Forest Structure Under Human Influence Near an Upper-Elevation Village in Nepal
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FOREST STRUCTURE UNDER HUMAN INFLUENCE NEAR AN UPPER-ELEVATION VILLAGE IN NEPAL Item Type text; Electronic Dissertation Authors Bolton, Gary Howard Publisher The University of Arizona. Rights Copyright © is held by the author. Digital access to this material is made possible by the University Libraries, University of Arizona. Further transmission, reproduction or presentation (such as public display or performance) of protected items is prohibited except with permission of the author. Download date 25/09/2021 15:56:24 Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/194935 FOREST STRUCTURE UNDER HUMAN INFLUENCE NEAR AN UPPER- ELEVATION VILLAGE IN NEPAL by Gary Howard Bolton _____________________ A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the SCHOOL OF NATURAL RESOURCES In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY WITH A MAJOR IN RENEWABLE NATURAL RESOURCES STUDIES In the Graduate College THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA 2 0 0 5 2 THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA GRADUATE COLLEGE As members of the Dissertation Committee, we certify that we have read the dissertation prepared by Gary Howard Bolton entitled Forest Structure Under Human Influence Near an Upper-Elevation Village in Nepal and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Mitchel P. McClaran 29 June 2005 ____________________ _____________________ Date:_______________ Mitchel P. McClaran Peter F. FFolliott 29 June 2005 __________________________________________ Date:_______________ Peter F. Ffolliott Guy R. McPherson 29 June 2005 __________________________________________ Date:_______________ Guy R. McPherson Robert H. Robichaux 29 June 2005 __________________________________________ Date:_______________ Robert H. Robichaux Final approval and acceptance of this dissertation is contingent upon the candidate’s submission of the final copies of the dissertation to the Graduate College. I hereby certify that I have read this dissertation prepared under my direction and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement. Mitchel P. McClaran 29 June 2005 _________________________________________________________________ Dissertation Director: Mitchel P. McClaran Date 3 STATEMENT BY AUTHOR This dissertation has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for an advanced degree at The University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library. Brief quotations from this dissertation are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the head of the major department or the Dean of the Graduate College when in his or her judgment the proposed use of the material is in the interests of scholarship. In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author. Gary H. Bolton SIGNED: ________________________________ 4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many people have provided key influence, inspiration, and assistance, without which this work would not have begun or would not have been completed. I thank my graduate advisor, Mitchel McClaran, and my graduate committee members, Guy McPherson, Peter Ffolliott, and Robert Robichaux, for their mentorship in my program and their patience during its long intermissions. I thank Robert Webb for luring me back into science from my long life of adventure- travel guiding, and Lisa Graumlich for showing early interest in work in Nepal. I thank the National Security Education Program for the Boren International Graduate Fellowship that funded travel and fieldwork, and I thank Sharad Adhikari and the Himalayan Climate Center for local institutional affiliation for my research. I thank my long-time friend and fellow forest ecologist Keith Hadley for always providing honest, critical feedback on my science and my life. I thank John Metz for his meticulous study of resource use at Chimkhola and for personal communication of insights on the region. I thank my Nepalese field assistants, especially Bo Bahadur Thapa, for their tireless months of arduous work high in the forest, and for the evenings we shared around campfires, eating daal bhaat and speaking purely in Nepali. Finally, I thank my wife, Elise Pendall, for providing several weeks of forest field assistance and 12 years of encouragement, support and scientific discussions that have seen me through this long journey. 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES............................................................................... 7 List of Figures.................................................................................................................7 List of Tables ..................................................................................................................8 2. ABSTRACT.................................................................................................................... 9 3. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 11 Forests of Nepal ............................................................................................................ 12 The theory of Himalayan environmental degradation .................................................. 13 Subsistence production systems of Nepal..................................................................... 16 History of forest use and management in Nepal........................................................... 17 Community forestry in Nepal ....................................................................................... 20 Forest ecology research in Nepal and the Himalaya..................................................... 23 Study Area .................................................................................................................... 25 Rationale for research ................................................................................................... 28 Structure of this research .............................................................................................. 31 4. PATTERNS OF FOREST STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION AND RELATIONSHIPS WITH HUMAN IMPACTS.............................................................. 34 Abstract......................................................................................................................... 34 Introduction................................................................................................................... 35 Forests of Nepal ........................................................................................................ 36 Human use of forest products ................................................................................... 37 The goTh system of agriculture ................................................................................ 38 Forest dynamics ........................................................................................................ 39 Oak reproduction ...................................................................................................... 42 Analysis of ecological community data.................................................................... 44 Harvest practice influences....................................................................................... 45 Objectives ................................................................................................................. 46 Methods......................................................................................................................... 47 Study area.................................................................................................................. 47 Sampling methods..................................................................................................... 49 Data analysis ............................................................................................................. 51 Results........................................................................................................................... 52 Cutting index and distance from village ................................................................... 55 Discussion..................................................................................................................... 57 Size structure and forest dynamics ........................................................................... 57 Oak reproduction ...................................................................................................... 60 Human Impact........................................................................................................... 61 5. AGE – DIAMETER RELATIONSHIPS OF THREE SUBTROPICAL, BROADLEAF EVERGREEN TREE SPECIES ....................................................................................... 84 Abstract......................................................................................................................... 84 Introduction................................................................................................................... 85 Age-diameter relationships ....................................................................................... 85 Age determination from tree rings............................................................................ 86 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued