No. 11, December 2020

University of Hawai‘i Pelagic Fisheries Research Program By Paul Dalzell About the Author Paul Dalzell is a Fellow of the Royal Geographic Society and the former senior scientist and pelagic fisheries coordinator for the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council, a position he held for more than two decades. Prior to joining the Council, he worked at the South Pacific Commission (now the Pacific Community)

Disclaimer: The statements, findings and conclusions in this report are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the views of the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council or the National Marine Fisheries Service (NOAA).

© Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council, 2020. All rights reserved, Published in the United States by the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council under NOAA Award # NA20NMF4410013. ISBN 978-1-944827-57-1 Cover art: PFRP Back and inside cover: David Itano photos. Contents

List of Illustrations...... ii 7.3 Role of Oceanography on Bigeye Tuna List of Tables...... ii Aggregation and Vulnerability in the Hawai‘i List of Acronyms...... ii Longline Fishery...... 14 1. INTRODUCTION...... 1 8. SELECT PROTECTED SPECIES PROJECTS...... 15 1.1 Traditional Marine Resource 8.1 Comparing Sea Turtle Distributions Management in Oceania...... 2 and Fisheries Interactions in the Atlantic and Pacific...... 15 1.2 Contemporary Marine Resource Management of Pacific Pelagic Species...... 3 8.2 Direct Tests of the Efficacy of Bait and Gear Modifications for Reducing Interactions 1.3 Oceanographic Environment...... 3 of Sea Turtles with Longline Fishing Gear in 2. PROGRAM OVERVIEW...... 4 Costa Rica...... 15 3. SELECT BIOLOGY PROJECTS...... 6 8.3 A General Bayesian Integrated Population 3.1 Reproductive Biology of Yellowfin Tuna, Dynamics Model for Protected Species...... 16 Thunnus albacares...... 6 9. SELECT TROPHODYNAMICS PROJECTS...... 16 3.2 Vertical Habitat of Bigeye and Albacore 9.1 Integrating Conventional and Electronic Tunas and Post-Release Survival for Marlins Tagging Data into the Spatial Ecosystem and in the Central Pacific Longline Fisheries...... 7 Population Model SEAPODYM...... 16 3.3 Age and Growth of Striped Marlin, Kajikia 9.2 Impacts of Mesoscale Oceanographic audax, in the Hawai‘i-Based Longline Fishery....7 Features on the Forage Base for Oceanic 4. SELECT STATISTICAL AND MODELING PROJECTS...8 Predators...... 16 4.1 Incorporating Oceanographic Data in Stock 9.3 Intra-Guild Predation and Cannibalism Assessments of Blue Sharks and Other Species in Pelagic Predators: Implications for the Incidentally Caught in the Hawai‘i-Based Dynamics, Assessment and Management of Longline Fishery...... 8 Pacific Tuna Populations...... 17 4.2 Analyses of Catch Data for Blue 10. SELECT GENETICS PROJECTS...... 18 and Striped Marlins (Istiophoridae)...... 9 10.1 Analysis of Pacific Blue Marlin and 4.3 Pacific-wide Analyses of Bigeye Tuna Swordfish Population Structure using (Thunnus obesus) Using MULTIFAN-CL...... 9 Mitochondrial and Nuclear DNA Technologies... 18 5. SELECT ECONOMIC PROJECTS...... 10 10.2 Population Structure and Dynamics in 5.1 Role of Social Networks on Mahimahi as Inferred through Analysis of Fishermen Economic Performance in Mitochondrial DNA...... 18 Hawai‘i’s Longline Fishery...... 10 10.3 An Assessment of Bigeye Tuna 5.2 Factors Affecting Price Determination and (Thunnus obesus) Population Structure in the Market Competition for Fresh Pelagic Fish...... 10 Pacific Ocean based on Mitochondrial DNA 5.3 Incidental Catch of Non-target Fish and Microsatellite Variation...... 19 Species and Sea Turtles...... 10 11. CONCLUSION...... 19 6. SELECT SOCIOCULTURAL PROJECTS...... 11 APPENDIX 1: Tuna Inclusion in the 6.1 Local Fishery Knowledge...... 11 Magnuson-Stevens Act...... 20 6.2 Sociological Baseline of Hawai‘i-Based APPENDIX 2: Targeted and Non-targeted Longline Fishery...... 11 Pelagic Species in the Western Pacific Region...... 22 6.3 Archaeological and Historical Data on APPENDIX 3: PFRP Projects and Fisheries for Pelagic Species in Guam and Principal Investigators...... 27 Northern Mariana Islands...... 11 APPENDIX 4: PFRP Convened, Co-Convened and 7. SELECT OCEANOGRAPHY PROJECTS...... 13 Supported Meetings...... 30 7.1 Oceanographic Characterization of the APPENDIX 5: PFRP Newsletter Issues American Samoa Longline Fishing Grounds and Articles...... 31 for Albacore (Thunnus alalunga)...... 13 REFERENCES...... 34 7.2 Regime Shifts in the Western and Central Pacific Ocean Tuna Fisheries...... 13

