The this fundamental requirement in RAN’s current values are: the Navy’s organisational values is On operations and in combat, we 1. Honour. Honour is the potentially very dangerous and does must above all, respect human life fundamental value on which not produce values that clearly explain and recognise its supreme value. We the Navy’s and each person’s a core part of what the RAN stands for. must recognise that we place ourselves reputation depends. To Is this requirement for the RAN’s demonstrate honour demands or others at risk solely to the extent values to also be outward looking really honesty, courage, integrity that important though or is it just a required to carry out our mission. and loyalty and to consistently theoretical argument? If we asked the Respect for human life and human behave in a way that is becoming US Army whether they believed that dignity must find expression in all and worthwhile. they were in the business of producing of our actions and must permeate 2. Honesty. Honesty is always soldiers capable of committing the being truthful, knowing and everything we do on operations, in atrocities that took place at Abu doing what is right for the Navy Ghraib, the answer would have line with the laws of armed conflict, and ourselves. been ‘never’ – and yet it happened, Australia’s international obligations 3. Courage. Courage is the causing the US Army to go through a and the expectations of Australian strength of character to do what significant upheaval and fundamental society. Without exception it must is right in the face of personal re-examination of how its soldiers adversity, danger or threat. guide the way we fight, but it must also were being morally and ethically 4. Loyalty. Loyalty is being prepared for combat. The important guide us in other areas such as how committed to each other and to things to note about this example is we treat enemy wounded or prisoners our duty of service to Australia. that it is recent and that it happened and how we interact with civilian 5. Integrity. Integrity is the display to a modern and professional Western populations and different cultures. of truth, honesty and fairness military force (just as the RAN is). that gains respect and trust from Unfortunately it is but one of many others. ethical failures recorded throughout Rewording appropriate values to have There is a school of thought that says military history that remind us that both an inwards and outwards focus that any values program should confine taking such things for granted can be can therefore remind personnel that itself to a small number of values very dangerous indeed. the culture of the RAN is more than critical to the organisation’s long term In order to address this very just about how people treat each success.10 From a purely common significant blind spot the RAN’s values other and act within the organisation. sense point-of-view this is logical as should be rewritten and include Reworded values can also reinforce a large number of values can invite explainations that have both an inwards to every member of the RAN their confusion, overlap, and unnecessary and outwards focus. For example, significant responsibilities as members values incongruence in personnel. In Journal of the Australian Naval Institute Issue 131 7
Given the above comments, it is useful to quickly explore some alternative values that might better serve the needs of the RAN. It should be noted that there are many potential values that the RAN could use and there will always be quite justifiable arguments about which ones should be selected. With that in mind, the following is offered simply as a starting point for discussion. First and foremost, ‘respect’ as it is defined earlier in this paper is suggested as a vitally important value that should be explicitly stated. Its intent is clear and it is able to be applied both inwards and outwards, making it a particularly powerful value. Secondly, noting that the RAN as attempted to Loyalty – Germans terms of the number of values the RAN misunderstood and it often does define ‘loyalty’ as ‘being committed to warship FGS Braunschweig’s has released, five would therefore seem more damage than good. As each other and to our duty of service crew at their 2008 to be a suitable number. In terms of the Olsthoorn notes in his paper to Australia’13 possible values to replace Commissioning suitability of each of the existing values, Loyalty and Professionalisation in ‘loyalty’ might be along the lines of Ceremony-photo by however, the following comments are the Military (a paper that clearly ‘duty’, ‘service’ or ‘discipline’. Whilst the Michael Nitz offered: identifies the danger of using exact wording of such values is open a. There is an obvious and loyalty as a military value) ‘the fact to debate, the Singapore Armed Forces unnecessary overlap between the that one can coherently speak of (SAF) definition of ‘discipline’ provides values of honesty and integrity. It ‘bad’ or ‘misplaced’ loyalty, whilst it a useful example:14 would be perfectly reasonable to is more or less nonsensical to talk remove honesty as a stand-alone about ‘bad’ or ‘misplaced’ justice, ‘The essence of discipline is doing what value, sharpening the focus of might be seen as an indication that we have to, even when it is difficult and integrity and the overall values it is not a virtue in the first place’.11 demanding, and doing it to the best of package. In a similar vein Professor Stephen our abilities. Discipline means inner b. Honour is certainly a noble ideal Coleman at the Australian Defence strength, self-control, mental stamina, but it is not a useful value. Integrity Force Academy notes that during and courage clearly explain how his ethics classes when cadets physical toughness and perseverance. the RAN wants people to think and discuss situations where rules have No effective military can function act. Honour is a more nebulous been broken or the wrong thing with poor discipline. It is the glue concept and indeed it has to draw done, what should be a simple that holds every member of the SAF on the other Navy values in order application of the value of integrity, together when threatened, giving them to even have a semi-coherent ie. ‘What is the right thing for explanation. The RAN would me to do?’ becomes a significant the courage and will to continue the be better served by removing moral dilemma whereby loyalty mission under unforgiving situations.’ honour as a discrete value (it can to their mate/colleagues/division, always be talked about in a more etc, is in direct conflict with their Given that it would be unwieldy general sense when discussing the requirement to display integrity.12 to explore every possible value values as a whole), and replacing it On a broader scale it is argued and provide detailed explanations, with another, more practical and that this type of moral conflict, suggestions for new and improved understandable value. brought about by misplaced loyalty, values to replace ‘honour’, ‘honesty’ c. Loyalty is a divisive and dangerous happens far too often within the and ‘loyalty’ will stop here. What is value that is misused and organisation. important to take away from the above Journal of the Australian Naval Institute 8 What’s Wrong with the Navy’s Values?
Ethics Education in the Military, Ashgate discussion is that the existing values the values of ‘honour’, ‘honesty’ Publishing Limited, Hampshire, 2008. can be significantly improved, and and ‘loyalty’ should be removed, Royal Australian Navy, http://intranet. defence.gov.au/navyweb/sites/SANP/default. viable alternatives exist that should be the remaining values reviewed and asp? Page=71711 viewed 12 Nov 08. seriously considered. additional values such as ‘respect’ Royal Australian Navy, http://intranet. defence.gov.au/navyweb/sites/SANP/default. Australia has been very fortunate added as necessary. asp? Page=71579&XXSEC=1&View=Intranet to date. Our recent wars have been If the RAN choses to invest now viewed 12 Nov 08. Royal Australian Navy, Serving in wars of choice rather than necessity, in developing a strong and relevant Australia’s Navy, Department of Defence, our personnel commitments have been values-based culture, built around Canberra, 2004. Royal Australian Navy, Plan Green, relatively minor, our casualties very more useful values, then not only will Department of Defence, Canberra, 2008. small and our personnel on operations the organisation and the individuals Royal Australian Navy, http://intranet. defence.gov.au/navyweb/sites/SANP/default. have consistently performed to a within it benefit on a day-to-day basis, asp? Page=71579&XXSEC=1&View=Intranet high ethical standard. Were we to be but the Navy may just prevent a future viewed 12 Nov 08. Singapore Armed Forces, SAF Core faced with the situation of a war of Abu Ghraib of its own. Values- 2007 Edition, SAFTI Military necessity, large and extended personnel Institute, Singapore, 2007. commitments and significant combat related deaths, would our people be (Endnotes) as well equipped as they need to be to 1 Buchko, A., ‘The Effect of Leadership on Values-based Management’ in Leadership continue to ‘do the right thing’? Are and Organisation Development Journal, Vol the Navy’s values optimised to meet 28, No. 1. Emerald Group Publishing Limited, 2007, pg. 1. this challenge? 2 The organisational values the RAN 3 Royal Australian Navy, http://intranet. defence.gov.au/navyweb/sites/SANP/default. seeks to inculcate into personnel asp? Page=71711 viewed 12 Nov 08. must have two distinct but related 4 Royal Australian Navy, http://intranet. defence.gov.au/navyweb/sites/SANP/default. purposes. Firstly, they must guide asp? Page=71579&XXSEC=1&View=Intranet how personnel behave towards each Commander Tony Mullan joined the viewed 12 Nov 08. 5 Royal Australian Navy, http://intranet. other and how they go about our day RAN in 1991 as a (then) Instructor defence.gov.au/navyweb/sites/SANP/default. to day business, whether that is in an Officer. During his 18 year career, asp? Page=71579&XXSEC=1&View=Intranet viewed 12 Nov 08. office in Navy Headquarters, or at sea Commander Mullan has undertaken 6 Royal Australian Navy, Serving in in a frigate. Secondly, they must guide Australia’s Navy, Department of Defence, postings to CDSC, HMA ships Cerberus, Canberra, 2004, pp. un-numbered how personnel conduct themselves on 7 Royal Australian Navy, Plan Green, operations, most especially in combat. Albatross, Kanimbla, ADFA, NHQ, Department of Defence, Canberra, 2008, pp. Values that ignore one or the other DNOP, ACSC and the Australian 21-23. 8 Robertson, P. De Lee, N. & Carrick, D of these will only produce a semi- Defence College. Commander Mullan (ed), Ethics Education in the Military, Ashgate developed individual. For example, Publishing Limited, Hampshire, 2008, p. 6. is currently the Deputy Director of the 9 Robertson, P. De Lee, N. & Carrick, D treating your mates with respect and (ed), Ethics Education in the Military, Ashgate Centre for Defence Leadership Studies consideration is a moot point if you Publishing Limited, Hampshire, 2008, p. 6. 10 Anderson, B. Implementing then turn around and abuse a detainee at the ADC. Organisational Values: Bringing or order an NGS mission without Organisational Values off the Paper, into Bibliography Demonstrable Behaviours, Change Dynamic regard for civilian casualties. Anderson, B. Implementing Organisational Ltd, 2004, p. 2. The values the Navy chooses will Values: Bringing Organisational Values off 11 Olsthoorn, P. Loyalty and the Paper, into Demonstrable Behaviours, Professionalisation in the Military, have a huge impact on the culture Change Dynamic Ltd, 2004. Netherlands Defence Academy, Breda, 2008, that the organisation develops. Buchko, A., ‘The Effect of Leadership on p. 3. Values-based Management’ in Leadership 12 Coleman, Stephen. Extract from The RAN’s values need to be clear, and Organisation Development Journal, Vol a presentation given to a military ethics unambiguous and relevant. They need 28, No. 1. Emerald Group Publishing Limited, workshop at Melbourne University, 12 2007. August 2008. to carefully and consciously define the Coleman, Stephen. Extract from a 13 Royal Australian Navy, http://intranet. organisation’s DNA. Unfortunately the presentation given to a military ethics defence.gov.au/navyweb/sites/SANP/default. workshop at Melbourne University, asp? Page=71579&XXSEC=1&View=Intranet existing Navy values are not optimised Melbourne, 12 August 2008. viewed 12 Nov 08. for this purpose. They tend to overlap, Olsthoorn, P. Loyalty and 14 Singapore Armed Forces, SAF Core Professionalisation in the Military, Values- 2007 Edition, SAFTI Military clash and confuse and as such must be Netherlands Defence Academy, Breda, 2008. Institute, Singapore, 2007, p. 24. reviewed and rewritten. In particular Robertson, P. De Lee, N. & Carrick, D (ed), Journal of the Australian Naval Institute Issue 131 9 Remilitarising the Australian Hydrographic Service (or ‘Why the Droggies Need Disbanding’) byL C iEUTENANT hris Walter
t the conclusion of World War bathymetry’ as a completely integrated about noticeable change to a unit II, the hydrographic survey Task Unit of a larger warfighting force monolith thus avoiding complete elementsA of the Royal Australian has largely vanished. military hydrography bankruptcy. Navy had earned a richly decorated An evolved AHS with wartime reputation for the conduct of tactical antecedent would suggestively leave The Contemporary AHS military geospatial data operations, the extant, contemporary AHS wishing especially in support of the Pacific to evolve in its wake when comparing Existential context. A core amphibious campaigns1, and preceding appropriateness of equipment, attitude dysfunction of the RAN’s the Normandy landings2. of Officer, and maturity of doctrine, Hydrographic Service’s ability to The honours and decorations procedures and product. appropriately auto-cater operational bestowed upon those engaged in An illustrative Concept of MGI is its relationship to the Australian hydrographic tasking numbered higher, Operations to reinvigorate the Hydrographic Office. The preamble by branch/category, than any other in provision of military geographic to the ‘Roles and Responsibilities’ the RAN during the 1939-45 period3, information (MGI), namely littoral contained in the AHS website such was the inherent risk in collecting bathymetry and oceanography, is advertising cites the AHS as this data, and the subsequent tactical required to roadmap the naval units of “… part of the Royal Australian value of their final product. the AHS out of military irrelevancy and Navy. It is responsible for the conduct Information was collected in a into professional obsolescence. This of hydrographic surveys, as well as manner that proved tactically timely, essay intends to provoke discussion by providing Australia’s national charting in a format that was effective in casting an informed, but now layman’s, service under the terms of the UN Safety comprehension, and exploited the eye across the contemporary AHS, and of Life at Sea (SOLAS) Convention and Hydro:Survey vessel battle space sufficiently to permit offer recent examples of operational the Navigation Act. This role requires HMAS PALUMA its operational first-use and grant military surveying in a naval context, the coordination and determination of during ex Kakadu an element of decision superiority. while integrating suggestions at how policy and standards which covers both 08-photo by Chris Hydrographic and oceanographic data the RAN might proceed in bringing hydrographic surveying and charting, as Sattler was collected by surveyors deployed ashore clandestinely, in Crafts of Opportunity (COOPs), dedicated survey vessels or deployed in corvettes, minesweepers and frigates. The legacy that begets today’s Australian Hydrographic Service (AHS) is such that the question of comparison must be asked. The soft tasking of nautical charting that has been the raison d’etre of AHS activities since 1954, coordinated by the Australian Hydrographic Office (AHO), has virtually denuded the operational focus needed of a contemporary military surveying force from its force-assigned ships, boats and aircraft. The ability to collect data and sustain the production of ‘battle Journal of the Australian Naval Institute 10 Remilitarising the Australian Hydrographic Service (or ‘Why the Droggies Need Disbanding’) well as contributing to the coordination, The Australian hydrographic naive engrossment into trends, habits exchange and standards related to paradigm is self-validating, with the and attitudes that tend to reinforce geospatial data in general.”4 AHO and the HMFEG collocated, and the popular image of the ‘droggie’. the majority of the RAN personnel The naval nomenclature applied to The by-line to this statement states who staff positions within the HMFEG AHS Officers typifies the branch having responsibilities to the AHO. ethos: Maritime Geospatial Officer “The AHS is also responsible While uniformed personnel are adept (Hydrography). One would suspect for providing direct support to the at applying surveying knowledge that Military Geospatial Officer Australian Defence Force […] for the to maintain charter and policy would’ve been more apt. Those that provision of hydrographic, charting, momentum (the continual revision are drawn to a career as a ‘Magoo’ oceanographic and meteorology and development of HydrOcscheme, (not unknown for being myopic) tend services.”5 for example), the high percentage of to trend four ways: those attracted to civilian ‘augmentation’ dilutes the a tropical lifestyle; those attracted to While it is clear that ownership of focus away from military support the hands-on and scientific nature of the personnel, vessels and aircraft beyond the realm of nautical chart hydrographic surveying; those looking serving in the AHS is naval, the tasking provision. Ironically, the sum total for a ‘soft-touch’ career as a Warfare is largely to fulfil civilian mercantile of personnel allocated to dedicated Officer, or those encouraged to pursue purposes, of which is coordinated by MGI support within the AHS/ this path due to perceived or actual a quasi-civilian body, the Australian HMFEG/AHO is no more than three shortcomings in core warfare skills. Hydrographic Office (AHO). The Australian Public Servants10. This is The inevitable cultural impact this AHO’s overwhelming responsibility professionally suicidal and further produces needs to be reversed for the for charting almost 10% of the earth’s dilutes organisational focus. profession to remain militarily viable. surface, combined with the competing The cause for self-validation is While the foreseeable future of survey asset allocation of AHS resources, easy to demonstrate. The AHS is, training will remain unchanged, the will continue to commit military unwittingly, ‘caught-in-irons’ by its HMFEG leadership cadre needs to operational support to a lower priority inability to swiftly exploit emerging demand, and make training allowance in order to achieve accountable-to- data collection technologies, and for, a marked increase and emphasis Canberra measurable goals6/7, unless it processing and dissemination upon warfare skills within its MGO(H) is a short notice requirement8. techniques; “nobbled” by the lethargy population. Conversely, the image inherent within Governmental of the MGO(M) (Meteorology and Organisational structure. A quick procurement programs; outsourcing of Oceanography - METOC) is one that is analysis of the organisational ‘wiring follow-on asset support to contracted readily identifiable as a warfare enabler. diagram’ will demonstrate clear conflict agencies, and the binding to those The provision of frequent tailored between military operations and roles and responsibilities stated weather forecasting, comprehensive Governmental agency responsibilities9. already. When supported by civilian operational and exercise area METOC The understaffed and undertrained contractors who are motivated by briefs, provision of applications such Hydrographic, Meteorological and financial frugality, a product that is as TESS2 and AREPS to forecast Oceanographic Force Element Group riddled with intangible efficiency environmental impact on sensor (HMFEG), serves to discharge both costs relative to civilian opportunities performance, collocation within the functions effectively. An easy cleaving is produced: it is an end-product, HQJOC construct and frequent liaison of military hydrographic, and allied, however, wrought to international with all Fleet units permits ‘face time’ responsibilities would yield improved standards, deemed fit for service, and and recognition of value-adding to the interoperability with the remainder thus validating the entire process. But naval mission. of the RAN freeing personnel and that’s how it’s always been done. MGO(H), and the AHS, tends to assets for dedicated naval, and littoral, play poor cousin to the MGO(M) warfare service. The execution of Training and culture. The paucity during exercises due to the excellent national hydrographic governance, and of other-than-AHS naval operations manipulation of software to produce progression of a national hydrographic experience within the Maritime tailored and fused geospatial products, campaign ought to remain the domain Geospatial Officer (Hydrography) and the ability to generally liaise with of the AHO only. (MGO(H)) branch virtually encourages other-than-AHS Command Teams in a Journal of the Australian Naval Institute Issue 131 11
reasonably common language11. While acknowledged that steps have been implemented to provide more than just basic familiarisation with the same software, the MGO(H) is generationally astern of its MGO(M) brethren. Training progression as a MGO(H) is in accordance with the accreditation standards of the International Hydrographic Organisation, achieving higher-order surveying skills to maintain organic production standards for safety-of-navigation charting. This expertise comes predominantly at the expense of a strong working knowledge of general naval operations; thus when integrating as a Task Unit or Group within a larger naval force, pauses in planning and execution ECHO class Rpyal can be experienced. The active A lack of operational appreciation integration and self-defence, if those Navy Survey Vessel encouragement of junior MGO(H), can also impede future integration occupying project team positions had a once consolidated, to undertake of assets. The present Pacific-class broader naval knowledge to draw upon. surface combatant familiarisation, with (Leeuwin) Hydrographic Ships (HS) Future naval survey vessel acquisitions potential to proceed onto the Principal have a dedicated compartment have to be less myopic and include Warfare Officer training continuum adjacent to the Communications capabilities for complete systems and cannot be underestimated for the Centre for use by an afloat Mine communications integration with professional longevity and relevance of Countermeasures Tasking Authority other units, and comprehensive self- the MGO(H) specialisation. (MCMTA). The deployment of such defensive suites to permit independent C2 functionality is hindered by a lack of operations in a potentially hostile Impacts upon procurement. The appropriate organic communications environment. The only sensible method multiple-order effects of delivering and data exchange capabilities within to achieve this is to equip the MGO(H) accredited IHO training and skills, the Ship, for example. The resultant is with increased warfare knowledge, and only, can be found in the procurement a degraded, or piece-meal C2 capacity be situated in a culture that is entirely of vessels and the development of which requires a large amount of devoted to supporting naval, and joint, their concept of operations for use. support from RAN and (occasionally) operations. While able to appreciate the raw USN IT and C3-support agencies. surveying potential of a particular asset The recent tactical development in Royal Navy Survey Fleet (ship or aircraft), naval operational ‘babysitter operations’ with the HUON- Modernisation employment considerations appear class Mine Hunter Coastal (MHC) and wholly unappreciated. For example, the Surface Combatants highlights the The requirement for a fused, high- Laser Airborne Depth Sounder (LADS) deficiencies that would befall potential definition assessment of local aircraft, while a tremendous materiel force protection efforts of any AHS bathymetry and atmospheric capability, is restricted in its tactical unit afloat, which at present lacks the conditions in near real-time, and employment. It is not permitted to very basic measures embarked in the requirement to provide a vessel operate outside Australia, nor in MHC, such as chaff (or even a Close-In capable of greater self-defensive areas of warlike operations12. Due Weapon System), LINK 11 Receive, capabilities were driving factors in the to the employment of civilian pilots, and a manned 30mm gun. recent introduction into Royal Navy and leasing of a civilian aircraft, the CONOPS considerations would service of the ECHO class Survey true tactical exploitation of this asset be greatly enhanced, and hence the Vessel (SVHO)13. The SVHO still remains a latent capability. final acquisition more capable of requires close escort in a potentially Journal of the Australian Naval Institute 12 Remilitarising the Australian Hydrographic Service (or ‘Why the Droggies Need Disbanding’) hostile environment, especially with next ten average lifetimes, based on a Fleet units remain in place, to prepare a prevalent air threat. Two 20mm cumulative 220-plus year rate of effort for operational tasking and command cannons, and several 12.7mm guns, (notwithstanding the tremendous by Commander Joint Operations arm each Ship, however the class advances in survey technologies in (CJOPS). In this context the AHS is does not possess an organic softkill that period). Common sense dictates clearly an anachronism for obsolete capability against Anti-Ship Cruise that 100% coverage is not required, functionality. Missiles. The class is optimised to and that those commercial ports, their operate in the littoral in support approaches and heavily trafficked Doctrine and procedures of amphibious operations, and is coastal trade routes only ought to be presently deployed operationally to surveyed; something easily achieved by The cause for maintaining IHO Sierra Leone, and has seen service in contracted civilian surveyors working standards for nautical charting when the Arabian Gulf. to the same IHO standards as the RAN units are conducting MGD While the mandate for the RAN’s own survey units. operations needs to be considered. The Royal Navy to support the British The AHO does not render survey release of Australian Defence Doctrine Antarctic Survey is extant, the recent data of its own accord; it is the national Publication 2.3 (Geospatial Information transferring of nautical charting coordinating body for hydrographic and Services) now provides more responsibilities from the Royal Navy data to ensure compliance with IHO construct for the provision of military to the Foreign Office has occurred standards. The divorcing of labour geospatial data, however is at a in order to concentrate survey assets from the RAN to vessels tendered doctrinal level only. It allows for the on amphibious and other operational by the Department of Transport, existence for the present AHS however, support tasks14. The Royal Navy, for example16, would increase the as demonstrated, it is a body corporate admittedly, enjoys near blanket modern availability of those same RAN units to that suffers from severe inertia and, survey coverage of its home waters and military data gathering operations, and from the author’s own experience, one can subsequently focus assets on the hence begin a gradual shift in culture that is unlikely to adopt less accurate provision of MGI. back towards something resembling means of data collection for the sake of the one achieved at the conclusion tactical timeliness. Despite a military United States Naval Service of World War II. In turn, the AHS, doctrine impetus, the corporate as an entity, would become obsolete culture will continue to plague real The USNS operates all of the vessels as practical operational planning advancement. dedicated to hydrography within and tasking returned to extant RAN Despite the intentions of the the US Armed Forces, satisfying a arrangements. ADDP in defining current capabilities, more strategic approach to military consolidating procedures, detailing hydrography, and revisits tactical Headquarters Joint potential data sources, describing surveys conducted by the US Marine Operational Command Joint geospatial oeprations and ultimately Corps and the US Army (although to a Environmental Centre shaping the expectations of the end- much lesser extent)15. (HQJOC JEC) user: the tactical commander, it does not address the root cause of a lot Implications for the AHS The advent of the HQJOC, and of irrelevancy within the current establishment for the first time of a geospatial architecture and largely The introduction of the RN SVHO, and JEC, is a substantial improvement to serves to continue the self-validation its shift away from nautical charting previous C2 arrangements applicable to described earlier. It does little in pursuit as normal operations; and the long outlying military units, such as Army’s of a focused naval effort in providing established structure of the USN’s 1 Topographic Survey Squadron, the timely and tactically relevant MGI. organic capabilities within its Auxiliary RAAF’s Air Information Services In conclusion, the RAN’s fleet ought to have considerable unit, Defence Imagery Geospatial Hydrographic Service (AHS) has a implications for the future of the Organisation, and the Navy’s AHS. proud history cemented in wartime AHS. The requirement for near 100% This further reduces the requirement activity. High risk activities were survey coverage of the Australian for AHS’ continuance. The ‘raise, train, recognised through numerous awards coastline, to a commercially required and sustain’ functions by Commander for brave, distinguished and other standard will not be achieved in the Australian Fleet (COMAUSFLT) for all service. The acquisition of survey data Journal of the Australian Naval Institute Issue 131 13
serving in HMAS Parramatta as her was achieved in a tactically useful subsequently improve naval and joint timeframe, from any and all available integration at all levels. Surface and Anti-Submarine Warfare means, and gave the operational Disassociation from the AHO, Officer. commander decision superiority in and staffing with personnel not (Endnotes) planning and execution of amphibious concurrently posted to the AHO will 1 Sea Power Centre Australia, 2003, campaigns, particularly. At the increase the military objectivity and ‘New Guinea WW2 – A Maritime completion of the Second World War, naval focus of the HMFEG, hence Campaign’, Semaphore, Mar 03, Issue 2. 2 Sea Power Centre Australia, 2004, ‘The the integration of hydrographic survey improve overall interoperability. Great Amphibious Invasion: D-Day, 6 June elements into the RAN fleet was well The procurement of vessels capable 1944’, Semaphore, Apr 04, Issue 4. 3 http://www.hydro.gov.au/aboutus/ established, seamless and proved of integrating seamlessly and past.htm invaluable its ability to force-multiply. comprehensively into a naval or joint 4 http://www.hydro.gov.au/aboutus/ roles.htm The AHS is the contemporary task organisation is essential to capture 5 ibid. legatee of this wartime capability. As and consolidate such a shift in cultural 6 Commander of the Australian Fleet, 2007, Australian Fleet Tactical Publication the requirement for MGI diminished paradigm. 1(A), para 403.25. and tasking refocused on nautical A redistribution of Australian 7 ibid, para 403.68. 8 Australian Hydrographic Service, charting, the abilities of the RAN to hydrographic governance 2007, HydrOcscheme 2007-2010, Oct 07, undertake military hydrography faded responsibilities, revised training to p14. 9 http://www.hydro.gov.au/aboutus/ commensurately. The subsuming of include heavy emphasis on warfare org.htm the RAN’s survey assets into the AHS, skills, increased or sole focus on naval/ 10 Discussion, 2008, Mr Goran Dimeski, MGI Products and Support Section, which is subservient to the AHO’s joint operations, and the acquisition Australian Hydrographic Office, May 08. governing requirements, and laterally of new vessels and equipment will 11 Commander of the Australian Fleet, op cit, para 204.44. subjected to HMFEG’s competing effect the cultural change needed to 12 Australian Hydrographic Operating requirements, has created the situation reinvigorate the RAN survey force Orders [note: reference not available for precise consultation at time of writing due where the skills, equipment, processes into an asset that can readily deploy to exigencies of operational service]. and culture are unsuitable for the and provide tactically relevant and 13 http://www.royal-navy.mod.uk/ server/show/nav.00h001001006004002 conduct of integrated and sustained timely hydrographic data, and reclaim 14 http://www.royal-navy.mod.uk/ MDG, or independent, operations the right to a proud, and militarily upload/pdf/RN_L3-X-HM_V5.pdf, in a potentially hostile environment. necessary, heritage. Discussion, 2008, Executive Officer HMS Enterprise, 14 Mar. This places additional demands on 15 Discussion, 2008, Operations Officer protective assets such as surface USNS Henson, 07-10 Sep. 16 Department of Defence, 2007, combatants to provide ‘babysitter’ Lieutenant Chris Walter joined the RAN ‘Contract Surveying in the Torres Strait support in units in an aggressive littoral in 1996 and graduated from ADFA in and Northern Great Barrier Reef’, Media Release 365/07, 10 Oct. theatre. 1998. After qualifying as an OOW, he Restructuring of the RAN’s survey spent several years in Cairns on Minor force is required to bring about War Vessels and in Hydrographic Ships fundamental change to ensure the reclamation of these skills, and in time before qualifying as a MGO(H) in 2003. the procurement of suitable equipment, After two years consolidation in HS to conduct these operations. The White with surveys conducted in Bass AHS is unable to provide the Strait, the Great Barrier Reef, and the appropriate corporate environment Northern Territory, he undertook A/ to effectively meet the needs of nautical charting and increasing naval PWO familiarisation in HMAS Stuart operation participation. A divorcing in 2006 and subsequently completed of labour from the RAN survey force both PWO and Surface Warfare to contracted civilian companies, specialisation training in 2007. At under Department of Transport the time we went to print, Lieutenant et al jurisdiction, would realise opportunities to increase warfare and Walter was deployed to the Arabian operational experience and training, Gulf as part of OPERATION CATALYST, Journal of the Australian Naval Institute Welcome to the future of naval maintenance
Photos courtesy KBR's capabilities include ILS planning at of Defence the conceptual stage of a project
Applying commercial best practice to sustain complex maritime platforms and systems
Jointly providing integrated materiel services to the RAN’s amphibious and afloat support ships
Contact Email: [email protected] Phone: 1800 194 866
K0709 09/07
Welcome to the future of naval maintenance
Photos courtesy KBR's capabilities include ILS planning at of Defence the conceptual stage of a project
Applying commercial best practice to sustain complex maritime platforms and systems
Jointly providing integrated materiel services to the RAN’s amphibious and afloat support ships
Contact Email: [email protected] Phone: 1800 194 866
K0709 09/07 Issue 131 15 Application of Geographic Information System & Statistical Methods for Effective Marine Fisheries Law Enforcement in the South China Sea B y HJ SuTARJI & NR Hashim
he Fisheries sector is important to Malaysia because it generates Trevenue, provides employment and forms a major source of the dietary requirements of many Malaysians. For years this sector, especially the marine capture fisheries, has contributed about 1.5 percent of Malaysia’s gross domestic products (GDP). The marine capture fisheries are comprised of coastal fisheries and deep–sea fisheries. Eurocopter Dauphin AS365 N3 of the MMEA (Courtesy Eurcopter Malaysia) With the exception of 2004, coastal fisheries made up more than 71% of the Table 1. Malaysia’s Fisheries Production From 2000 to 2005 total fisheries production from 2000 to 2005. During the same period, the Year Total Total Marine Capture Marine Coastal Fisheries (% Deep Sea Percentage deep sea fisheries contributed between Fisheries Fisheries Fisheries (Tons) (% Capture of Total Fisheries Fisheries (% of of 11 to 17%. Details of the fisheries Sector (Value in of Total Fisheries) Fisheries Production) Total Fisheries Contribution (Tons) Million (Value in Production) by Fisheries production for six years from 2000 to RM) Million Sector to 2005 are shown in Table 1. Despite RM) GDP
its importance, this sector, especially 2000 1,453,590 5,370.0 1,285,696 4,400.0 1,114,669 171,027 1.6 the production of the marine capture (88.45 %) (76.68 %) (11.77 %)
fisheries, has not been growing steadily. 2001 1,408,308 6,450.0 1,231,289 4,170.0 1,063,363 167,926 1.54 In view of the importance of (87.4 %) (75.5 %) (11.9 %) this industry, it is only proper that 2002 1,463,921 5,410.0 1,272,078 (86.9 %) 4,210.0 1,081,357 (73.9 %) 190,741 (13 %) 1,5
the marine fisheries activity in 2003 1,483,958 5,310.0 1,283,256 (86.48 %) 4,010.0 1,084,802 98,453 1.37 the maritime zones be controlled, (73 %) (13.37 %) managed, and regulated, so that these activities are carried out safely and the 2004 1,537,988 5,505.9 1,331,645 4,241.4 1,060,150 271.485 (17.6 %) 1.73 (87 %) (69 %) sea resources carefully exploited and 2005 1,421,402 5,245.68 1,209,609 (87.1 %) 4,017.52 988,313 (71.17 %) 221,288 (15.94 %) 1.08 utilized.
However, the protection, Source: Department of Fisheries Official Web Sites (http://www.dof.gov.my) conservation and management of marine fisheries are problematic years, from 2000 to 2004, a total of 2, Malaysia’s maritime enforcement because the fisheries are continuously 619 foreign fishing vessels were sighted agencies for illegal fishing in the same threatened with illegal fishing by both fishing illegally in Malaysia’s fisheries sea areas. The data shows that only local and foreign fishing vessels and waters. 771 of these illegal fishing 15.6% of the foreign fishing vessels because of destructive fishing practices. vessels were sighted the South China sighted for illegal fishing in the South The government has established Sea off the east coast of Peninsular China Sea were arrested. several maritime enforcement agencies Malaysia.1 However, during the same Theoretically, increased and enacted the Fisheries Act of 1985 period, a total of about 120 foreign enforcement activities should reduce or to protect marine fisheries. For five fishingv essels were arrested by various even prevent violations by fishermen. Journal of the Australian Naval Institute 16 Application of Geographic Information System & Statistical Methods for Effective Marine Fisheries Law Enforcement in the South China Sea
Hence, the data in Table 1 suggests that, although a fisheries law exists to protect and manage the fisheries, substantial non– compliance with the law continues to occur. There are many reasons for non–compliance by these foreign fishermen, but data demonstrates that one of the reasons is ineffective enforcement. This paper analyzes the trends Malaysia. of which 7, 095 square nautical miles East Malaysia Maritime of intrusion of these foreign fishing To support efficient enforcement (about 24, 265 square kilometers) are Zone (courtesy MMEA) vessels into Malaysia’s fisheries waters of the Act, the Director General of territorial seas. The sea is blessed in the South China Sea (off the east Fisheries, a Deputy Director General of with prodigious amounts of demersal coast of Peninsular Malaysia); the Fisheries, a fishery officer, a port officer (bottom dwelling) and pelagic (surface efforts made by the various Malaysia’s (as defined in the Merchant Shipping dwelling) species.4 This is a significant maritime enforcement agencies to Ordinance of 1952), the Commanding reason why the area has attracted contain them; and proposes new Officers of any Government naval foreign fishing vessels. However, approaches for more effective marine vessels or Government aircraft, during the northeast monsoon fisheries law enforcement. To achieve the Commanding Officers of any between the months of November these objectives, data related to the Government marine police vessels, or and March annually, the sea condition arrests of foreign fishing vessels for any other person or class of persons is always very rough. It reduces local illegal fishing in Malaysia’s fisheries are appointed to be an authorized fishing activities to minimal but it does waters2 in the South China Sea for officer in the enforcement of the Act. not deter foreign fishing vessels from three consecutive years, namely 2005, Hence, Commanding Officers of the encroaching into Malaysia’s fisheries 2006 and 2007, were used. Both the Royal Malaysian Navy (RMN) vessels, waters. Likewise, law enforcement geographical information system (GIS) the Malaysian Maritime Enforcement and statistical approaches were used to Agency (MMEA) vessels, the Marine Table 2. Sighting of Illegal Fishing analyze the data. Police vessels, and the Department of Activities of Foreign Fishing Vessels Fisheries vessels are authorized officers in Malaysia’s Fisheries Waters by Fisheries Law Enforcement to enforce the Fisheries Act of 1985 by Geographical Area (2000 – 2004) in the South China Sea carrying out surveillance, monitoring Year/ Straits of South Sarawak Sabah Total As stated in the Section 15 (1) of the and enforcement in the fisheries Localities Malacca China Sea 3 Malaysian Fisheries Act of 1985, no waters. 2000 72 162 17 141 392 foreign fishing vessels are allowed Malaysia’s fisheries waters in the 2001 135 88 109 541 873 to fish or to attempt to fish, or to South China Sea, off the east coast 2002 122 257 183 120 682 2003 110 264 184 114 672 conduct techno–economic research, of Peninsular Malaysia, cover a vast 2004 NA NA NA NA NA or to conduct a survey of any fishery area. These waters cover a total of 34, Total 439 771 493 916 2,619 in Malaysia’s fisheries waters unless 371 square nautical miles (about 117, Source: Annual Reports of the NMECC, the Prime Minister’s authorised by the government of 892 square kilometers) of sea surface, Department (2000 – 2004) Journal of the Australian Naval Institute Issue 131 17
activities by maritime enforcement RMP (15 PZ patrol agencies are also reduced. boats), the Fisheries As stipulated in the Fisheries Act of Department (six 1985, vessels of the RMN, the Marine fisheries P–series Police and the Department of Fisheries patrol boats and are responsible to enforce the Act. The six other smaller bulk of the maritime law enforcement boats KPS series), is carried out by the MMEA since the Royal Customs its formation in 2005. Prior to the Department (six MMEA’s formation, the RMN deployed patrol boats of two Offshore Patrol Vessels, six Fast Bahtera K and Attack Crafts (Guns) and 15 Patrol KA–class) and the Crafts for law enforcement in the EEZ Marine Department on opportunity basis. Likewise, the (six boats and six Marine Police deployed 15 PZ–class other smaller boats).5 boats for law enforcement in the EEZ On 15 February while a variety of smaller patrol vessels 2005, the Act went such as the PX–class, PA–class and the into force and the West Malaysia PC–class provided law enforcement in MMEA was formally established, waters in the South China Sea, the Maritime Zone the territorial seas. On the formation and then officially launched on 21 MMEA deploys 10 ships that include (courtesy MMEA) of the MMEA, except for the six Fast March 2006. The MMEA is now the two Langkawi–class offshore patrol Attack Craft, the RMN transferred backbone of Malaysia’s maritime law vessels (ex–RMN’s OPV 1,300 tonnes), all of its Offshore Patrol Vessels and enforcement agencies, responsible to two Gagah–class (ex–Marine Police’s Patrol Crafts to the MMEA. Similarly, ensure the safety and security of lives PZ 230 tonnes), four Sipadan–class the Marine Police also transferred all and properties in Malaysia’s maritime (ex–RMN’s PC 100 tonnes) and of its PZ–class boats to the MMEA. zones. two boats transferred from the Since then, the Marine Police has In term of assets available for Marine Department (the Malawali concentrated its law enforcement deployment in Malaysia’s fisheries ex–Bintang 63.5 ton and Nusa ex– efforts within Rajawali 53 tonnes). Based on the the 12 nautical Table 3. Sighting of Illegal Fishing patrol classifications above, only the miles of territorial Activities by Foreign Fishing Vessels in two Langkawi–class vessels can be waters. As for the Malaysia’s Fisheries Waters by Month deployed safely in the deep water Department of (2000 – 2004) zones (50 nautical miles and above Fisheries, it has from the coasts). These two ships are Year/ 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Total transferred all of Month (Average) its six P–series and January 2 37 26(2) 56 NA 121 Table 4. Arrests of Foreign Fishing six KPS–series February 6 36 14(2) 56 NA 112 Vessels for Illegal Fishing in Malaysia’s boats to the March 39 159 41 56 NA 295 Fisheries Waters (2000 – 2007) April 59 165 85 56 NA 365 MMEA leaving May 12 73 41(27) 56 NA 182 Tahun/ Strait of South Sarawak Sabah Total only smaller boats June 36 63 56 56 NA 267 Lokasi Malacca China Sea for use within the July – 54 173(99) 56 NA 227 2000 NA NA NA NA 62 territorial seas. August 49 26 24 56 NA 155 2001 28 34 30 10 102 In terms of September 95 148 117(37) 56 NA 416 2002 44 28 38 – 112 October 26 53 8(3) 56 NA 143 2003 NA NA NA NA 103 assets, the MMEA November 30 56 45(11) 56 NA 183 2004 NA NA NA NA 89 owns 72 patrol 2005 41 13 25 15 94 December 30 3 52(68) 56 NA 141 vessels transferred 2006 27 19 12 2 60 Total 392 873 682 (257) 672 NA 2,619 from the RMN 2007 29 39 12 15 95 (two offshore Source: Annual Reports of NMECC, the Prime Minister’s Department Total 169 133 117 42 461/707 (2000 – 2004) (Figures quoted in brackets are the numbers of foreign patrol vessels and fishing vessels sighted in Malaysia’s fisheries waters in the South China Sources: Annual Reports of NMECC, the Prime Minister’s 15 patrol craft), the Sea off the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia) Department (2000 – 2007) Journal of the Australian Naval Institute 18 Application of Geographic Information System & Statistical Methods for Effective Marine Fisheries Law Enforcement in the South China Sea already more than 20 years old with in greater incentives for Table 5. Arrests of Foreign Fishing Vessels for Illegal economical speed of about 15 knots these foreign fishing Fishing in Malaysia’s Fisheries Waters By Month and are expected to patrol the sea areas vessels to fish illegally (2000 – 2007) of about 40,000 square kilometres all in Malaysia’s fisheries Year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Total year. Likewise, there are only six patrol waters. January – 1 1 NA NA 4 8 4 18 vessels, two of which are Gagah–class The Royal February 1 3 3 NA NA 8 3 0 18 boats that are already more than 28 Malaysian Air Force March 9 12 21 NA NA 18 7 7 76 years old and four Sipadan–class (RMAF) conducts April 9 21 28 NA NA 10 4 15 87 boats that are already more than 40 aerial military May 16 11 15 NA NA 12 2 8 64 June 5 7 8 NA NA 18 – 11 49 years old). These boats are expected to surveillance over July 2 10 4 NA NA 7 – 14 37 continuously patrol a sea area of about Malaysia’s maritime August 2 4 9 NA NA – 7 5 27 43,891.8 square kilometres. As for the zones daily, especially September 7 6 3 NA NA 6 5 12 39 RMN, it deploys three 230 tonne Fast during daylight hours. October 7 7 14 NA NA 6 – 5 39 November 2 20 5 NA NA 2 16 13 58 Attack Craft (Missile) that are more However, due to its December 2 – 1 NA NA 3 8 1 15 than 30 years old. Due to their old age, limited resources and Total 62 102 112 103 89 94 60 95 these vessels have a limited speed of the need to patrol vast about 20 knots and limited to about 10 maritime areas, the Sources: Annual Reports of NMECC, the Prime Minister’s Department (2000 – 2007) operational days at sea. The Marine patrol is carried out Police’s law enforcement capabilities for on a selective basis, Table 6. Arrests of Foreign Fishing Vessels this region relies on the three steel PX– depending on the need specified by for Illegal Fishing in Malaysia’s Fisheries class boats (113 tonnes), two wooden the Malaysian Armed Forces. As such, Waters in the South China Sea off the East PX–class boats (65 tonnes), five PA– fishery surveillance flights are not a Coast of Peninsular Malaysia (2005) class boats (48 tonnes), five PC–class priority. During these flights, sighting Month/Details RMN Marine DOF MMEA Total Number boats (20 tonnes) and 10 two–tonne of any unusual activities or intrusion by of Arrest Police of Arrests small fast boats. These boats, except for foreign fishing vessels into Malaysia’s January – – – – – the steel three steel PX–class boats, are fisheries waters is reported. Details February – – – – – safe for law enforcement duties within on the intrusion by foreign fishing March 3 1 1 – 5 April – – – – – the 12 nautical miles of territorial seas. vessels into Malaysia’s fisheries waters May – – 2 – 2
from 2000 to 2004 are presented in June – – 1 – 1 Intrusions by FFVs Tables 2 and 3. Table 2 presents the July 1 – – – 1 Malaysia’s fisheries waters in the sighting of illegal fishing activities by August – – – – – South China Sea off the east coast of foreign fishing vessels in Malaysia’s September 2 – – – 2 October 2 – – – 2 Peninsular Malaysia are rich with both fisheries waters by geographical areas. November – – – – – demersal and pelagic species. With During this period, a total of 2, 619 December – – – – – a very small number of Malaysian– intrusions by foreign fishing vessels Total 8 1 4 – 13 registered deep sea fishing vessels were reported. Of those reported, 771 Source: Annual Report of NMECC, the Prime Minister’s (there were only 505 vessels of 40–69 incidents occurred in the South China Department (2005) Note: Data on the location and date of arrests for tonnes and 316 vessels of 70 tonnes Sea off the east coast of Peninsular each of these vessels is kept separately by the authors. and above registered in Kelantan, Malaysia. Table 3 present details on the Terengganu, Pahang and East Johore sighting of illegal activities by foreign foreign fishing vessels for illegal fishing in 2005)6 operating in the South China fishing vessels during the same period in Malaysia’s fisheries waters by the Sea, it is unlikely that they could on a month to month basis. The table four maritime enforcement agencies disturb the fisheries reproduction cycle clearly shows in which months of the from 2000 to 2007. The table shows that invariably leads to over–fishing. year intrusions have occurred. that during that period, a total of 707 On the other hand, fisheries waters As discussed earlier, the agencies arrests of foreign fishing vessels for in neighbouring countries, especially responsible for enforcing the Fisheries illegal fishing were made. Of these, the Gulf of Thailand, have already Act of 1985 are the RMN, the MMEA, at least 133 arrests (excluding those been over–fished in the last few years.7 the Marine Police, and the Department vessels arrested in 2003 and 2004 in Yet demand for fish in neighbouring of Fisheries. Table 4 presents data which their numbers are not available) countries continue to increase resulting reflecting the number of arrests of were made in the South China Sea, off Journal of the Australian Naval Institute Issue 131 19
the East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia. Table 5 shows details on arrests of foreign fishing vessels on a month to month basis from 2000 to 2007. However, there is no data on monthly breakdown for 2003 and 2004, except that the total arrests made are 103 and 89 respectively. Arrests by each of the agencies during the same periods in the fisheries waters in the South China Sea are shown in Tables 6 through 9.
KD Lekir of the Royal Methodology was entered into the geographical revealed the following; Malaysian Navy-photo The above data was analysed using information system (GIS) software. In 2000 to 2004, there were 771 by Chris Sattler both a geographical information system Extra caution was taken to ensure foreign fishing vessels sighted in (GIS) and statistical approaches. The that the data entered was within the Malaysia’s fisheries waters in the South GIS is a system for capturing, storing, specified limits of Malaysia’s fisheries China Sea, which represents an average analyzing, managing and presenting waters in the South China Sea. Once of 192 vessels a year. However, there data and associated attributes which data was entered, the entries were was no data available on the similar are spatially referenced to Earth. A tested for accuracy and stability. The incidents from 2005 onward. GIS software, Arc View 3.x was chosen process was repeated three more times During the same period, intrusions to chart out the location of arrests of to avoid unnecessary error in data by foreign fishing vessels were foreign fishing vessels for illegal fishing entry into the system. occurring continuously and the in Malaysia’s fisheries waters in the peak period was April (365 cases). South China Sea off the east coast RESULTS AND ANALYSIS OF Intrusions occurred least often during of Peninsular Malaysia for the three RESULTS the northeast monsoon season during consecutive years, namely 2005 to The GIS analysis revealed the December (141 intrusions), January 2007. Two important deductions from following: (121 intrusions) and February (112 the GIS presentation were made. These Almost all arrests of foreign fishing are the locations of arrests in relation vessels for illegal fishing in the study Table 8. Arrests of Foreign Fishing Vessels to the various limits of maritime zones area were made well inside the outer for Illegal Fishing in Malaysia’s Fisheries and the extent of intrusion by these limits of Malaysia’s EEZ boundaries. Waters in the South China Sea off the East foreign fishing vessels. The furthest distance for an arrest was Coast of Peninsular Malaysia (2006) On the other hand, statistical made at a location about 70 nautical Month/Details RMN Marine DOF MMEA Total Number approach was used to analyze and miles from the outer limit of Malaysia’s of Arrest Police of Arrests interpret data as presented in the above EEZ boundaries. No arrests were January – – – – – tables. The expected information to made in the vicinity of the outermost February – – – – – be gained from the use of GIS and EEZ boundary limits, which are 200 March – 2 1 – 3 statistical methods include which nautical miles from the base line where April – – 2 2 4 agencies are most effective in carrying Malaysia’s territorial seas are measured. May – – 2 – 2 June – – – – – out law enforcement at sea, periods There were three arrests made just July –––– – in which enforcement efforts are very outside Malaysia’s territorial seas in August – 1 – – 1 minimal, and the specific vessels that 2006 and 2007 respectively. September – 1 1 2 4 have been most active in enforcing laws In terms of the locality of arrests for October – – – – – at sea. the three consecutive years, the general November – – – 5 5 December – – – – – Every detail of each arrest of a areas where most arrests were made Total – 4 6 9 19 foreign fishing vessel for illegal fishing was about 40–80 nautical miles from in Malaysia’s fisheries waters in the the coasts. Source: Annual Report of NMECC, the Prime Minister’s Department (2006) South China Sea for 2005 to 2007 Analyses using statistical methods Journal of the Australian Naval Institute 20 Application of Geographic Information System & Statistical Methods for Effective Marine Fisheries Law Enforcement in the South China Sea incidents) the best of these capabilities will be able Table 9. Arrests of Foreign Fishing For the period of 2000 to 2004, there to remain longer at sea and conduct Vessels for Illegal Fishing in Malaysia’s were at least 64 arrests made in the patrols far away from its bases to the Fisheries Waters in the South China South China Sea. It should be noted maximum distance of the outer limits Sea off the East Coast of Peninsular that there was no data available for of the EEZ boundaries. Malaysia (2007) arrests made in 2000, 2003 and 2004. The results of the GIS analyses However during the period from 2005 revealed that most arrests were Month/ RMN Marine DOF MMEA Total Details of Police Number to 2007, there were 71 arrests of foreign made closer to the outer limits of the Arrest of Arrests fishing vessels for illegal fishing in the territorial seas instead of the outer limit January – – – – – South China Sea. of the fisheries waters, which are also February – – – – – During the period of 2005 to the EEZ boundaries. In other words, 2007, the highest volume of arrests the foreign fishing vessels were not March – – – 3 3 were made in March 2005 (5 arrests), prevented from entering deep into April – 3 – 9 12
November 2006 (5 arrests) and April Malaysia’s fisheries waters. Or, it is May – 2 – 1 3 2007 (12 arrests). However, there possible these fishing vessels were not June 2 – – 3 5 were no arrests made in the months of discovered earlier because there were January, February and December for no maritime enforcement agencies’ July – – – 6 6 each year. vessels present in the areas. August – – – 2 2
During the same period, two ships, There are several possibilities September 1 – 1 – 2 the KM Jujur (7 arrests) and KM contributing to this less than October – – 2 1 3 Sipadan (6 arrest) were found to be the satisfactory enforcement situation. November 2 – – 1 3 most active in terms of the number of First, the agencies are short of arrests made on foreign fishing vessels suitable assets because most of their December – – – – – for illegal fishing. Interestingly there present assets are already too old and Total 5 5 3 26 39 are 11 ships and boats which each their capabilities are diminishing. made only one arrest during the three– Second, besides old age, the patrol Source: Annual Report of NMECC, the Prime Minister’s Department (2007) year period. One of these ships is KM vessels may not have been operated Langkawi. Despite its capabilities, it to the full limits of their effectiveness big slices” of the agencies’ budgets. made only one arrest and that arrest and required efficiency. The patrol The most glaring results of the was in 2005 when it was still in the coverage gaps likely could have been statistical approach revealed that the RMN. minimised had the vessels of the number of arrests made by vessels of The number of arrests made by the enforcement agencies performed at the the maritime enforcement agencies MMEA appears to be increasing. In expected performance parameters after is very low. Yet, as reported by the 2006, the MMEA made nine arrests considering their limitations. Royal Malaysian Air Force’s maritime and in the following year the agency Third, possession of wide ranges surveillance flight, there are many made 26 arrests. of small vessels by the maritime intrusions occurring daily. This The most important components enforcement agencies does not help to phenomenon suggests several possible of maritime law enforcement are: 1) breach the enforcement gap in the deep explanations. MMEA patrol boat the combination of patrol platforms water zones, yet the small vessels “eat First, the maritime enforcement (courtesy MMEA) or ships to carry out sea patrol and enforce law; 2) the legal power to enforce the appropriate acts; and 3) the manpower to carry out maritime law enforcement. Additionally, maritime enforcement agencies must be able to maintain continuous ships’ presence in the required sea patrol areas to be able to provide a show of presence, to discover violations, and to provide deterrence. The agency that possesses Journal of the Australian Naval Institute Issue 131 21