i List of Illustrations List of Acronyms Fig. 1. Western and Central Pacific Ocean AMO Atlantic multi-decadal oscillation and Eastern Pacific Ocean...... 1 BPUE bycatch per unit effort Fig. 2a. Eastern Pacific tuna catches 1960-2018...... 1 CLIOTOP Climate Impacts on Oceanic Top Predators cm centimeter Fig. 2b. Western & Central Pacific tuna catches 1960-2018.....1 CNMI Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Fig. 3. Extent of Polynesia, Melanesia and Micronesia...... 2 CPUE catch per unit effort Fig. 4. U.S. EEZ in Oceania...... 3 EEZ exclusive economic zone Fig. 5. PFRP Steering Committee...... 4 ENSO El Niño–Southern Oscillation EPO Eastern Pacific Ocean Fig. 6. Releasing a bigeye tuna carrying an electronic FAD Fish aggregating device data-logging and tracking tag...... 5 FCMA Fishery Conservation and Management Act Fig. 7. Ripe ova of a reproductively active yellowfin tuna.....6 FEP Fishery Ecosystem Plan Fig. 8. Female yellowfin in Hawai‘i with mature gonads...... 6 FFA Forum Fisheries Agency FL fork length Fig. 9. Beach landing of mature yellowfin tuna...... 6 GLM generalized linear models Fig. 10. A purse-seine vessel advancing on a large school HTTP Hawai‘i Tuna Tagging Project of tuna actively feeding on the ocean anchovy...... 6 IATTC Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission Fig. 11. NOAA researcher attaching pop-up archival tag ISC International Scientific Committee for Tuna on an albacore tuna...... 7 and Tuna-Like Species Fig. 12. Bigeye tuna high-resolution archival data...... 7 JIMAR Joint Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research Fig. 13. Pacific striped marlin distribution and study regions. 8 kg kilogram Fig. 14. Growth rates of Pacific striped marlin...... 8 km kilometer Fig. 15. Median values of blue shark stock size...... 8 LJFL lower jaw fork length Fig. 16. Spatial comparison of bigeye standardized CPUE...... 9 m meter MHLC Multilateral High-Level Conference Fig. 17. Network configuration of all relations identified mm millimeter by Hawai‘i’s longline fishermen...... 10 MLE maximum likelihood estimation Fig. 18. Guam archaeological sites...... 12 MSA Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation Fig. 19. Fishhooks from archaeological sites in Guam...... 12 and Management Act MSY maximum sustainable yield Fig. 20. Human bone point of composite fishhook from mt metric ton Ylig Bay, Guam...... 12 mtDNA mitochondrial DNA Fig. 21. Representative monthly sea surface Chl a nm nautical mile concentrations over the Southwestern Pacific...... 13 NMFS National Marine Fisheries Service Fig. 22. Yellowfin tuna recruitment estimates...... 14 PI principal investigator Fig. 23. Olive ridley sea turtle entanglement...... 15 PICES North Pacific Marine Science Organization PIFSC Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center Fig. 24. Representative mesopelagic micronekton...... 17 PFRP Pelagic Fisheries Research Program Fig. 25. Mean percent frequency of occurrence of PRIAs Pacific Remote Islands Areas skipjack tuna and yellowfin tuna in the diets PSAT Pop-up Satellite Archival Tag of apex predators...... 18 RFP request for proposal Fig. 26. Releasing a striped marlin with a popup SCTB Standing Committee on Tuna and Billfish satellite tag...... 25 SEAPODYM Spatial Ecosystem and Population Dynamics Model Fig. 27. Swapping out an acoustic receiver mounted SEC South Equatorial Current below a fish aggregation device...... 29 SECC South Equatorial Counter Current Fig. 28. Participants of the November 1997 SOEST School of Ocean and Earth Science PFRP Principal Investigators meeting...... 35 and Technology SPC Secretariat of the Pacific Community List of Tables SST sea surface temperature UH University of Hawai‘i Table 1. Project areas of the PFRP and number of UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the projects funded under each research topic...... 5 Law of the Sea Table 2. Overview of stock status of interest to the WCPFC Western and Central Pacific Western and Central Pacific Fishery Commission..... 26 Fisheries Commission Table 3. Meetings convened, co-convened WCPO Western and Central Pacific Ocean or supported by the PFRP...... 30 WPRFMC Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council WTP Western tropical Pacific ZINB zero-inflated negative binomial