agencies’ vessels may not be at sea as frequently as they are expected to be. For the layman, it is not easy to understand the fact that a patrol vessel of Malaysia’s maritime enforcement agency made only one arrest of a foreign fishing vessel for illegal fishing in three years. Second, these vessels may not be enforcing the law at the right place and at the right time. Despite the known patterns of illegal activities by foreign fishing vessels during monsoon season from December to February annually, and that fact that sea conditions are operations patterns of the maritime Royal Malaysian navy frigate Jebat at Lima 07 not likely to be very rough every day enforcement agencies needs to be - photographed by Chris Sattler throughout the season, there were reviewed. no arrests made during these three months for three consecutively years First Admiral DR H. J. Sutarji, RMN (Rtd) Dr. Nor Rasidah Hashim, FRGS from 2005 to 2007. Dr. Hashim is an alumna of Conclusion Duke University and holds a Malaysia’s maritime zones are one of doctorate in geography from the the main sources of Malaysia’s wealth. University of Cambridge. She has Both living and non–living maritime been a lecturer on the Faculty of resources have become the bedrock of Malaysia’s maritime industries. Environmental Studies, Universiti The future of Malaysia’s well being Putra Malaysia since 2006. Her relies heavily on the well–being of the current research interests include Dr H. J. Sutarji served the Royal maritime industries. The analysis above historical GIS, forest ecology and focused on the need to protect one of Malaysian Navy for 35 years (1970 – heritage conservation. the most important natural resources, 2005). He earned his Master of Arts namely the fisheries sector. The in Policy and Security Studies from analysis revealed several shortcomings. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia in (Endnotes) The maritime enforcement agencies, 1 Annual Reports of NMECC, the Prime Minister’s Department despite being provided with the 1995 and his PhD in Intefrated Coastal (2000 – 2004). There are no sighting reports of foreign fishing vessels fishing illegally in Malaysia’s fisheries waters after 2004. necessary resources, appear, based on Zones Management from Universiti 2 The fisheries waters of Malaysia as stipulated in the Fisheries the data, to have not been performing Act 1985 as maritime waters under the jurisdiction of Malaysia Putra Malaysia in 2003. He is Associate over which exclusive fishing rights or fisheries management rights as expected. Illegal fishing activities Professor of the Strategic Management are claimed by law and includes the internal waters of Malaysia, the by foreign fishing vessels will continue territorial sea of Malaysia and the maritime waters comprised in the of Coastal and Maritime Zones, Faculty exclusive economic zone of Malaysia. as long as their activities are found to 3 The Fisheries Act 1985, Section 2. be lucrative. Malaysia will continue to of Environmental Studies, Universiti 4 Coulter, D. Y., (1996), “South China Sea Fisheries: Count Down to Calamity”, Contemporary Southeast Asia, Vol 17, No 4, pp. lose RM 1.0 billion annually to illegal Putra Malaysia 371 – 388. fishing by foreign fishing vessels as long 5 Most of these boats, especially those boats that have been transferred from the RMN and the Marine Police are already more as the maritime enforcement agencies than 20 years old. The Sipadan–class boats (ex–RMN patrol craft) are not able to convey the message to are already more than 40 years old. 6 The Annual Fisheries Statistics 2005 (Volume 1), Department the foreign fishermen that their illegal of Fisheries, p. 48. activities are no longer worth the effort. 7 Mahfuzuddin Ahmed, Pongpat Boonchuwongse, Waraporn Dechboon and Squires, D. (2007). “Overfishing in the Gulf Conclusively the data supports that of Thailand: Policy Challenges and Bio–economic Analysis”. the present management system and Environment and Development Economics . Vol 12 pp. 145–172. Journal of the Australian Naval Institute 22 Virtual Memorial of HMAS Sydney Lest We Forget he Finding Sydney The website also housesHMAS TFoundation (FSF) and the Sydney II historical information Naval Association of Australia and an extensive set of archival (NAA) have launched a Virtual photographs courtesy of the Royal Memorial on the Internet to Australian Navy and the Australian commemorate the 645 men lost War Memorial. Video footage can with HMAS Sydney II on 19 also be viewed. It includes previous November 1941. commemorations; the search for This provides a unique the wreck; scenes of the ship and The Royal Australian Navy (RAN) bereavement pin recognising the valued contribution of all experience accessible globally for crew in Egypt (July 1940) after the Navy personnel who lost their lives while in Sydney in action as those wanting to learn more about successful engagement with the the service of the RAN, and the nation. Please seen from the deck the human loss of HMAS Sydney Italian cruiser Bartolomeo Colleoni; go to
Journal of the Australian Naval Institute Issue 131 23 Sailing into History: The 1908 Voyage of the US Navy’s Great White Fleet to Lest We Forget Australia, As Seen Through the Eyes of the Media
Remarks presented on September 29, Admiral. This included: Husband E. 2008, in Canberra, Australia, on behalf Kimmel, who became chief of the of the Australian Naval Institute. Pacific Fleet; Harold R. Stark, who became Chief of Naval Operations and By Kathleen M. Burns Kimmel’s supervisor; and Raymond The “Great White A. Spruance and William Halsey who Fleet” arriving in leaders were also waging a became two of the Navy’s most famous s we celebrate the centennial Port Phillip Bay, battle for symbolism: to garner and respected Fleet commanders in the Melbourne on August of this globe-girdling voyage, prestige, to actively shape public 29th. (Courtesy RAN) Pacific War against the Japanese that itA is interesting to observe the many opinion and to win support for their would occur more than 30 years later. parallels between the attitudes in 1908 policies. Roosevelt had no qualms The Chesapeake farewell of Dec. 16, and 2008, when viewed on the world about censorship and handpicked the 1907, had the air of a festive national stage. embedded media who would give the holiday. Reporters described the This was no ordinary trip, when coverage and he muzzled the seamen circus-like environment as “splendid 16 battleships and 14,000 men began and officers who offered any dissent. cacophony,” with 21-gun salutes, the first circumnavigation of the There were threats of presidential military bands and wild cheering. In globe by a fleet of this magnitude as impeachment by Congress for the costs addition to its human passengers, the they sailed out of Norfolk, Virginia, and for the manpower that would be fleet resembled Noah’s ark with 70 harbor on Dec.16,1907. Few on board shifted from US shores to overseas for a animals on board, including 25 goats, knew the ultimate destination of the lengthy period of time. 32 dogs, 12 parrots and a donkey, who cruise. When the trip ended, the fleet The trip also served as an incubator would serve as mascots for the different would have covered 46,000 miles over for future Navy talent during World ships. a 14-month period, and established War I and II, with several Ensigns One Baptist preacher proclaimed in the US Navy’s reputation as an eventually rising to the rank of A set of cards picturing the international sea power. Captains and the Ships of the Both US President Teddy Roosevelt Great White Fleet at the time of and Australian Prime Minister Alfred departure from Hampton Roads were created by the American Deakin had specific goals in mind for newspaper The Evening this voyage. They included aspects Post. They were printed with of domestic politics, economics, the statement: “How to get the international finance, diplomacy, complete set of the Battleship pragmatism and security. The backdrop Fleet: Cut the coupon from the was a world – then as now – that was classified page of The Star and present same with 10 cents faced with global unrest, threats of war, at the Star Office for complete ethnic racism, political posturing and set, including the battleship competition for military spending. Nebraska. When sent by mail One hundred years ago, both send 15 cents and coupon.” Journal of the Australian Naval Institute 24 Sailing into History: The 1908 Voyage of the US Navy’s Great White Fleet to Australia, As Seen Through the Eyes of the Media
told of the extensive nature of the trip. the Pacific in the interest of civilization For Roosevelt, standing on the and humanity.” But the New York Times deck of the presidential yacht, of Dec. 26, 1907, cited a contradictory the Mayflower, to observe the opinion from the Catholic Archbishop departure from the Hampton of St. Louis who noted that the cruise Roads harbor, this was a moment underway was “hypocritical...carrying to be savored. The magnificent the palm of peace in one hand while the fleet was almost entirely his other holds the key to wherein is stored creation, tangible evidence of his the 35 million pounds of ammunition devotion to the US Navy and his for the `fight or frolic.’” untiring years of service devoted Journalist John Scott Merriweather to its strengthening and wrote: “No one in these last hours is modernization. Prior to aware of the massive destructive power departure, Roosevelt of this fleet. The band plays, the ladies quietly spoke to Rear Admiral and gentlemen promenade and talk, Robley Evans, commander of the blue jackets make merry during the the Atlantic Fleet, away from the last hours in a home port and all this media’s attention. Both were aware of time the ships are ready to let loose the international tensions bubbling a storm of destruction such as never below the surface on the eve of this before has been wrought by man on the historic venture. Said Roosevelt, as face of the waters.” commander-in-chief, “Your cruise is Globally, the world was in a state of a peaceful one, but you realize your unrest. responsibility if it should turn out Naval expansions were underway otherwise.” by Great Britain (then the dominant his New York City sermon that In his public face, the fleet fleet) as well as naval expansions by the day heralded “the most momentous Postcards celebrating commander, dubbed by the media as Germany, France, Russia, Austria, Italy event in this country since the Civil the Great White Fleet “quotable Evans” and described as “a and Japan, which was emerging as the War.” favorite with the newsmen,” told his undisputed great power in the Pacific. Such hyperbole was focused on the eager media audience: “You will not be Kaiser Wilhelm II had coined the ships, lined up in a three-mile-long disappointed with the fleet, whether it term “Yellow Peril,” to define Japan’s parade formation, prior to departure. proves a feast, a frolic or a fight.” ambitions after the defeat of Russia The hulls, glistening in the sunshine, in 1904-05. The phrase had ominous were painted white for the occasion. (It Setting The Scene significance for West Coast Americans had not been dubbed the Great White Some media observers saw the cruise as well as for Australia, Europe and Fleet from the onset. “Only long after as a masquerade, with the ships sailing Asia. the cruise had ended would someone 12 inch Guns on USS in peacetime but being fully cognizant In May 1907, Roosevelt spoke hit upon the catchy name which Louisiana – issued as of the portents of war that could engulf out against anti-Japanese riots in caught the public’s fancy and stuck. In a postcard them in the course of the lengthy San Francisco and chastised “certain contrast with the usual secrecy that voyage. Divided journalists” and editors who passed surrounds movements of war ships, ths opinions prevailed. off rumors as fact. He added that “I fleet’s voyage was designed to attract As reported in the shall continue to do everything I can the maximum notice of the news New York Herald by politeness and consideration to media,” according to historian Kenneth of Dec. 25, 1907, the Japanese to offset the worse then Wimmel.) a Baptist minister criminal stupidity of the San Franciscon Initially, it was only announced that claimed that “God mob, the San Francisco press and such the Navy armada was to sail around has led us into the papers as the New York Herald.” South America and then stop in San Pacific...I could see it Said Roosevelt,” My own judgment Francisco. It was not until the cruise in America’s assertion is that the only thing that will prevent was well underway that the crew was of her right to control war is the Japanese feeling that we shall Journal of the Australian Naval Institute Issue 131 25
occurring in London, Paris and Berlin. Internationally: to create a diverting foreign adventure, such as the fleet’s trip, to take the public’s mind off the Depression, which had begun in 1907. Economically: to focus on the fleet would be a boon for the US shipbuilding industry and a salvo to Wall Street magnates who were in steel and other similar industries. Diplomatically: to arrange courtesy calls by the fleet to Japan and China would help temper some of the simmering racial conflicts in the United States related to those countries. Naval historical file photo of the Great White Security-wise: to impress other Fleet. In 1907, Theodore Roosevelt, 26th support in Congress for funding for the countries with the might and power of president of the United States, sent a portion Navy, so he could gain a dozen or so the US fleet and to stave off swirling of the Atlantic fleet on a world tour to test new battleships. war sentiments while generating good naval readiness, establish global presence and Below: From Financially: to calm the panic will among allies such as Australia and generate international goodwill. (US Navy Cremorne Heights that had ensued in 1907 when a New Zealand. photo) the USS Minnesota in stock market sell off had plunged Geographically: to emphasize Sydney Harbour. not be beaten, and this feeling we can Below: Crowd values by $2 billion, and triggered America’s interests in the Atlantic and only excite by keeping and making our watching the Fleet credit speculation, overexpansion Pacific and to reinforce the expectation navy efficient in the highest degree.” from Centennial Park and the unsound banking conditions. that the United States was to be in Sydney International banking panic was also considered a major player. Roosevelt As A Major Patriotically: Player On The World Stage to generate a Daring, individualistic, self-confident, groundswell of determined, bigger than life, domestic support and domineering, at times belligerent, to drown out critics Roosevelt was an adventurer and and muckraking sportsman, beholden to no one. When journalists. he assumed the presidency in 1901, Public the military in general and the Navy Relations: the in particular were to be among the strongest reason for centerpieces for his administration. Roosevelt was to For two years, Roosevelt secretly garner prestige and to planned the launch of his Great White significantly influence Fleet, sharing little with the Congress public opinion. “One or his Cabinet. It was not until the disliked admitting he spring of 1907 that he began to discuss wanted prestige for his strategy more openly with his its own sake, would military advisers. pay millions of dollars Roosevelt had very specific goals in for it and risked mind for this historic trip: thousands of lives Politically: to influence the 1908 US and 16 battleships to elections on behalf of his party and to gain it. For prestige generate increased moral and financial adhered best as a Journal of the Australian Naval Institute 26 Sailing into History: The 1908 Voyage of the US Navy’s Great White Fleet to Australia, As Seen Through the Eyes of the Media
Roosevelt was taking no with a court martial who criticized the chances. Censorship was trip “as a waste of time.” an absolute necessity Under Roosevelt’s scenario, the -- never mind the First voyage “was plotted as a romantic Amendment. success story. No flaw or failure, no Mindful of some matter how minor, must be allowed descriptions of the “highly to mar its inspiring effect upon exaggerated or even pure America and the world,” wrote Hart. fiction” of the jingoist Eager for international approval for coverage inspired by its commanding fleet, Americans Randolph Hearst and devoured the news coverage. “Never Joseph Pulitzer during before had so much energy and money been invested in a search for prestige,” echoed historian Kenneth Wimmel. Some writers not on board spoke frankly, such as American humorist Mark Twain, who wrote that it was “`all for show’ to make a great noise that would satisfy the president.” Harper’s Weekly called it “`an extravagant display of force’ which caused uneasiness among its readers.” A bit over the top, the US Navy League Journal called the cruise the “most remarkable [voyage] ever undertaken in the history of the world.” Historian Hart related the dire media predictions made during August and September 1907, when “almost all Eastern editors criticized Theodore Above top: USS byproduct, the unsought dividend of the Spanish American War of 1898, Roosevelt [for the cruise.] Some even John S. Mccain solid achievement,” noted historian Commanding Officer, Roosevelt hand picked the reporters demanded an impeachment trial for Robert Hart. Commander John who would travel on board the Great sponsoring a project which would leave In the battle for symbolism in 1907, Banigan and his White Fleet. A press center was created the Atlantic Coast unprotected. Cities a battleship was the ultimate weapon. ships were welcomed aboard the ship, Connecticut, “to cater would be bombarded and the White to Melbourne by Hart described it as “a paradox of to the needs of a pool of newsmen House burned. Storms, rocky coasts the traditional land power and beauty [that] demanded owners, the Boon invited to sail as passengers.” and hidden enemies would finish off attention--pride and affection of people Wurrung people. Roosevelt declared that “It is the fleet long before it reached the whose flag it flew and the envy and (Courtesy RAN) absolutely essential to have men whom Pacific.” AN.Y. Herald poll revealed fear of adversaries. Why hide it in a we can trust entirely on such a trip, that “one-seventh of the American stock pile? Why not place it on display Above bottom: and, of course, every article they send press was hostile to the cruise (largely HMAS Darwin, as one usually does with costly and must be submitted to an admiral... for political reasons).” USS John S. Mccain beautiful possessions? The meaning and HMAS Sirius We will take no one whom we do Adding to the media frenzy were of prestige was quite clear to anyone participate in the not entirely approve.” While he was the openly “yellow press” and books who watched a parade of ships.” It was 100th anniversary of willing to consult with the major press on the “yellow peril.” In May and June a proclamation to the world of such the Great White Fleet organizations about suggested names, of 1907, both the New York Times entry into Sydney intangible virtues of honor, dignity, he reserved the right to reject any name and Colliers Weekly published fiction Harbour 1908 - strength and respect. 2008. (Courtesy RAN) suggested. serials which described future fighting And the harbinger of that prestige Beyond the press, he also muzzled around Hawaii and the Philippines, was tightly controlled positive publicity. the Navy, with any officer threatened while Banzai, a German novel, gave Journal of the Australian Naval Institute Issue 131 27
Our Navy” appeared in the January 1908 issue of McClure’s Magazine and was sold out in hours. Roosevelt, who had coined the term “muckraker,” was furious when he found out Reuterdahl was on board and had him kicked off the ship when it arrived in Peru. Seven of the reporters, “either because of fatigue or disgust,” asked their papers to replace them before the end of the voyage. The Navy kicked out two others and “a jaded United Press colleague” also left. It wasn’t just the reporters who ran into problems on this voyage. Five of the 16 captains for the ships either died or were fired and “Roosevelt wanted
Midshipman Isabelle Collins, Second Class Petty Officer Boatswain’s Mate John Parkowski and Leading Seaman Naval Police Coxswain Jamie Bowman study a map to find out Albany’s hot spots, during the Great White Fleet visit. (Courtesy RAN)
these dismissals kept quiet. They were justified, he felt, but might not read well in the papers,” noted historian Hart.
Top: USS Shoup Seaman Combat Systems Operator Josh Little, Australian Prime Able Seaman Combat Systems Operator Daniel sails into the Port Minister Alfred Antwis and Seaman Combat Systems Operator of Albany to come Luke Martin from HMAS Darwin after berthing alongside with bound by “an unholy alliance,” invaded Deakin alongside the Port of Albany for Great White HMA Ships Darwin England. The book fueled Australia’s Half way around the world, Roosevelt Fleet celebrations. (Courtesy RAN) and Sirius for the growing sense of vulnerability and found an enthusiastic and vocal Great White Fleet isolation in the Pacific. supporter of the American fleet. 100th Anniversary. a fictional account of how “Japanese (Courtesy RAN) The journalists who accompanied “A lawyer by training, a journalist ships, equipped with secret weapons, the Great White fleet in order to by profession and a philosopher by would wipe out the US Navy in half an tell Roosevelt’s story all insisted that inclination,” Deakin was the chief hour of battle and then land an army in “they were reporters, not publicity architect of the Australian defense and California.” men.” Henry Reuterdahl, described foreign policy framework from 1903 Another book, The World’s as “a muckraker in disguise,” came on to 1910. Awakening, published in early 1908, board as an artist because his paintings He shared Roosevelt’s security described a hypothetical world war of mighty ships were well known concerns, noting that Australia’s in 1920, triggered by a visit by the throughout the country. He was also location was within striking distance of Japanese fleet to Sydney. The fictional the American editor for the British “no less than 16 naval stations.” sailors caused a riot in the city, and publication, Jane’s Fighting Ships. Four The countries headed by Roosevelt then their fleet shelled the Sydney days after he sailed with the fleet, his and Deakin also shared racial biases in crowds. Next, Japan and Germany, investigative article on “The Needs of the quest to spotlight the white race. Journal of the Australian Naval Institute 28 Sailing into History: The 1908 Voyage of the US Navy’s Great White Fleet to Australia, As Seen Through the Eyes of the Media
“Yellow Peril” fears were rampant on both sides of the Pacific. Australia and America also shared a bias against the black races, and this was reflected in the response to the US cruise’s crew selection, with stories appearing in the Dec. 12 and 14, 1908, N.Y. Herald: “Negro volunteers, who had joined the Navy in good faith, were chosen to fill the gap as bus boys and stewards to replace the Japanese [sailors], some of whom had those jobs for 20 to 30 years and were let go prior to the voyage of the Great White Fleet, Ships in company: rather than sail into these foreign ports HMA ships Darwin New York Times, an unidentified riots at the previous stop in New with Japanese recruits.” and Sirius along with reporter wrote: “So intense was the Zealand between US sailors who USS JOHN S Mccain in interest in the American ships of war wanted to stay versus the US Navy transit to Melbourne America’s Invasion Of that half the populace had remained shore patrol who wanted them to to celebrate the Australia’s Favored Shores: 100th Anniversary awake the entire night and thousands leave--with local mobs taking sides. It August And September 1908 of the Great White upon thousands of them long before received much newspaper coverage, Australia was the 13th stop of the Fleet. (Courtesy RAN) the night was over were on their way including in the Aug. 15, 1908, New lengthy itinerary of the Great White to the hill tops outside the city limits, York Sun and the Jan. 16, 1909, London Fleet, which came to Sydney Harbor where they massed seemingly in Times.) Aug. 20-28; Melbourne Aug. 29-Sept. unbroken lines along the coast from Franklin Matthews, a correspondent 5; and Albany (Western Australia) Sept. Bondi Beach to Manly...Hundreds of for the New York Sun, regaled his 11-17, 1908. craft of all kinds moved up and down readers back home with tales of the It was an impressive convoy even at that early hour (5:30 a.m.), all Sydney welcome. He estimated the with the 16 ships carrying 360 guns. the waters...being dotted with little crowds to be three times as large as “Firing a single salvo from all the guns and big vessels decorated in every those they had encountered in San would have cost $50,000, which many conceivable manner with flags and Francisco: “no such enthusiasm has reporters noted, happened to be the buntings.” The sight of the fleet “stirred been witnessed by Americans in any size of the president’s salary for one Australians like a call to arms,” the parade since the day George Dewey year. Cost for constructing the fleet was reporter noted. [American naval hero for battles in estimated at $100 million (almost 100 Throughout its many pages, the the Philippines during the Spanish- years ago!) Weighing in at 250 million Sydney Morning Herald of Aug. 21, American War] came sailing back to tons, the fleet was described as five 1908, covered the event with similar New York and his sailors and marines times more powerful than any fleet enthusiasm. “Never has Sydney went swinging down Fifth Avenue.” America had yet assembled. Harbour presented such a picture by Matthews coined the term, On shore, Australia’s population had night. Each visiting battleship, together “Fleetitis,” to describe the outpouring of turned out for the historic moment. with the auxiliary ships attached to the emotion toward the fleet. “It is almost The government proclaimed two fleet, were outlined in electric lights, impossible to put in cold print anything public holidays and many businesses and as they occupied a wide range of that will tell fittingly the stories of also closed down. Sydney trams carried space, the scene was as extensive as it enthusiasm and the sentiment that almost one million passengers on was brilliant.” inspire a demonstration which simply Aug. 20 alone. The city was decked And everyone was on their best overwhelmed not only those who out in elaborate decorations, flags, behavior. “There was an absence of received it but those who gave it... bunting, banners and lights. According rowdyism. No ear-splitting yells made Fleetitis is raging all over the Antipodes to Australian Sen. E. Findley, it was a the night hideous, and there was no now.” triumph for “gush, gore and guzzle! interference with women.” (This was There was almost a “coverage On the front page of Aug. 20, 1908, a welcome relief since there had been competition,” according to author Journal of the Australian Naval Institute Issue 131 29
Robert Hart, who added that “Sydney’s they went off to live newspapers claimed that the welcome with the girls who had was bigger, better and noisier than kissed them. Others anything, California efforts included, turned the week into a thus far experienced by the Americans.” drunken spree which Hart notes that “American shore patrols could newspapers reported tremendous not control. A half a gains in prestige...Editorialists assured million Australians Australians that they would some day watched the disastrous be part of a new American empire” parade of Aug. 31... with the New York Sun going so far Trumpet notes as to suggest that America admit wavered and broke and trombones meandered over history’s Australia “as a state within our federal worst playing of `Columbia the Gem of the Ocean’...Bleary- GREAT WHITE FLEET ROUTE union.” eyed seamen lurched, reeled and collided...An infuriated AROUND THE WORLD But the media was not unanimous Roosevelt took a personal interest in the courts-martial The Fleet departed Hampton Roads in its support of the Australian love which followed, stiffening punishments already imposed December 16, 1907, and returned there feast. TheUS Navy League Journal, by the Navy.” Indeed 300 sailors went AWOL in Australia on February 22, 1909 quoted in the New York Times of Aug. and 221 successfully eluded return to the US ships. “Several 21, 1908, stated: “We watch the success dozen” also stayed behind in Auckland. Punta Arenas of President Roosevelt’s mammoth For Roosevelt, he never doubted that the Fleet’s visit - February 1-7, 1908 (at the tip of South Hurray Party with benevolence and to Australia and the other stops would be anything but America) amusement” even though “it consorts an unqualified success. The journey had lasted 434 days, Honolulu ill with the present engagements of the without a serious breakdown, and returned to home port - July 16 to 23, 1908 Empire.” The LondonDaily Graphic on Feb. 22, 1909. He succinctly stated: “My purpose was to Auckland, New Zealand (quoted in the New York Times of Aug. impress the American people. This purpose was achieved.” - August 8-15, 1908 21, 1908) saw the trip as contributing to Another goal was generating favorable media coverage from Sydney, Australia international tensions and the London his handpicked writers and that also occurred. - August 20-27, 1908 Times (Sept. 1, 1908) expressed fears Less optimistic in his overall assessment of the Great Melbourne, Australia that a “spectacular display has valuable White Fleet’s voyage, author Hart noted that “while the fleet - August 29 - September 3, 1908 uses in impressing the masses, who was a study in sound and fury in its progress from nation to Albany, Australia will remember the sight for years and nation, it was a failure as an instrument of diplomacy. Where - September 11 - 17, 1908 draw important political deductions practical international issues were concerned, it lost more Yokohama, Japan therefrom.” than it gained.” Roosevelt certainly would have disagreed. - October 19-23, 1908 What Matthews didn’t write about Colombo, Ceylon were the things that went wrong, A writer and academic - December 14-20, 1908 including the seven people injured who based in Washington, DC, Port Said had been trampled in the streets or had Ms. Kathleen Burns spent - January 5-7, 1909 fallen off buildings while watching the five years in Canberra as a Gibraltar parades or fell when the grandstands - February 6, 1909 reporter accredited to the collapsed. Two US sailors were killed by a rampaging trolley “whose motormen Parliamentary Press Gallery. seemed infected by the general Returning to the USA, she madness” and the victims couldn’t was the inaugural program be buried because Melbourne had director for the Center for Australian and New Zealand declared there were to be no funerals Studies at Georgetown University and served the first four “to mar the happiness of the visit.” In his public dispatches back home, directors. Matthews failed to disclose that “many of the lads fell under the influence of Melbourne’s uninhibited ways. Often Journal of the Australian Naval Institute 30 The Influence of History Upon Sea Power A PsSISTANT rOFESSOR Chuck Steele
lfred Thayer Mahan’sThe document, “The Amphibious the vicinity of a rapacious foe was to Influence of Sea Warfare Strategy,” this court certain disaster. As demonstrated PowerA Upon History particular form so dramatically in the battles of the was one of the of amphibious Great War, the technological advances most important operation was of the twentieth century bolstered pieces of not antiquated. the prospects for success of those navalist Rather, it was fighting defensively. As amphibious propaganda timely and assaults were essentially frontal attacks ever deserving of hindered by the added difficulties of produced. a prominent ship to shore transit, there was little Political place in wonder that consideration for their leaders, American future conduct drew criticism. industrialists, defense In the interwar years, amphibious naval planning. assault operations seemed doomed to professionals In initiating all but the most steadfast or desperate and enthusiasts of his case, Kelley of adherents. Falling into the latter the late nineteenth recollected the category were a few members of the and early twentieth remarks of General US Marine Corps who, after seeing centuries saw Mahan’s seminal Omar N. Bradley, who as their service act as an adjunct to the work as a testament to the adamantine Chairman of the Joints Chiefs of Staff Army during the Great War, sought to link between world power and the in 1949 testified before Congress that carve out a niche for their service by possession of a respectable fleet. large-scale amphibious operations establishing it as the appropriate means Despite being published in 1890, would “never occur again.”2 Thirty- to further trans-oceanic campaigns The Influence of Sea Power Upon six years after the invasion at Inchon through the seizure of advanced naval History has retained its place as one proved General Bradley’s judgement to bases. Building upon the prescience of the great works of strategic thought be in error, General Kelley invoked the of men such as Major Earl H. Ellis, the and Mahan remains America’s best episode to reiterate the timelessness of Marines began to develop the doctrine Photo: V Beach at Cape Helles, Gallipoli, known strategist. Most importantly, such operations. Yet, whereas General that would prove instrumental in 6 May 1915. View is the fundamental connections that he Bradley had given too much heed delivering victory to the Allies in the from the bow of the addressed over a century ago remain to developments occurring in but a Second World War. Indeed, former collier SS River Clyde. important to the considerations of few years, General Kelley set about Commandant of Marines, Alexander Credit: British Official naval planners in the modern era. justifying the continued prominence of Vandergrift, contended that, beyond photographer Specifically, finding historic examples the amphibious assault to justify the enormous expenses by failing to note the associated with the accumulation of advances attendant the means by which a nation might upon the passage of demonstrate its ability to wield sea decades. power remains a pressing concern to Before the Second statesmen and naval professionals. World War, the In the 1986 publication The future of amphibious Maritime Strategy General P.X. Kelley, operations was in then Commandant of the United doubt. The utter States Marine Corps, sought to inform failure of British led his readership of the continuing forces at Gallipoli importance of “amphibious forcible made it seemingly entry operations.”1 According to the apparent that to Commandant’s contribution to the attempt landings in Journal of the Australian Naval Institute Issue 131 31
their impressive record on the a position of full partnership with the battlefields of the Pacific, the Marines other armed services of the United Corps’ greatest contribution to victory States in the aftermath of World War in World War II was its pioneering II, it was little wonder that the Marines efforts in shaping amphibious sought a major stake in the planning for doctrine.3 a U.S. Soviet showdown. The Second World War was the The Maritime Strategy of 1986 heyday of the amphibious assault. contained clear expression of the Not only had doctrine come into Marine Corps’ desire to play a major existence and been given a wide range role in any combat with the Soviets of applications, but so too had new and to replay the role that had made technologies to support that doctrine. them most famous. The “Amphibious In order to fight this special brand of Warfare” portion of the strategy warfare, requirements emerged for advanced a three-phase program by special vehicles to convey troops to which the Marines would deal with assault staging areas and then on to the anticipated threat. In the first shore. In many instances there were phase the Marines would respond physical obstacles to overcome, such to Soviet aggression by transporting as coral reefs, and hence the need to amphibious forces to the periphery of create machines that could surmount the crisis area, which was, according these obstructions. The development The Maritime Strategy, regarded to lie Caption: Marines of means of conveyance such as in Europe. Force) amphibious assaults could show their landing ships, assault landing craft, and The deployment of amphibious be conducted for the follow-on appreciation to the amphibian tracked vehicles provided task forces from the United States, introductions of U.S. and allied forces.5 Coast Guard during the invasion of Guam the physical means by which doctrine movements of MPSs (Maritime In the third and final phase, that during World War II could be implemented. The successful Prepositioned Shipping squadrons), to which was intended to carry the Source: US Coast marriage of doctrine to technology crisis areas, and the commitment of a fight to the enemy, the proponents of Guard gave the Americans and their allies MAB (Marine Amphibious Brigade) to amphibious forcible entry would have the tools they needed to achieve the defense of Norway will materially sought a prominent place in winning victory more than a half-century ago. assist other Western efforts to dissuade the war. Their ambitions, coupled with The ingenuity of Marine planners the Soviets from launching a general their firm grounding in the history of and contractors, coupled with the war. If the Soviets attack despite these amphibious operations in World War determination of the Marines at the efforts, however, we will be deployed to II, prompted them to envision a grand war’s sharp end, produced a record that engage the aggressor far forward and to scale revisiting of the battle for the became legendary. Unfortunately for blunt his assault.4 Pacific: future generations the glory achieved in If war had erupted the framers of Exhausted and contained by a the Second World War overshadowed the “Amphibious Warfare Strategy” stout NATO defense in the central considerations for technological envisioned the Marines to be used region, stripped of his naval forces advances that took place in the decades more actively in the succeeding two through a bold and decisive allied following its conclusion. phases. Phase II represented the time maritime campaign, and barred by For 45 years following the Second when NATO forces were to have seized NATO pressure on his flanks, the World War, the primary concern for the initiative. It was in this phase that Soviet invader will now be pounded American defense planners was the the proponents of the amphibious by a succession of NATO sea, air, and prospect of military confrontation with assault would have sought their first land counteroffensives. . . . Amphibious the Soviet Union. Until the Cold War large-scale employment. forces will once again play a prominent came to its unexpected end, the United Amphibious forces could play many part in the final phase. Massed States developed its force structures parts in this phase. One likely mission amphibious task forces, together with and capabilities, including those of the could be the seizure of advanced naval supporting battleship surface action Marine Corps to counter the threat bases. Amphibious raids of MAB size groups, will now undertake landings of Soviet expansion. Having risen to or full-scale MAF (Marine Amphibious to retake conquered territory and to Journal of the Australian Naval Institute 32 The Influence of History Upon Sea Power seize key objectives in the Soviet rear. Operating as a component of the naval campaign, MAGTF’s (Marine Air Ground Task Forces) could land on the North Cape, the Eastern Baltic or the Black Sea coasts in the Kuriles, or on Sakhalin Island thereby adding crucial leverage to the successful conduct of the maritime campaign.6 This bold vision of how World War III might have been fought was one that did not withstand close scrutiny. Beyond Soviet plans to initiate a campaign of conquest with a first resort to nuclear weapons, something not considered in The Maritime Strategy, a major problem was that developments in the field Komar missile of amphibious forcible entry had not radar, bridge, or airplane (according weapons such as the Shipwreck missile 8 boat of the 1960s kept pace with the ambitions of those to its type) is greater than half.” The that was capable of carrying