ii 1. Introduction This monograph is a history of a grant awarding program, the Pelagic Fisheries Research Program (PFRP), which was conducted WCPO through the University of Hawai‘i (UH) from 1992 to 2012. The focus of the funding was research on tuna and tuna-like species in the Pacific Ocean, the largest single feature on Earth, extending over 65 million square miles (fig. 1). This vast area of water is surrounded by Australasia and East and Southeast Asia in the west and the various nations along the West coast of the American continent. Fig. 1. Internationally, pelagic fishery resources of the Eastern Pacific Ocean are managed The importance of the Pacific can by the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) while those in the Western and be illustrated by the tuna catch histories Central Pacific are subject to conservation and management measures developed by the for the Eastern Pacific Ocean (EPO) Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC). The blue box indicates an area and Western and Central Pacific Ocean of overlapping jurisdiction. Source: WPRFMC. (WCPO) (figs. 2a and 2b). The time series for the WCPO shows a more or less monotonous increase driven primarily Eastern Pacific Ocean by skipjack, caught predominantly by purse seines. There are numerous islands across the Pacific, primarily within the tropical belt and settled by Melanesians, Micronesians and Polynesians (fig. 3). This area, Catch (mt) termed Oceania comprises more than 10,000 islands, with a total land area (excluding Australia, but including Papua New Guinea and New Zealand) of approximately 317,700 square miles, or 822,800 square kilometers (km). Year

Western & Central Pacific Ocean Catch Catch (mt)

Year Figs. 2a and 2b. Catches of yellowfin, skipjack, bigeye and albacore in the EPO and WCPO between 1960 and 2018. Source: WCPFC.

1 1.1 Traditional Marine Resource ultimately led them to overshoot their knowledge that was passed down from Management in Oceania carrying capacity. generation to generation Localized adaptive management Species of importance often have While there is evidence that the regions was based on customary knowledge multiple names, depending on various that make up Oceania had different and practices and was responsive to life history characteristics (e.g., size, processes of cultural diversification owing changes in local environmental and social sex, color). In Rapa Nui, the rudderfish in part to environmental settings and conditions. A part of the conservation Kyphosus sandwicensis, locally known as the differential size of the islands, many ethic, particularly in Micronesia and nanue, is one of the most important communities throughout the tropical Polynesia, had to do with ocean voyaging nearshore fisheries species and has seven Pacific share a similar knowledge of basic and learning to prepare special voyaging secondary names based on size and five resource conservation principles that foods and rationing. secondary names based on color pattern. are the result of centuries of continuing The people of Oceania relied on the Names were also associated with various experimentation and innovation. sea for much of their protein, as well as life history phases, which often connoted Localized adaptive management was other essential nutrients and minerals an understanding of the ecology of based on customary knowledge and that were lacking in the poor-quality the species. practices and was responsive to changes in soils of many atolls and small islands. In Pacific Islanders developed an local environmental and social conditions. addition, other important resources such encyclopedic knowledge of their marine Long before Western societies as building materials, fishing gear, jewelry, resources, especially as they related to recognized the limits of ocean resources, medicines and household tools were seasonal movements, feeding behavior, the people of Oceania developed methods obtained from the sea. These included and spawning seasons and locations. to safeguard against the collapse of extremely important items for tools, like Approaches to harvest management these invaluable resources. Their long pearl shells for lures and hooks. Marine were often based on identifying the history of conservation was motivated resource management was often in the specific times and places that fishing by scarcity, limited resources and climate hands of the local resource users who were could occur so as not to disrupt basic variability. Some species were referred knowledgeable of the natural rhythms processes and habitats of important food to as “famine foods,” suggesting that and processes that controlled resource resources Many natural processes affect food needs were not always met. Some abundance. Fishermen were often held the distribution of these resources, but Pacific Island cultures learned that their in high regard within the community, some of the most important are related to resources were limited and introduced and master fishermen held extensive seasons and moon phases. This knowledge appropriate conservation measures, while helped to inform lunar calendars, which others exceeded those limits, which were mental models based on a holistic understanding of marine and terrestrial environments and emphasized certain repetitive ecological processes (e.g., spawning, aggregations, feeding habits) that function at different time scales (e.g., seasonal, monthly and daily), which were adapted to fishermen’s own observations for specific locations The most important marine conservation measure in Oceania was local marine tenure, where the right to fish in a location was controlled by a clan, chief or family. Spatial closures within these tenure systems were employed throughout Oceania for various purposes. These closures were often imposed to ensure large catches for special events or as a cache for when resources in the commonly accessed fishing grounds ran low. Temporal closures were widely used to reduce intensive harvest of spawning fishes or other predictable aggregations. These collective practices were developed through much trial and error and fostered Fig. 3. Near and remote Oceania showing extent of Polynesia, Melanesia and Micronesia. sustainability under highly variable and Source: Friedlander 2018. scare resource conditions.