nuclear (Courtesy Tom Lewis) who would have employed them.7 threat posed by PGMs did not diminish or conventional warheads 300 nautical As demonstrated in the reference to in the later years of the Cold War-- miles.11 amphibious task forces, coupled with rather, it grew stronger. According to This increasingly dangerous battleship action groups, the framers one defense commentator writing the environment provoked a drive within of the “Amphibious Warfare Strategy” year before The Maritime Strategy was the U.S. amphibious community to were making an appeal to an outdated published, the Marines were facing an seek ways to mitigate the effectiveness approach to battle. Just as the battleship increasingly “hostile” environment in of Soviet weaponry. The need to exemplified a bygone era in naval which there was “wide spread diffusion operate from over the horizon (OTH) warfare, so too did the large-scale of advanced weapons which have a became a necessity as modern shipping amphibious assault. high single-shot probability-of-kill assets were seen as both more precious The proliferation of advanced (SSPK).”9 than during the Second World War and weapons systems by the Soviets, their By the mid 1980s the Soviets had more vulnerable. As a result of having clients, and other nations created an developed and deployed a wide range to husband irreplaceable resources, it environment in which the viability of of coastal and ship borne anti-ship became imperative to keep ships out of large-scale amphibious assaults was missile systems that could strike an range of the enemy. placed in great doubt. Ten years prior invasion force well before it was within In the 1982 Falkland’s War, the to the formulation of The Maritime sight of shore. The Styx family of British were introduced to the dangers Strategy the Brookings Institute conventional missiles had been proven posed by PGMs when they were crafted a report declaring the advent at ranges not exceeding 40 nautical attacked by Argentine aircraft firing of precision-guided munitions (PGMs) miles in battle by the Egyptian Navy in French Exocet missiles. Although a grave threat to the conduct of 1967 and again by India in 1971. Styx the British emerged victorious, their amphibious operations. The report missiles included variants that could troubles indicated the vulnerability of made note of the obvious vulnerability be launched from ship or shore to amphibious forces to a new generation of landing craft and helicopters threaten the most prominent vessels in of weapons. With a combination of as they made their way to landing any invasion force.10 Furthermore, with Exocets and conventional bombs, zones. Furthermore, the naval assets the ability to deliver conventional and/ the Argentines sank five British ships necessary to support the assault were or nuclear warheads, Soviet missiles and damaged an additional twelve. exceptionally good targets for weapons threatened not only individual ships, Indeed, the British had been limited “whose probability of making a direct but also entire invasion fleets. For in their amphibious operations by hit at full range upon a tank, ship, longer ranges the Soviets could rely on the capabilities of their opponents. Journal of the Australian Naval Institute Issue 131 33
Fortunately for the British, they had amphibious warfare doctrine and Reagan era appropriators, the Navy and dodged the bullet of conducting an technology in the 1980s were too Marine Corps would have been hard amphibious assault and were able to closely akin to their Second World War pressed to have enacted the program come ashore without meeting prepared predecessors. A Marine officer writing envisioned in The Maritime Strategy. defenses. According to one Soviet in 1985 reflected on how then current As a result of neglecting such vital Admiral, the British were successful in doctrine supposedly represented the components of assault capabilities as their landings because speed and the developments of 50 years, yet differed mine sweeping, a shortcoming that effective use of darkness disallowed the little from the original doctrine of the would be impressed upon the Navy Argentines the chance to mass their 1930s.13 One former Marine noted during the 1991 Gulf War when both forces or bring in air support.12 the incongruities between capabilities the USS Tripoli and USS Princeton The British fought smart in the and doctrine in 1989 writing that to struck mines on the morning of 18 Falklands, but how well would the attempt landings reminiscent of those February, the Navy and Marines were operation have fared if they had conducted in World War II against a not materially prepared to conduct attempted a World War II style assault? “first-rate enemy,” would meet with assault landings in a modern setting. What would have been their prospects “almost certain defeat.”14 However, the Assuming that U.S. amphibious forces for succeeding if they had faced a foe Marines continued to conceptualize a had been pressed into service against as sophisticated as the Soviet Union? return to the mode of warfare that won the Soviets and managed to find a In consideration of these daunting them everlasting renown. While the clear path to the shore, their means of prospects, there was little reason to Navy scrambled to win approval for transit from ship-to-shore would have think that if American forces had been the construction of the greatest fleet in exposed a wide gap between objectives compelled to act in accordance with peace-time history, the Marines sought and capabilities. the vision of The Maritime Strategy their share of appropriations to make As a result of the proliferation of they would have been as fortunate as possible a grand scale revisiting of the PGMs and the increased hazards of their British allies had been in 1982. brand of fighting they made famous. the modern battlefield, American ColourThe problemAd 25/5/06 for the U.S.10:14 was AMthat Page 1Regardless of the intentions of planners set about developing a better
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Journal of the Australian Naval Institute 34 The Influence of History Upon Sea Power
means to reach the beach. Specifically, the United States created the Landing Craft Air Cushion (LCAC) that was capable of carrying from 60 to 75 tons at speeds up to 50 knots while providing access to a purported seventy percent of the world’s shoreline.15 Not only did the LCAC become the first U.S. landing craft to appear physically different from the original bow ramp boats of Andrew Higgins, but it was also the first craft to perform in a greatly Republic of Korea improved manner. incumbent upon the Navy to provide been subject to even greater risks. (ROK) Marines Republic of Korea (ROK) Marines a veritable armada of transports solely While the LVT is truly amphibious, assigned to the 7th assigned to the 7th Marine Regiment, for the purpose of moving assault craft being capable of fighting its way ashore Marine Regiment, 2nd Battalion, 1st Marine Division, to the objective area.18 Secondly, the and providing mobility and protection 2nd Battalion, 1st disembark from a US Navy landing LCAC lacks defensive armament and, for assaulting troops, its use entailed Marine Division, disembark from a US craft air cushion (US Navy photo) when stopped, presents an inviting numerous drawbacks. Moving at Navy landing craft While the LCAC represented a target. By coupling limited numbers speeds under 10 knots, the LVT could air cushion (US Navy significant qualitative improvement of LCACs with the high risk of having not be used in an OTH assault. Its slow photo) over the older and more numerous those craft destroyed, either en route speed coupled with the limitations of forms of landing craft, as late as 1989 to the beachhead or upon unloading, human endurance required that transit there were only fifteen that were the ability to sustain a major frontal should not greatly exceed a half-hour operational.16 Furthermore, during assault, for example in the retaking of and that launch distances remained the 1991 Gulf War the Navy found conquered territory as envisioned in about 4,000 yards from shore.20 Thus, that even the LCAC was saddled with The Maritime Strategy, would have in conducting an assault using LVTs its own set of operating limitations been tenuous at best. Thus, without the amphibious task force would have when two landing exercises had to be the LCAC, the implementers of The been denied the safety of operating canceled due to difficulties associated Maritime Strategy would have been from over the horizon and in such with inclement weather.17 forced to rely on a variety of landing circumstances would have run the Even if there had been sufficient craft that generally traveled no faster greatest risk of meeting harm from numbers of LCACs to expend in the than 8 knots and could reach no more enemy PGMs and mines. conduct of an amphibious assault there than seventeen percent of the world’s The LVT and other landing craft remained two other problems that shoreline.19 that filled America’s amphibious would have proven insurmountable. When consideration is given to the arsenal during the Cold War differed First, the LCAC is a fairly large vehicle other means available for conducting little in appearance or performance that throughout the 1980s had little an amphibious assault, the prospects from their World War II forbearers. means of transport in the fleet. If it had for success were not greatly enhanced. Even though LVTs carried their been employed as the primary means If tracked amphibious vehicles, such as Marines completely enclosed, they of conveyance for an OTH assault of the LVTP-7, were the planned means were thin-skinned and made slow, major proportions it would have been of conveyance the assault would have methodical approaches to shore. Journal of the Australian Naval Institute Issue 131 35
The similarities between Donald remains relevant. Just as certain Chuck Steele is an Roebling’s first LVTs and the tracked technological breakthroughs made it assistant professor of landing vehicles of the Cold War impractical or moreover too dangerous history at the United were substantial indicators of how for men to press home an attack while States Air Force Academy little progress had been made in the mounted upon horses, so too had it and a member of the preparation for amphibious assault become unacceptably hazardous to missions from the time of the Second launch massive frontal assaults from Australian Naval Institute. World War to that of The Maritime the sea. He is a graduate of the Strategy. University of California, The “Amphibious Warfare Strategy” Epilogue Berkeley (BA, history 1987), King’s College, the University concluded in a manner that was While the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps of London ( MA, War Studies 1990), and West Virginia hauntingly reminiscent of a state never had the opportunity to put the of mind that existed on the eve of resources sought in The Maritime University (PhD, history 2000). the First World War. The authors of Strategy to direct use against the the “Amphibious Warfare Strategy” Soviets, in 1991 the services played a concluded their portion of The significant role in achieving victory in Maritime Strategy by making the the Gulf War. However, the Marines’ (Endnotes) following assertion: contributions to victory in 1991 took 1 General P.X. Kelley and Major Hugh K. O’Donnell Jr., USMC, Though some military the forms of a well executed land in The Maritime Strategy, (Annapolis 1986), 20. commentators regard World War II to based assault, participation in an 2 Ibid. 3 J. Robert Moskin, The U.S. Marine Corps Story, (San Francisco be the high point in the development air campaign, and merely providing 1982), 224. See also Jeter A. Isley and Philip A. Crowl, The U.S. and conduct of amphibious warfare, the threat of an amphibious assault. Marines and Amphibious Warfare, (Princeton 1951), 4. 4 Kelley and O’Donnell, 26. we take a different view. We believe General H. Norman Schwarzkopf’s use 5 Ibid. that there is ample evidence to suggest of amphibious forces as a decoy, while 6 Ibid. 7 James O. Jackson, “The Secret Plan for World War III,”Time that we have entered a renaissance effective in keeping Iraqi attention (international edition). 4 July 1994, 22. period in the evolution of amphibious split between multiple fronts, fell far 8 Martin Binkin and Jeffrey Record, Where Does the Marine Corps go from Here? (Washington 1976), 31. operations. . . . Indeed the incremental short of the vision of amphibious 9 Peter A. Wilson, The Marine Corps in 1955,” U.S. Naval advances we have experienced in the operations offered by the Marines in Institute Proceedings, November 1985, 54. 10 Norman Polmar, The Naval Institute Guide to the Soviet Navy art of amphibious warfare will soon the “Amphibious Warfare Strategy.” ed 5, (Annapolis 1991). 391. be giving way to an exciting era – in Indeed, the damage to the Tripoli 11 Polmar, 388. 12 Admiral I. Kapitantes, cited in Major Ralph N. Bruner USA, which the rapid pace of strategic, and Princeton, the threat of PGM “Soviet Military Science and the Falklands Conflict Part I,” U.S. Naval operational, and tactical improvements strikes close to shore, coupled with Institute Proceedings, November 1985, 93. 13 Captain Richard S. Moore USMC, “Is the Doctrine Viable?” will transform the current renaissance the inability to successfully conduct U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, November 1985, 34. into nothing less than an amphibious rehearsals involving LCACs suggested 14 Allan C. Bevilacqua, Major USMC (Ret.), “Reinventing 21 Amphibious Operations,” Marine Corps Gazette, December 1989, revolution. that the desire to reconstitute an ability 16-17. The Marines defense of amphibious to engage in the types of operations 15 Lieutenant R.L. Wood and Lieutenant A.E. Haggerty, USN, “The New Faces,” U.S. Naval InstituteProceedings , November 1985, assault was remarkably similar to the that had propelled the Marine Corps to 37. defenses offered by cavalry officers its greatest renown was out of step with 16 Captain Richard Sharpe, OBE R.N. Edl, Jane’s Fighting Ships 1989-1990, (Alexandria 1989), 749. at the turn of the last century. After the passage of time.23 17 Marvin Pokrant, Desert Shield at Sea, (Westport 1999), 150, the military critic Ivan Bloch had 200. described how advances in small arms 18 For details on the lack of accommodation for LCACs within the Navy, see Wood and Haggerty, 37 and Colonel Joseph H. technology and the use of trenches Alexander, USMC, “Amphibious Warfare: What Sort of Future?” would hasten the cavalry’s departure In Lieutenant Colonel Merrill L. Bartlett, USMC (Retired), Assault from the Sea: Essays on the History of the Amphibious Warfare, from the battlefield, one British colonel (Annapolis 1983), 422. responded by stating that “ . . . the 19 Wood and Haggerty, 37. 20 Alexander, 420. sunset of the cavalry has not come yet, 21 Kelley and O’Donnell, 29. but that it is its full noonday.”22 While 22 Colonel F.J. Graves comments appear between pages 1424- 1426 of The Journal of the Royal United Service Institute, (London the Cold War never turned hot enough 1901). to put the “Amphibious Warfare 23 For a more comprehensive examination of the difficulties attendant on staging amphibious operations in the run-up to the Strategy” to the test, this comparison Gulf War see Pokrant, 150, 151, 155, 156, 197, and 200. Journal of the Australian Naval Institute
Issue 131 37
by Commander Stewart Dunne
“The tempo of operations is not guide pinpointing future requirements at short notice, needing a flexibility to expected to decrease significantly for the maritime environment. It deploy quickly, multi task in theatre in the future. Flexible, versatile and identifies drivers in the Future Security and switch rapidly between these rapidly deployable forces will be Environment (FSE) as being political/ tasks.6 Till’s use of the UK Ministry of required” diplomatic, economic, environmental, Defence definition of expeditionary - Plan Blue 2006 societal, technological and military.3 operations better symbolises this: These drivers are subsumed into the “Military operations, which can be “We first survey the plot, then draw Maritime Mission Space, reflecting the initiated at short notice, consisting of the model; then must we rate the cost complexity for the future warfighter forward deployed or rapidly deployable of erection; which if we find outweighs with the boundaries blurred between self sustaining forces tailored to achieve ability, what do we then but draw assistance and diplomatic operations, a clearly stated objective in a foreign again the model” law enforcement operations, combat country”.7 The RAN is a key stakeholder - Shakespeare — King Henry IV Act 2 operations and security operations. in future ADF maritime forces and All identify a level of uncertainty has a key responsibility to maintain a aritime Forces are sensitive and pressure in the future. The capability in meeting these complex to technological change and prospective maritime force must have needs. quickM to exploit the opportunities it the capability to continue with the Can the traditional specialist ship, offers. Although platforms represent a traditional requirement to protect whether acting individually or in progressively smaller part of the costs the nation’s borders and sea lines of concert with a larger force, meet these of acquisition, their useful lives have communications. This role has (and complexities or is the ship of the future been increasing progressively over the will again) be expanded to include multi-roled with the identified threat past fifty years.1 This has meant that assistance to civilian authorities in determining the mission payload? Plan ships acquired within one strategic environmentally driven security and Blue 2006, the Chief of Navy’s strategic context have been utilised under humanitarian events, involvement guidance for the evolution of the completely different circumstances, with forces domestically, regionally and Royal Australian Navy and transition often carrying different weapon and internationally and participation in law to the Future Navy, states that naval sensor packages than those with which enforcement operations. platforms must continue to be flexible they were first commissioned.2 While The primary role will remain that of and multi mission capable. Within there is a need for contemporary warfighting, with the challenging threat this context, autonomous vehicles capability to ensure preparedness, often posed by the developing increase in and the associated technology has a this is at odds with the requirement capacity, complexity, applicability and recognised increasing role to play such to acquire sufficient future capability. availability of technology.4 Till, in his that, “they will act as force multipliers Multi role vessels, utilising mission work Seapower: A Guide for the Twenty by varying and better matching ship based modular payloads, may go some First Century, highlights the need for, “a capability to assigned missions”.8 The way to providing a contemporary new mentality and way of thinking that littoral environment, arguably the capability while providing a reasonably goes beyond traditional warfighting purview of the future modular vessel, easy method to address system and its professional skills”.5 Flexibility will increasingly become the focus for obsolescence issues, therefore in approach will not only protect the future operations. With this, there is protecting future needs. Arguably, warfighter from his opponent’s use of a need to be able to manoeuvre and the minor warship fleet could best technology but may also hedge against force project into this challenging accommodate this new concept and their own capability shortfalls, be it due environment. The successful attack on with further development, applicability to economic or visionary deficiencies. the Israeli corvette by the Hezbollah to the major fleet could be realised over As Australia becomes more a partner militia using a radar guided missile time. in the international community, the from a shore installation shows how The Future Maritime Operating likelihood of involvement in UN, dangerous the littoral zone has become. Concept (FMOC 2025) is the regional or US led coalitions will For large forces there may be the Australian Defence Force capability increase. This will often involve joining need to maintain an over the horizon Journal of the Australian Naval Institute 38