2 1.2 Contemporary Marine supply of seafood. Under the MSA, eight 1.3 Oceanographic Environment2 regional fishery management councils Resource Management of Pacific The Hawai‘i Archipelago and the were established to develop policy for Pelagic Species Mariana Archipelago, which includes federal fishery management. They are Guam and CNMI, lie in the North People have been drawing imaginary the New England, Mid-Atlantic, South Pacific subtropical gyre while American lines on the Pacific Ocean since it first Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean, Samoa lies in the South Pacific subtropical began to be extensively navigated by North Pacific (Alaska), Pacific (West gyre. These subtropical gyres rotate the ancestors of the Southeast Asian Coast and Idaho) and the Western Pacific clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and Pacific Island cultures. Maps, Regional Fishery Management Councils. and counter clockwise in the Southern known as “stick charts,” were used by The Western Pacific Council Hemisphere in response to trade wind Micronesian navigators on long ocean (WPRFMC or Council) has authority over and westerly wind forcing. Hence the voyages. Further lines on the ocean the management of fisheries seaward of main Hawaiian Islands, Guam, CNMI were drawn by Europeans during the the state waters (i.e., in general beyond 3 and American Samoa experience weak advent of exploration and expansion in nm) of Hawai‘i, American Samoa, Guam, mean currents flowing from east to the later 15th century. One of the first the CNMI and seaward from the short west, while the northern portion of major divisions occurred in 1493 when of the U.S. Pacific remote island areas the Hawai‘i Archipelago experiences a Pope Alexander VI formally approved the (PRIAs1). Together referred to as the weak mean current flowing from west to division of the unexplored world between Western Pacific Region, these islands are east. Imbedded in this mean flow are an Spain and Portugal, through the Treaty surrounded by 1.5 million square miles abundance of mesoscale eddies created of Tordesillas, which Spain and Portugal of U.S. EEZ waters, nearly half of the from wind and current interactions signed one year later. Through the 18th, nation’s entire EEZ (fig. 4). 19th and 20th centuries, various imperial with bathymetry. These eddies, which and colonial administrations divided up can rotate either clockwise or counter the various archipelagos in the Pacific, clockwise, have important biological demarcating more lines on the ocean impacts. Eddies create vertical fluxes, with in terms of boundaries, in some cases regions of divergence (upwelling) where separating clearly related peoples such the thermocline shoals and deep nutrients as dividing the islands of Samoa, or are pumped into surface waters enhancing separating the people of Guam and the phytoplankton production, and also Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana regions of convergence (downwelling) Islands (CNMI). where the thermocline deepens. The development of the United North and south of the islands are Nations Convention on the Law frontal zones that also provide important of the Sea (UNCLOS) led to the habitat for pelagic fish and thus are implementation globally of the concept targeted by fishers. To the north of the of exclusive economic zones (EEZs). Hawai‘i and Mariana Archipelagoes and These areas of coastal water and seabed Fig. 4. The U.S. EEZ (red lines) in Oceania also to the south of American Samoa lie commonly spanned 200 nautical miles within which the authority for federal the subtropical frontal zones consisting (nm) from shore of a country's coastline, fisheries management is the responsibility of several convergent fronts located along to which the country claims exclusive of the Western Pacific Regional Fishery latitudes 25° to 40° N and S, often referred rights for fishing, drilling, and other Management Council. Source: PFRP. to as the Transition Zones. To the south of the Hawai‘i and Mariana Archipelagoes economic activities. Under the MSA, U.S. fisheries and to the north of American Samoa, lies In the United States, the Fishery management is a transparent and the equatorial current system spanning Conservation and Management Act (later public process of science, management, latitudes 15° N to 15° S and consisting known as the Magnuson-Stevens Act or innovation and collaboration with of alternating east and west zonal flows MSA) was passed by Congress in 1976 as fishing communities. As a result, the with adjacent fronts. the primary law governing marine fisheries United States is ending and preventing A significant source of interannual management in the U.S. EEZ. The MSA overfishing, actively rebuilding stocks physical and biological variation is the fosters long-term biological and economic and providing fishing opportunities and El Niño and La Niña events. During an sustainability of the nation’s marine economic benefits for both commercial El Niño the normal easterly trade winds fisheries. Key objectives are to prevent and recreational fishermen, as well as weaken, resulting in a weakening of overfishing, rebuild overfished stocks, shore-side businesses that support fishing the westward equatorial surface current increase long-term economic and social and use fish products. benefits, and ensure a safe and sustainable and a deepening of the thermocline

1 The U.S. Pacific remote islands are comprised of Johnston, Midway, Palmyra and Wake Atolls; Baker, Howland and Jarvis Islands; and Kingman Reef. 2 This summary of the oceanography of the tropical and sub-tropical Pacific Ocean is taken from a Final Environmental Impact Statement for the Fishery Management Plan for the Pelagic Fisheries of the Western Pacific Region published by the NMFS in 2001, which is believed to be a complete and accurate account of that ecosystem.

3 in the Central and Eastern equatorial and biological (including fishery) impacts Large-scale oceanographic events (such Pacific. Water in the Central and Eastern (Polovina 1996; Polovina et al. 1995). as El Niño) change the characteristics equatorial Pacific becomes warmer and Oceanic pelagic fish such as skipjack of water temperature and productivity more vertically stratified with a substantial and yellowfin tuna and blue marlin across the Pacific, and these events have a drop in surface chlorophyll. A La Niña prefer warm surface layers, where the significant effect on the habitat range and event exhibits the opposite conditions. water is well mixed by surface winds movements of pelagic species. Tuna are During an El Niño the purse-seine fishery and is relatively uniform in temperature commonly most concentrated near islands for skipjack tuna shifts over 1,000 km and salinity. Other fish (such as albacore, and seamounts that create divergences from the western to the central equatorial bigeye tuna, striped marlin and swordfish) and convergences which concentrate Pacific in response to physical and prefer cooler, more temperate waters, forage species, also near upwelling zones biological impacts (Lehodey et al. 1997). often meaning higher latitudes or greater along ocean current boundaries and along Physical and biological oceanographic depths. Preferred water temperature gradients in temperature, oxygen and changes have also been observed on often varies with the size and maturity salinity. Swordfish and numerous other decadal time scales. These low frequency of pelagic fish, and adults usually have pelagic species tend to concentrate along changes, termed regime shifts, can impact a wider temperature tolerance than sub- food-rich temperature fronts between the entire ocean basin. Recent regime adults. Thus, during spawning, adults cold upwelled water and warmer oceanic shifts in the North Pacific have occurred of many pelagic species usually move to water masses. in 1976 and 1989, with both physical warmer waters, the preferred habitat of their larval and juvenile stages. 2. Pelagic Fisheries Research Program Overview When the nation’s regional fishery The PFRP was established in 1992 Institute for Marine and Atmospheric management councils were first after the MSA was amended to include Research (JIMAR), under the UH established, the MSA excluded tuna as a “highly migratory fish” under the purview School of Ocean and Earth Science and federally managed species. Spearheaded by of the Councils. The PFRP was to provide Technology (SOEST). The program the Western Pacific Council, a campaign scientific information on pelagic fisheries manager was a researcher at the UH. to include tuna in MSA was waged as to the WPRFMC for use in development The general management of the PFRP tuna was an important fish targeted by of fisheries management policies. The was supervised by a Steering Committee fishermen and prized by U.S. seafood term “pelagic” generally refers to fish composed of representatives of the UH, consumers, especially in the Western that live in the near-surface waters of the the NOAA Pacific Islands Fishery Sci Pacific Region. This campaign culminated ocean, often far from shore, such as tuna ence Center (PIFSC) and the WPRFMC in 1990 with enactment of amendments and billfish. Detailed information on these (fig. 5). that repealed the tuna exclusion provisions species can be found in Appendix 2. In order for the Council to determine of the MSA and subjected tuna to The PFRP was funded by Congress “optimum use” of the valuable pelagic exclusive U.S. management in the U.S. through earmarks requested by U.S. fishery resources in the region, information EEZ. See Appendix 1 for more details Sen. Daniel K. Inouye (D-Hawai'i). The was required from a broad spectrum of on the inclusion of tuna. program was administered by the Joint research disciplines, e.g., biology, genetics,

Fig. 5. The PFRP Steering Committee (circa 1996): (l-r) Michael Laurs, director, NMFS Honolulu Laboratory; John Sibert, program manager, PFRP; Barry Raleigh, dean, SOEST; Kitty M. Simonds, executive director, WPRFMC; Gary Sakagawa, coordinator of Pelagics Research, NMFS Southwest Fishery Science Center; Mike Tillman, director, SW Fisheries Science Center, La Jolla; and Tom Schroeder, acting director, JIMAR. Sibert and Tillman attended the meeting as guests. Committee member Paul Callaghan, chair, WPRFMC Scientific and Statistical Committee (not pictured) participated via telephone from Guam. PFRP photo.