presence but still project a military force in the littoral zone.9 Unmanned vehicles may fill this need. Rear Admiral Ulrich, in his previous role as USN Director of Surface Warfare, envisages the use of modularity and unmanned vehicles as revolutionary and transformational concepts for the future US Navy.10 He further expounds the mantra of ‘Get Connected, Get Modular, and Get Unmanned’, highlighting important determiners in reshaping the surface Navy. Plan Blue has the Future Navy adopting a strategy of layered and multi-dimensional defence to operate in the littoral environment. The US Navy in coming years will invest a huge amount of resources into three key areas of advanced computer networks, surveillance and reconnaissance much in the same vain as the LCS is Austal Independence ship under build modular design and unmanned systems and equipment specific to conceptually about sustaining access to vehicles.11 New classes of ships will Special Forces operations. the littoral zone for US operations. support this future influx of technology The ability to deploy various The Royal Danish Navy (RDN) and the associated evolving capability. mission modules onboard a fast, employs a modern force of Multi Role TheUSS Independence, the first of class shallow-draft ship is the cornerstone Vessels (MRVs) capable of performing of the Littoral Combat Ship (LCS), of the LCS concept.12 The LCS will patrol, limited anti-surface, anti-air was launched in 2007 to meet this be a fast, stealthy, shallow draught and mine countermeasures (MCM) need. The LCS embraces the modular core vessel with an open combat operations in regional and coastal concept and will embark and integrate systems computing architecture. A waters.15 From the late 1980s, the RDN differing mission configurations. The platform of similar design would took delivery of fourteen Flyvefisken USN approach, to modularise systems meet the challenges posed by our class MRVs. Purpose built as versatile for rapid re-role in theatre, is still vast, often uninhabited coastline. ships capable of deploying specific some years off, maturing when both Using a “system of systems” approach, mission packages, the concept (also the LCS platforms and their modular it will include networked sensors, known as Standard Flex) grew out mission systems are fully delivered into modular mission payloads, a variety of the necessity of replacing large service. Admiral Ulrich moves some of manned and unmanned vehicles numbers of smaller mission specific way from the traditional concept of the and an innovative hull design.13 ships during a fleet reduction naval warship, whereby the warship Modular mission capability sets it period, with the view to accessing of the future is purely seen as a hull to apart from every other class of US through life cost savings. An open carry capability into the battle zone. surface combatant. As a focused architecture C4ISR-system is the hub, In the case of the LCS, it will contain mission ship, the LCS will complement connecting all permanently fitted and a collection of the latest warfighting other multi mission members of the containerised systems.16 The mission tools packaged into a toolbox, or surface combatant Family of Ships as specific modules are interchangeable module, for employment in littoral an integral element of a carrier strike on a common platform to induce zones. This modular framework is group or expeditionary strike group.14 an element of individual flexibility designed to give greater flexibility In an Australian context, one or more in missions and capabilities. During and support to the envisaged primary of these modules could be embarked the process, the RDN reduced a fleet mission requirements of mine, surface in a multi role platform to support of 24 units (eight Fast Attack Craft, and antisubmarine warfare. There Advance Force operations before the eight patrol boats and eight mine is also scope to develop intelligence, arrival of the Amphibious Task Force, countermeasures vessels) with a force Journal of the Australian Naval Institute Issue 131 39
of fourteen MRVs adaptable for specific missions.17 Diverse modules were developed providing differing capabilities ranging from anti-air defence (AAW), anti-surface warfare (ASuW), anti- submarine warfare (ASW), electronic warfare (EW), mine countermeasures (MCM) as well as a myriad of other roles, including patrol and surveillance, oil pollution control and hydrographic/ oceanographic survey.18 The core premise of the concept hinges on the use of technology, and in this case the modules can be updated in order to adapt newer systems in the coming decades rather than replace a large number of ship fitted systems or Armidale under indeed the whole platform. Sensors Survey Motor Launches, 14 Armidale and in some instances flexibility, the construction and systems common to all roles are Class Patrol Boats and six Huon Class multi role vessel of the future will be permanently fitted on each platform. Mine Hunter Coastal) could well be mission capable through the modular Mission based payloads, transportable amalgamated to fulfil this role. This payload embarked. either over land by trucks or be ferried will support the Plan Blue mantra of Project Venator, an in house study by sea, can be changed out in less than remaining flexible and multi-mission by BMT Defence Services, examines eight hours and require only cranage.19 capable. It is also in line with the how a minor warship platform, sized Following an operational review of desire to maximise affordability of the and powered for global deployment, the class, the concept of changing the platform. This capability requirement can be reconfigurable for differing role of the platforms via mission based is important also in the minor war operational taskings, including mine modules has been re-examined and has vessel context, noting the recognition countermeasures (MCM), MCM been put on hold, with the platforms that the Future Fleet will have/need a support, hydrographic survey, taking on a more permanent fit.20 greater capability to project power into maritime security operations (MSO) Similarly to the RDN, Australia is the littoral region.22 Further guidance and offshore patrol missions.25 While a small-medium navy constrained by is provided later in the document the platform concept has design budgetary allocations and the problem detailing the need to reduce costs, enablers developed from projected of choosing military capability against identifying likely savings in reducing employment its true flexibility lies in a predicted need, which sometimes numbers of personnel, automation the modularity and interchangeability lies well into the future. Recognising and commonality of systems and of the mission based payload. No doubt these drivers, Plan Blue asserts that platforms.23 Employment of unmanned the proposal hinges on technology the, “Future Navy will employ a multi air, surface and subsurface vehicles will employed in these payloads. For dimensional manoeuvre approach for further extend sensor coverage and example, the MCM suite is largely the conduct of operations… (requiring) power projection with the expectation based on unmanned systems such Maritime force elements, that are that in the relatively near future, task as minesweeping unmanned surface inherently adaptable and flexible, are force members will launch and link vessels (USV), reconnaissance required to conduct combat missions to a number of unmanned vehicles, automated unmanned vehicles (AUVs), and are able to adapt to concurrently carrying sensors and weapons over one shot mine disposal vehicles and support other activities such as law and under sea and land.24 These a self defence fit (search radars, gun, enforcement missions”.21 The Royal platforms may be employed in a threat obstacle avoidance sonar). To elucidate Australian Navy’s (RAN) 26 minor environment, but whereas in the past the reconfiguration modular concept fleet units (two Leeuwin Class they have been highly specialised, with further, compare this with a possible Hydrographic Ships, four Paluma Class its specific role limiting commonality Patrol Boat suite of rigid inflatable Journal of the Australian Naval Institute 40
boats, a USV, a helicopter, electronic survey ships. warfare systems, an unmanned aerial Following the vehicle (UAV) and a self defence fit Ministry’s 2008 (surface search radars, gun, obstacle planning round avoidance sonar).26 (PR08), it has The American vision, allowable by now become huge defence budgets and technical an umbrella innovation through vast defence program for industry research and development, is three tiers of worth highlighting in that, “The LCS ships known as is also about exploiting unmanned the Force Anti- systems. From the first ships Submarine constructed, LCS will host a variety of Warfare unmanned vehicles. Imagine several Combatant LCS platforms deploying unmanned (C1), the Austal Independence vehicles above, on, and below the Stabilisation Combatant (C2) and the to favour all things technological, ship under build surface, uncovering mines, detecting Ocean Capable Patrol Vessel (C3). stating that, “the concentration of submarines, and even reaching ashore The designs focus on adaptability and high technology should not lead to the to image or strike a terrorist camp. an ability to be rapidly reconfigured disparagement of the simpler or even And imagine these ships doing all of for military and non-military roles obsolescent weapons. The ultimate this for weeks or months at a time, and duties ranging from benign and measure of a weapons effectiveness providing the joint force commander constabulary to Task Group warfare is its value as a political instrument, much clearer insight into the murky functions. The Ocean Capable Patrol which may not equate to its operational littoral environment. Unmanned Vessel is envisaged to have low running impact”.31 The skills to operate modern systems that will be integrated in the costs and the ability to operate in weapons and systems may also take first LCS mission modules include the shallow, coastal areas and be able a considerable period to develop. It is Remote Minehunting System (RMS), a to deploy worldwide to fulfill tasks clear that possession of an inventory vertical take-off unmanned air vehicle including minehunting, survey work of technologically capable weapons (VT-UAV) and an unmanned surface and patrol duties.29 Overall, the vessel systems does not directly equate to vehicle”.27 will be a low cost platform that has capability. Using the Iran-Iraq War of The Venator study sought to great flexibility. the 1980s as an example, each side had develop solutions for the contrasting As discussed previously, much of an arsenal of technologically competent and difficult problems associated the advantage of modularity and the systems that did not realise their full with providing platforms that could multi role concept is derived from the potential due in some part to lack of deliver a quality capability rather than technological driver that is brought by training and proficiency.32 presenting as a ‘jack of all trades’. The autonomous vehicles. Dr. Patrick Hew, Dr. Hew rightly identifies that with concept is broadly based around the in an Australian Defence Force Journal all technology there are problems UK Ministry of Defence Sustained article, states that, “Technology, and its and challenges that he characterises Surface Combatant Capability progress, is widely regarded as being as ‘technology bottleneck issues’.33 In initiative, in which it hopes to define a driver on the conduct of war”.30 The particular, he identifies the following the requirements of the future Ocean move from a traditional, specialist challenges with respect to automated Capable Patrol Vessel and is linked to functionality is not without risk, unmanned technology: the emerging unmanned technologies particularly, combining the disparate • Communications and now being tested and brought into capabilities of patrol, hydrographic programmability; service throughout the world.28 survey and MCM over the one • Navigation within the physical The overarching Future Surface common platform underpinned by environment; Combatant program aims to replace modular based technology. Air Vice • Monitoring of physical status; the Royal Navy’s older Type 22 and Marshall Tony Mason (RAF), cited in • Location of other entities in the Type 23 frigates, plus existing mine Seapower Ashore And In The Air, has physical environment; and countermeasures (MCM) vessels and warned against the military tendency • Target modelling Journal of the Australian Naval Institute Issue 131 41
The Project Venator study offboard systems, with the view of Efficiencies can also be realised recognises that while modularity leaning towards simpler and more by the ability to add to and update will be the way of the future the affordable platforms. In the MCM new generation technologies as nature of reconfiguring capability role, autonomous vehicles will identify they develop, quickly, without long and its technology enablers is not and prosecute threats at a distance integration problems and without fully understood and will require from the host platform. Unmanned the need to find a space within an further analysis. Put simply there or semi-autonomous technologies are already crowded interior. Here the is still the dilemma of, when we get now being developed by a myriad of Venator concept diverges from the it, how are we going to use it?.34 Of maritime equipment suppliers and LCS approach, in that, there is no note, is that unmanned technology many examples of this technology operational requirement for rapid (particularly underwater units) is are now in service or entering service re-role of platforms in theatre. The developing exponentially, driven largely with Navies around the world and are premise identifies the ability to by commercial offshore resource expected to reach a fuller maturity in reconfigure payloads to maximise a exploitation and increasingly, demands the next five to ten years. Since 2001, platforms overall utility and at the from the military establishment. the Royal Norwegian Navy (RNoN) same time provides flexibility in the Modular mission payloads and the has experimented with AUVs in a platforms capability mix over the feasibility of multi role vessels in number of different military roles vessels life time. Configuration will support of this concept are being around Europe. A dedicated military be task oriented or dependant on assessed by other Navies and by the AUV system was delivered in January the predominant threat at the time. time the ADF is in a position to fully 2004 operating from a RNoN mine Using the current Australian situation, embrace this notion, lessons learned hunter and has been deployed in the more platforms could be used for from others could be incorporated to NATO Immediate Reaction Force border protection operation but with lessen risk. This will also add some MCMFORNORTH since October a future change in threat, platform weight to acquiring capability without 2004. Various missions have been tasking could be slewed towards a need to reinvent the wheel, noting performed, ranging from route surveys MCM, without having to procure new that it is already in service further to covert mine reconnaissance and hulls. Flexibility is provided and in afield. There is also the need to better Rapid Environmental Assessment addition affordability of the platform is understand the modular concept (REA) tasks. The equipment has maximized. and its effect on future vessel design. the advantage of being modular in It is also necessary to consider the For example, in order to support the itself, allowing different systems to be requirements for global deployability, number and size of vessels required, fitted as required and in its MCM/ particularly, as a member of a plus their storage and manoeuvrability REA role high quality, high resolution larger Task Force or Advance Force. of embarked payloads, future platforms imagery and bathymetry with reliable Seakeeping ability, endurance, self would require a reasonably large deck position accuracy can be provided. protection measures and speed area and suitable material handling This long association with AUV have been limitations marked by equipment.35 technology has seen lessons learned all classes of minor vessels in the Apart from design requirements, during the course of operational current inventory. On a cautionary modular needs of the future multi- military use incorporated into the note, any advantages provided by a role vessel may see more efficient current generation of vehicles with the future larger hull must be tempered reconfiguration, modernisation and latest variant, delivered in 2008, now by the realisation that the larger maintenance, contributing to greater undergoing evaluation. The systems the hull, the lesser numbers will be operational flexibility and availability.36 are used on a regular basis by the Navy likely acquired due to affordability Future multi role vessels could achieve and operated from the Oksøy class issues. Project Venator has identified these efficiencies, not only through the MCMVs, as well as from other vessels that the optimum design length is use of mission based modular payloads, using a ramp or containerised launch around 110 meters (to afford global but also through a commonality of and recovery system. USVs and sweep deployability and payload embarkation platform design, common permanent systems are likely to follow this level and manoeuvrability) and the LCS fitted systems and even common of development soon with research design settles on 127 metres.37 In training and manning aspects. programs already underway in several terms of hull design, like the Venator The concept invests heavily in the countries (certainly the US and UK). solution, the LCS will balance mission Journal of the Australian Naval Institute 42