4 statistics, sociocultural and economics. The original PFRP research priorities Table 1. Project areas of the PFRP and number were the product of a 1992 workshop. of projects funded under each research topic. Corresponding projects were developed and approved by late 1993. Work on these Project Area Number of Projects projects began in 1994. Biology 41 Most of the topics identified during Statistical and Modeling 21 the workshop were addressed in the first Economics 18 few years of PFRP operations. However, during those years, management Socioculture 13 concerns, governance arrangements Oceanography 9 and the fisheries themselves changed Protected Species 7 drastically. The ecosystem approach to fisheries became the dominant paradigm Trophodynamics 5 for 21st century fisheries management. Genetics 4 Ecosystem-based fisheries management is a holistic way of managing fisheries and co-principal investigators (PI). In such Honolulu and at the Lake Arrowhead marine resources by taking into account instances, they had to recuse themselves Tuna Conference in California. (See the entire ecosystem of the species from deliberations and decisions on Appendix 4 and fig. 28.) being managed. proposals on which they were named. The projects were also highlighted A second workshop was held at Most project investigators were affiliated in the PFRP’s quarterly newsletter. The the UH Imin Conference Center in with regional research institutes, such as PFRP newsletter provided a platform November 2005 to identify new research the National Marine Fisheries Service for the PIs and collaborators to give a priorities for future requests for proposals (NMFS) and the Secretariat of the Pacific summary of their findings to a broader (RFPs). Some of the high ranking topics Community (SPC, New Caledonia). audience. These articles would be later of concern to those attending included Funds were also awarded to private drafted for a SOEST JIMAR report and/ a) economic modeling to explore consulting firms and to U.S. and foreign or publication in a peer-reviewed journal. management policy choices and their universities. A list of the PFRP newsletter issues and impacts on the fishing industry and on In total, the PFRP funded 118 research articles can be found in Appendix 5 as target and non-target species abundance; projects. The dominant projects were well as online at www.soest.hawaii.edu/ b) ecosystem impact of reduction of the biological (41) followed by statistical PFRP/pub_list_newsletter.html. The abundance of specific tuna species and and modeling (21), economics (18) SOEST-JIMAR reports and journal and movement on all scales through support and sociocultural (13). The complete other publications can be found at www. of local, regional and basin-scale tagging; breakdown of project by topic areas is soest.hawaii.edu/PFRP/allpub.html. and c) analysis of sources, distribution shown in Table 1. A few projects from In 2012, the program quit accepting and cultural value of fish in fishing each area are highlighted below. The RFPs due to discontinuation of program communities. complete list of all projects can be found funding from the federal government. The PFRP solicited for new research in Appendix 3. Further information about the PFRP is proposals every one to two years as federal Projects selected for funding were available on the PFRP website (www. funding permitted. RFPs were posted on required to submit annual progress soest.hawaii.edu/PFRP/), maintained the PFRP web site, on selected email list reports and make presentations at by the UH. servers and circulated to fishery research PFRP PI meetings, which were held in offices in academic and commercial fishery programs. In consultation with the PFRP Steering Committee, the RFPs focused on particular research themes such as, oceanographic environment on pelagic fisheries, economic factors influencing fishing industries, ecosystems management approaches and fishery bycatch topics. Submitted research proposals went through an external review process before submission to the PFRP Steering Committee for a final decision. Members of the steering committee and the program manager were eligible Fig. 6. About to release a bigeye tuna carrying an electronic data-logging and tracking tag to apply for PFRP funds as principal or in the equatorial Pacific. David Itano photo.

5 3. SELECT BIOLOGY PROJECTS 3.1 Reproductive Biology of The study examined peak spawning as female yellowfin tuna cycle in and out Yellowfin Tuna,Thunnus albacares, areas and seasons by school and by capture of active spawning periods, characterized in Hawaiian Waters and the gear type, noting a positive relationship by near daily spawning periodicity and Western Tropical Pacific Ocean. between high reproductive rates, localized high fecundity. Higher latitude regions, areas of forage abundance and heightened such as around Hawai‘i, have well defined David Itano and Richard Shomura vulnerability to surface fisheries. Length seasonal patterns of yellowfin spawning at The reproductive biology of yellowfin at 50% maturity for equatorial samples which time these fish become vulnerable tuna (Thunnus albacares) was examined in was estimated at 104.6 centimeters (cm) to surface fisheries. relation to seasonality, their vulnerability with no significant difference in length Seasonal peaks in spawning may also to capture and fisheries interaction in the at maturity estimates between samples be evident in equatorial areas subject WCPO. Results from this study confirmed taken by surface and sub-surface gears. to strongly reversing monsoon weather the high reproductive potential of However, spawning frequency estimates patterns that dictate upwelling and yellowfin tuna in areas where sea surface varied according to school and harvest localized productivity. In the equatorial temperatures (SST) remain above 24°C gear type. Reproductively active fish are region of the WCPO purse-seine fishery, to 25°C. However, spawning activity was vulnerable to troll, shallow handline, consistently high SSTs and a relatively noted to decrease or temporarily cease in shallow-set longline and purse-seine gear. stable oceanographic environment some areas where SST remained high, Mature but reproductively inactive fish are suggest tropical tunas can reproduce suggesting that trends in local water predominant in the catches of deep-set independently of season. However, areas temperatures, forage availability or longline gear. and times of elevated spawning activity localized productivity may be important Histological evidence suggests appear to exist and vary spatially and to maintain spawning activity. alternating periods of near daily spawning temporally between years. interspersed with non-spawning periods

Fig. 7. Ripe ova of a reproductively active yellowfin tuna in active spawning mode. Fig. 8. Female yellowfin in Hawai‘i with mature gonads. Catch rates for surface trollers David Itano photo. increase during the spring-summer spawning season. David Itano photo.

Fig. 10. A purse-seine vessel advancing on a large school of tuna actively feeding on the ocean anchovy Encrasicholina punctifer. These actively feeding schools are often in a near daily spawning rhythm. Their surface- Fig. 9. Beach landing of mature yellowfin tuna taken by a handline fishery. feeding activity makes them vulnerable to David Itano photo. purse-seine gear. David Itano photo.

6 Fig. 11. NOAA researcher attaching pop- up archival tag on an albacore tuna on a longline vessel in waters off American Samoa. NMFS PIFSC photo. The study found a positive relationship between intense feeding activity on the ocean anchovy Encrasicholina punctifer and high reproductive rates for yellowfin. It is suggested that discrete areas of elevated forage abundance that vary in time and space and between years could Fig. 12. Bigeye tuna high-resolution archival data from a successfully recovered pop-up help to explain differences in proposed archival tag for the period Nov. 14–Dec. 2, 2002. The tuna occupied shallow depths (<100 m) spawning areas and “seasons” in this during the night and deep (200 m to 400 m) foraging dives during the day between Nov.17 equatorial region. and 27 and generally remained in depths less than 200 m during the day between Nov. 28 In Hawai‘i, fisheries targeting large and Dec. 2. Source: Howell et al. 2010. yellowfin appear to be based on an inshore spawning run during the spring, summer describe variability in their dive behavior Two publications resulted from this and early fall, when vulnerability to surface across space and time. During the day, project: Howell et al. 2010 and Polovina gear and the potential for gear conflict and bigeye tuna generally spent time in the et al. 2008. This project also contributed interaction between fisheries increases. 0 to 50 meter (m) and 300 to 400 m to tagging of several albacore tunas in Inshore longline area closures have been depth ranges, with spatial and temporal American Samoa, and those results are implemented to mitigate gear conflict variability in the deep mode. At night, presented along with oceanographic data issues between large and small gear types. bigeye tuna generally inhabited the 0 to from a research cruise in Domokos et An unintended consequence of these 100 m depth range. Three daily dive types al. 2007. measures is that reproductively active were defined based on the percentage of 3.3 Age and Growth of Striped time tuna spent in specific depth layers yellowfin close to the main Hawaiian Marlin, Kajikia audax, in the Islands are exposed to reduced fishing during the day. These three types were Hawai‘i-based Longline Fishery pressure. However, the significance of defined as shallow, intermediate and deep this will require more information on and represented 24.4%, 18.8% and 56.8% R. Keller Kopf and Robert Humphreys Jr. of the total number of days in the study, the role of immigration, residence times, Striped marlin is the most widely respectively. spawning site fidelity and recruitment of distributed species of Istiophorid billfish Data from 11 pop-up archival yellowfin to Hawaiian fisheries. (marlin, sailfish and spearfish). Currently transmitting tags attached to opah it is believed that there five semi- 3.2 Describing the Vertical Habitat (Lampris guttatus, family Lampridae) independent stocks in the Pacific Ocean. of Bigeye and Albacore Tunas and in the central North Pacific between Striped marlin is the most valuable species Post-Release Survival for Marlins November 2003 and March 2005 were of Istiophorid billfish caught in the Pacific, in the Central Pacific Longline used to describe their vertical movement with 4,000 metric tons (mt) harvested Fisheries with Pop-Up Archival and habitat. In the subtropical gyre per year in the WCPO. However, the northwest of the Hawaiian Islands, opah Transmitting Tags biomass of striped in the North Pacific generally inhabited a 50 to 400 m depth Jeffrey Polovina and Michael Seki has declined to approximately 6% to 16% range and 8° to 22° C temperatures. They of 1952 levels. Data from 29 pop-up archival were frequently found in depths of 50 The project found that the first yearly transmission tags deployed on to 150 m at night and in greater depths annulus typically formed at about 301 commercial-size bigeye tuna (Thunnus (100 to 400 m) during the day but were days after hatching. The observed spine obesus) in the central North Pacific Ocean constantly moving vertically within this radius of the first annulus was 5.35 ± 0.62 from 4° N to 32° N were analyzed to broad range.

7 millimeters (mm). The mean marginal 2008, had an estimated hatch date of 70% to 75% of maximum body length increment showed that a new annulus Oct. 28, 2007. This fish was six months (L∞=2722 ♀, 2581 mm LJFL ♂) during forms annually each spring. Striped marlin old, with a lower jaw fork length (LJFL) the first two years of life. Ages ranged growth averaged 4.5 mm per day during of 1,220 mm. from 130 estimated days in a 4-kg whole the first 12 months of life. Growth was Growth in the Southwest Pacific weight (1,120 mm LJFL) male to eight rapid in terms of length (not mass). A Ocean was validated. This striped marlin estimated years in a 168-kg (2,871 mm striped marlin caught on the April 15, stock exhibited rapid early growth with LJFL) female.