payload capacity, manoeuvrability, commonality. The current Table 1: Potential Mission Payloads1 stealth, and survivability and be able to minor warship fleet could Role Equipment economically loiter or conduct high- lend itself to this concept MCM Reconnaissance AUVs speed sprints up to 50 knots.38 This without assuming the Sweep equipped USVs combination will provide the flexibility ‘jack of all trades’ mantle. Shallow Water AUVs One Shot Mine Disposal Systems to transit in advance of other forces Think of operations in Self Defence Fit or quickly respond to operational the recent past and today Hydrographic / REA Survey AUVs requirements once in theatre. where Hydrographic Survey Motor Boats As alluded to previously, the Survey Force platforms and Self Defence Fit multi role mission based approach MHCs have been involved Patrol / Surveillance/ Reconnaissance / Surveillance UAVs in some ways challenges traditional in border protection Border Protection Surveillance USVs conventions. Again, using the MCM operations under the RHIBs role as an example, the Flyvefisken auspices of Operations Helicopter Self Defence Fit Class MRV is of a fibreglass build and Relex and Resolute. These utilises fixtures, fittings and equipment units have contributed Training As Required constructed of non-magnetic materials enormously to the desired (similar to the Australian MHC) to outcomes, arguably in 1 A. Kimber, W. Giles and T. Dinham-Peren, ‘The Globally Deployable Minor Warship – A Conceptualisation of Future Solutions’, Paper presented at INEC 2008, maximise the advantages provided by platforms not best suited Hamburg, Germany,2008, p.3. the low magnetic signature to operate to this role. Conversely, in or around minefields. Future MCM envisage the multi role platform with recognition of platforms, relying on technological its mission based modular payload. this, all ADF advances, will in all likelihood be When identified to deploy to a border documentation totally different. A common platform protection operation the Multi Role espouses the may invariably move away from Ship (Survey) would crane its survey need for a flexible the fibreglass build using familiar related modules onto the wharf, force to deal with Flyvefisken class MRV building materials (steel, aluminium) embark two large high speed RHIBs this challenging environment. Other to maximise cost savings, use readily and a module containing boarding risks exist in the form of budgetary available construction techniques and party equipment. The Multi Role constraints and expensive acquisitions ensure commonality in fitted systems. Ship (Patrol) would then deploy to meet identified threats. All of these Obviously with this move away from for its border protection duties issues will see traditional concepts of the traditional MCM platform, the after conducting a short readiness operation challenged not only in the modular mission based approach evaluation. Table 1 details some future but now. would have to be fully embraced. payloads that may be used in the The multi role vessel carrying its With the increasing use of unmanned reconfiguration process. mission based payload challenges technologies to conduct autonomous Force 2020 is a visionary document these traditional concepts and provides or semi autonomous MCM or REA that looks to the future. It highlights the exciting options for the makeup of tasks in other Navies, this method need to maintain an idea of flexibility, our future force. In the next decade is slowly being proved. Negating the adaptability and resourcefulness and all the RANs 26 minor fleet units need for highly specialised platforms, importantly not be bound by dogma. could arguably be replaced by a multi it will allow the removal of the manned Conventional forms of military power role vessel, similar in all likelihood MCM platform from the high risk area obviously have their limitations, to platforms already in service and lead to a relaxation of the stringent showing a need for diversification and around the globe, conducting their signature requirements.39 flexibility in future. This adaptability operations via a mission based payload. Plan Blue recognises the need for and flexibility allows involvement However the Future Navy develops, multi-mission platforms comprising across the spectrum of operations.41 getting the balance between strategy adaptable, flexible, multi mission Continued urbanisation will see the and technology right will continue systems and as always identifies that littoral environment increasingly to be one of the most important there is a need to lessen costs through accessed by more and more people determinants of twenty-first century reduction in crew numbers, increased and will take on growing importance seapower. automation and system and platform in future maritime operations. In Journal of the Australian Naval Institute Issue 131 43
Mustin, H.C, and Katz, D.J, “All Ahead www.military.com/Content/MoreContent1?file=NI_Revol_1003, Commander Stewart Dunne joined Flank”, The Naval Institute Proceedings viewed 4 December 2008. the RAN in 1990, and served in HMAS Website February 2003, http://www. 11 Ulrich, op. cit. military.com/NewContent/0,13190,NI_ 12 Ulrich, op. cit. Geelong and HMAS Success. In 1999 LCS_0203,00.html, viewed 3 December 13 H.C. Mustin and D.J. Katz “All Ahead Flank”, The Naval 2008. Institute Proceedings Website February 2003, http://www.military. he completed the Hydrographic com/NewContent/0,13190,NI_LCS_0203,00.html, viewed 3 O’Neill, M, “Should the ADF Pursue December 2008. Officers Basic Course at Penguin, State of the Art Capabilities in Order to 14 Ibid. Maintain a Capability Edge?”, Australian 15 AMI International Website, http://www.amiinter.com/ which led to further sea postings. Defence Force Journal, No. 157, November/ samples/denmark/DA1703.html, viewed 8 December 2008. He has commanded HMAS Benalla December 2002. 16 Naval Team Denmark Website, http://www.navalteam.dk/ Plan Blue 2006, Department of Defence, ships/std_flex_concept.aspx, viewed 4 December 2008. and HUNTER TWO and is now Deputy Defence Publishing Service, Canberra, 17 AMI International Website, http://www.amiinter.com/ November 2006. samples/denmark/DA1703.html, viewed 8 December 2008. Director Patrol and Hydrographic in Royal Institution of Naval Architects, 18 Naval Technology Website, Flyvefisken Class (SF 300) Multi- “Venator Provides Framework Role Vessels, http://www.naval-technology.com/projects/fly, viewed Maritime Development Branch. He is For A Reconfigurable Warship”, 4 December 2008. currently studying towards a Masters Warship Technology Journal January 19 Naval Team Denmark Website, http://www.navalteam.dk/ 2008, http://www.rina.org.uk/iqs/ ships/std_flex_concept.aspx, viewed 4 December 2008. of International Relations from Deakin sid.08121940336240581905010/wt.html, 20 S. Saunders (ed.), Jane’s Fighting Ships 2008-2009, Janes viewed 4 December 2008. Information Group, Surrey, UK, 2008, p.185. University. Saunders, S (ed.), Jane’s Fighting Ships 21 Plan Blue 2006, Para 36. 2008-2009, Janes Information Group, 22 Ibid, Para 47. Surrey, UK, 2008. 23 Ibid, Para 64. Scott, R, “BMT Examines UK 24 Ulrich, op. cit. Reconfigurable Warship”, Janes International 25 R. Scott, “BMT Examines UK Reconfigurable Warship”, Janes Bibliography Defence Review, December 2007. International Defence Review, December 2007 Speller, I. Naval Warfare in Jordan, D., 26 Warship Technology, p.33. ADDP-D.3 — Joint Operations For The Kiras, J., Lonsdale, D., Speller, I., Tuck, C. 27 Ulrich, op. cit. 21ST Century, Department of Defence, and Walton, C., in Understanding Modern 28 Scott, op. cit. Defence Publishing Service, Canberra, May Warfare, Cambridge University Press, 29 Janes Defence Website, http://www.janes.com/events/ 2007. Cambridge, 2008. exhibitions/dsei2007/sections/daily/day1/vt-unveils-new-fsc- AMI International Website, http://www. Stevens, D. and Reeve, J. (eds.), Seapower concep.shtml, viewed 4 December 2008. amiinter.com/samples/denmark/DA1703. Ashore and in the Air, Halstead Press, 30 P. Hew, “Autonomous Situation Awareness – Implications for html, viewed 8 December 2008. Sydney, 2007. Future Warfighting”, Australian Defence Force Journal, Issue No. 174, Australian Maritime Doctrine, RAN Till, G, Seapower: A Guide For The Department of Defence, Canberra, 2007, p.71. Doctrine 1 2000, Commonwealth of Twenty-First Century, Frank Cass, London, 31 D. Stevens and J. Reeve (eds.), Seapower Ashore and in the Air, Australia, Defence Publishing Service, 2004. Halstead Press, Sydney, 2007, p. 375. Canberra, 2000. Ulrich, H.G and Edwards, M.J, ‘The 32 M. O’Neill, “Should the ADF Pursue State of the Art Force 2020, Department of Defence, Next Revolution at Sea’, The Naval Capabilities in Order to Maintain a Capability Edge?”, Australian Defence Publishing Service, Canberra, 2002. Institute Proceedings Website October Defence Force Journal, No. 157, November/December 2002, p.32. Future Maritime Operating Concept 2003, http://www.military.com/Content/ 33 Hew, op. cit, p.79. – 2025, Department of Defence, Defence MoreContent1?file=NI_Revol_1003, viewed 34 Royal Institution of Naval Architects, “Venator Publishing Service, Canberra, 2007. 4 December 2008. Provides Framework For A Reconfigurable Warship”, Warship Hew, P, “Autonomous Situation Technology Journal, January 2008, http://www.rina.org.uk/iqs/ Awareness – Implications for Future Australian Maritime Doctrine, RAN sid.08121940336240581905010/wt.html, viewed 4 December 2008 Warfighting”, Australian Defence Force Doctrine 1 2000, Commonwealth of 35 A. Kimber, W. Giles and T. Dinham-Peren, ‘The Globally Journal, Issue No. 174, Department of Australia, Defence Publishing Service, Deployable Minor Warship – A Conceptualisation of Future Defence, Canberra, 2007. Canberra, 2000, p. 123 Solutions’, Paper presented at INEC 2008, Hamburg, Germany,2008, Janes Defence Website, http://www.janes. 2 Ibid, p. 124. p.3. com/events/exhibitions/dsei2007/sections/ 3 Future Maritime Operating Concept 36 Ulrich, op. cit. daily/day1/vt-unveils-new-fsc-concep.shtml, – 2025, Department of Defence, Defence 37 A, Kimber and W, Giles, ‘Minor Warship Roles – How viewed 4 December 2008. Publishing Service, Canberra, 2007, Technology Is Leading To A New Vessel Type’, Paper presented at Kimber, A, Giles, W and Dinham-Peren, p.7. Pacific 2008, Sydney, Australia, 2008, p.10. T, ‘The Globally Deployable Minor Warship 4 Future Maritime Operating Concept 38 H.C. Mustin and D.J. Katz “All Ahead Flank”, The Naval – A Conceptualisation of Future Solutions’, – 2025, Department of Defence, Defence Institute Proceedings Website February 2003, http://www.military. Paper presented at INEC 2008, Hamburg, Publishing Service, Canberra, 2007, p.8. com/NewContent/0,13190,NI_LCS_0203,00.html, viewed 3 Germany, 2008. 5 G. Till, Seapower: A Guide For The December 2008. Kimber, A and Giles, W, ‘Minor Warship Twenty-First Century, Frank Cass, London, 39 A. Kimber, W. Giles and T. Dinham-Peren, ‘The Globally Roles – How Technology Is Leading To A 2004, p.375. Deployable Minor Warship – A Conceptualisation of Future New Vessel Type’, Paper presented at Pacific 6 Ibid, p.9. Solutions’, Paper presented at INEC 2008, Hamburg, Germany,2008, 2008, Sydney, Australia, 2008. 7 Ibid, p.236. p.2. Leschen, P, “The Nature of Future Conflict 8 Plan Blue 2006, Department of 40 Ibid, p.3. and its Impact on Australia’s Defence Policy Defence, Defence Publishing Service, 41 Force 2020, Department of Defence, Defence Publishing and Force Structure”, Australian Defence Canberra, November 2006, Para 48. Service, Canberra, 2002, p.6. College Monograph Series, No. 6. 9 I. Speller, Naval Warfare in D. Jordan, J. Naval Team Denmark Website, http:// Kiras, D. Lonsdale, I. Speller, C. Tuck and C. www.navalteam.dk/ships/std_flex_concept. Walton, in Understanding Modern Warfare, aspx, viewed 4 December 2008. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, Naval Technology Website, Flyvefisken 2008, p. 171. Class (SF 300) Multi-Role Vessels, http:// 10 H.G. Ulrich and M.J. Edwards, ‘The www.naval-technology.com/projects/fly, Next Revolution at Sea’, The Naval Institute viewed 4 December 2008. Proceedings Website, October 2003, http://
Journal of the Australian Naval Institute
Issue 131 45 Visions from the Vault VisionsVisions from from the the Vault Vault
ne of the RAN’s more unusual was recommissioned as Wyatt Earp from Melbourne on 28 February, vessels was the antarctic under the command of Commander and assisted with the setting up of a Oexploration vessel HMAS Wyatt Earp. Karl Oom, RAN. After various delays scientific station. Wyatt Earp returned Built as Fanefjord in 1919 for the caused by mechanical troubles she to Melbourne on 1 April, but her Norwegian herring fishing trade, she sailed for Antarctica on 8 February exploration days were over and she was acquired in 1933 by an American 1948. Her objectives included paid off on 30 June. On occasionWyatt millionaire, renamed Wyatt Earp evaluating the prospects of establishing Earp used sails to augment her diesel and used for several runs to the an Australian base in Commonwealth engine and was thus one of the few Antarctic. In 1939 she was purchased Bay. She survived a severe buffetting sizeable ships of the RAN to ever use by the Australian government for from heavy seas and gale-force winds, sail power. Antarctic exploration, but the with but dense pack ice frustrated attempts the outbreak of war was employed as to reach her objective. She instead an examination vessel using the name turned east and carried out a running HMAS Wongala. Paid off in 1944, survey of the Balleny Islands. On she was then used as a training ship the return voyage she called in at for sea cadets. Interest in Antarctic Macquarie Island, where she met exploration reignited with the end of up with LST 3501 (later named the war, and in November 1947 she HMAS Labuan), which had sailed Journal of the Australian Naval Institute 46 Book Reviews
comment to provide an enthralling view of both sides of the almost personal battle that developed between these two men and their vessels. I found this narrative engrossing reading that gave an interesting and balanced perspective on the action. As I read this part of the book and contemplated Stoker’s achievements, I wondered what additional impact there might have been across the Peninsula if Stoker’s luck and torpedoes had been a little better. As Australians we have a natural pride in the actions of Stoker and his Beneath the Dardanelles: crew and in the way they performed in this pathfinding operation. But we have The Australian Submarine rarely if ever given thought to the elation at Gallipoli that must have been felt by the Turkish Captain Hec Waller people, and in particular the crew of - a Memorial Book by Vecihi and Hatice Hurmuz Sultanhisar, after their victory over the Australian submarine. This delight Basarin, comes through in Ali Rizar’s description Hec Waller is perhaps Australia’s most famous fighting naval Allen & Unwin 2006, of the battle and the reaction of local leader. Much has been written about him, but it is scattered 211 pages, soft cover, illustrated authorities when he reached port. across many books. A submarine has been named after him. ISBN 978-1-74175-595-4. We are left with little doubt that Ali The book under review was written by Dr Tom Lewis Rizar was extremely conscious of the and two family members, as a memorial book to Hec and his significance of his victory. beloved wife, Nancy. In addition to describing Hec’s naval This book provides a fascinating look The latter section ofBeneath the life, his family life forms an important part of the book. Hec’s into one of the little known or talked Dardanelles is devoted to the story ancestors and descendents are included, as are the activities about actions of the Gallipoli campaign: of the expedition in late 2007 to visit, of Nancy and the part she played as a surrogate mother to the first-time transit of a submerged search and catalogue the condition of many returned POWs. Samples of Hec’s letters home, many submarine, the Australian AE-2, the AE-2. It appears that the years have of them adorned by his sketches and poems, are prominent. through the Dardanelles on April 25, been kind to the AE-2and salvage is an Hec entered the Royal Australian Naval College in 1914, 1915. In essence the book is in two option that might be feasible should the second year of its existence. He generally performed parts, with the first and most substantial there be a desire to pursue it, while well in the period between the World Wars, although with portion describing the transit of the protection and preservation of the occasional negative reports. In late 1939 he took command Straits, the chase and the loss of the wreck in place is yet another path. The of HMAS Stuart I and was leader of the 10th Destroyer AE-2from the perspective of both book leaves us with the thought that the Flotilla, whose members comprised the five RAN ships of captains, while the second looks at the rapidly approaching 100th anniversary the Scrap-Iron Flotilla together with various RN destroyers, modern search for, and triumphant re- of the Dardanelles campaign might operating in the Mediterranean. entry into, the AE-2in its resting place present both Australia and Turkey with There under the greatest British admiral since Nelson, in September 2007, following its re- an opportunity to establish a long-term Admiral Andrew Cunningham, Hec and his destroyers discovery in 1998. future for AE-2. performed with great credit. Cunningham referred to Hec as The book uses the diarised I found Beneath the Dardanelles to “one of the greatest captains who ever sailed the seas”. recollections of AE-2’s captain, be a compelling and interesting read, On returning to Australia in September 1941, Hec took Lieutenant Commander Henry Stoker, and recommend it. command of HMAS Perth I. The attack on Pearl Harbor took as well as a first-time English translation place in December, and the Japanese forces swept all before of the memoirs of the captain of AE- R eviewed by Captain Peter J. them through the first half of 1942. This included the assaults 2’s nemesis Sultanhisar, Captain Ali Murray, RAN on the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) with the intention Rizar, along with editorial additions and of capturing the rich oil fields therein. Journal of the Australian Naval Institute Issue 131 47
Hec was part of the ill-fated ABDA RAN’s shift from dependence on the was supposed to have received radar (American, British, Dutch, Australian) RN to looking out for itself. before sailing for the Java Sea, but naval force that attempted to oppose At the time of his death Hec had none arrived in Sydney. The profound the Japanese advances in the south- already been awarded two DSOs and advantage of Japanese air superiority east Asia region. Nearly all the ABDA was mentioned in dispatches twice. in the Java Sea is another crucial issue ships were lost in the Java Sea and the Many have thought it scandalous mentioned, as is the marked superiority Japanese invasions were delayed only a that all he was awarded for the last of Japanese torpedoes. few hours. battle was a posthumous mention in The cruisersPerth and USS Houston dispatches. The book addresses this R eviewed by “Snoz” survived the Java Sea battle but were issue. trapped and sunk in Sunda Strait The book also covers naval attempting to escape to the Indian technology, especially where it affected Available from Drawquick Printing, Ocean. Hec and Captain Albert H. Hec and the operations he took part PO box 4201, Marayong, NSW Rooks USN were both killed in the in. The issue of radar, with Hec a 2148; phone 9626 8984. early hours of 1 March 1942. The direct witness of its efficacy in the sinking marked the beginning of the Mediterranean, is described. Perth
The crew of the HMAS Parramatta were honoured today when they were visited by The Prime Minister of Australia, the Hon Kevin Rudd MP and Chief of the Defence Force, Air Chief Marshal Angus Houston, AC, AFC, who came aboard the ship to personally thank the sailors for their efforts, dedication to Australia and self sacrifice during the Christmas holidays.
Journal of the Australian Naval Institute 48 Thinking of Making a Contribution? Style Notes for Headmark
In general, please present your work So: Moodie. At the end of the article, please supply full honours with the minimum of formatting. Adkin, Mark. Goose Green. London: - Lieutenant Commander Bill Crabbe, CSC, RAN - unless Paragraphs: Leo Cooper, 1992. you would prefer not to use them. Then please supply a Don’t indent, and leave left justified. Adler, Bill (Ed.) Letters from Vietnam. paragraph on yourself, to a maximum of 50 words, including Separate paragraphs by one line. Single New York: EP Dutton and Co., 1967. any qualifications you would like listed, and any interesting spacing only. Use one space only after Articles use quotation marks around biographical aspects. If possible please supply a colour or stops and colons. their title, which is not in italics. greyscale head and shoulders e-photo of yourself for use Conventions: If citing web sites please use the alongside the article title. Use numbers for 10 and above, words convention: Illustrations: below. Ship names use italics in title Australian Associated Press. “Army Do not embed graphs or figures in your text without case; prefixes such asHMAS in capitals admits mistakes in SAS investigation”. sending a separate file as well. If supplying photographs use and italics. Book and Journal titles use 17 February, 2004.
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Journal of the Australian Naval Institute Issue 131 49 ANI On-line: A guide to the new website.
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