Fig. 13. North and South Pacific striped marlin primary distribution (dark blue), occasional distribution (light blue) and study regions (red circles). Source: Kopf Fig. 14. Growth rates of Pacific striped marlin in the Hawai‘i and Australia commercial and Humphreys 2012. longline fleets as measured by the lower jaw fork length. Source: Kopf and Humphreys 2012.

4. SELECT STATISTICAL AND MODELING PROJECT 4.1 Incorporating Oceanographic all alternate runs of the integrated model was a lesser probability at that time that Data in Stock Assessments of show the same pattern of decline in the fishing mortality was greater than FMSY Blue Sharks and Other Species 1980s followed by recovery to above the (overfishing occurring). Incidentally Caught in the Hawai‘i- level at the start of the time series. The There was an increasing trend in total Based Longline Fishery integrated model analyses indicated some effort expended by longline fisheries probability (around 30%) that biomass toward the end of the time series, and Pierre Kleiber and Hideki Nakano at the end of the time series was less this trend may have continued thereafter. A stock assessment of the blue shark than BMSY (overfished) and that there It would be prudent to assume that the (Prionace glauca) population in the North Pacific was conducted using catch and effort data from commercial longline and large mesh driftnet fisheries from the years 1971 through 2002 as well as small mesh driftnet fisheries operating primarily in the 1980s. Because reporting of shark catch has not been required in these fisheries, which target primarily tunas, a system for identifying the more reliable longline catch reports was utilized. Two different assessment models were utilized, a surplus production model, and an integrated age and spatial structured model tested with a variety of structural assumptions. The two models were found Fig. 15. Median values of blue shark stock size relative to stock size at MSY. Thin lines show to be in general agreement. The trends in 90% probability intervals, B/Bmsy. Projections based on various levels of fishing mortality, F. abundance in the production model and Source: Kleiber et al. 2009.

8 population is at least close to maximum longline CPUE for incidentally caught 3. Estimation of effective longline sustainable yield (MSY) level and fishing billfishes is best represented as a process effort, using fine-scale Japanese mortality may be approaching to the MSY characterized by zero inflation and over longline fishery data; and level in the future. dispersion in the positive catches and 4. Aggregation of catch and effective 4.2 Analyses of Catch Data for Blue expected zero catches, because the ZINB effort over appropriate spatial zones to model was selected as the best fitting produce revised time series of CPUE. and Striped Marlins (Istiophoridae) model for all species. It was recommended Model results indicated that effective William A. Walsh and Jon Brodziak that ZINB models be considered as an a effort has increased in both the WCPO Catch per unit effort (CPUE) priori model for CPUE standardizations and EPO. In the WCPO, effective effort standardizations and model selection of billfishes and other bycatch species in increased by 43% from the late 1960s procedures were conducted for four longline fisheries. to the late 1980s due primarily to the billfish species (Family Istiophoridae) 4.3 Pacific-Wide Analysis of Bigeye increased effectiveness of effort (deeper caught as incidental catch in the Hawai‘i- Tuna (Thunnus obesus) Using a longline sets) rather than to increased based pelagic longline fishery during Length-Based, Age Structured nominal effort. Over the same period, 1995–2011: Blue marlin (Makaira Modeling Framework (MULTIFAN-CL) effective effort increased 250% in the EPO nigricans), striped marlin (Kajikia due primarily to increased nominal effort. audax), shortbill spearfish (Tetrapturus John Hampton, Richard Deriso and Nominal and standardized CPUE indices angustirostris) and sailfish (Istiophorus Naozumi Miyabe in the EPO show similar trends: a decline platypterus). The first three species were (This summary is based on the abstract during the 1960s, a period of stability in analyzed on a fishery-wide basis. For from Bigelow et al. 2002.) the 1970s, high values during 1985–1986 sailfish, the fishery data came exclusively and a decline thereafter. A new habitat-based model was from tuna-targeted longline sets in the In the WCPO, nominal CPUE is developed to improve estimates of deep-set sector of the Hawai‘i-based stable over the time-series; however, relative abundance of Pacific bigeye tuna fishery. Fishery observer data from the standardized CPUE has declined by (Thunnus obesus). The model provides NOAA Fisheries Pacific Islands Regional 50%. If estimates of standardized CPUE estimates of “effective” longline effort and Observer Program was used to fit the accurately reflect relative abundance, therefore better estimates of catch-per- CPUE standardization models. then substantial reductions of bigeye unit-of-effort (CPUE) by incorporating In this context, the objective was to tuna abundance for some regions in the information on the variation in longline investigate the quality of model fit for five Pacific Ocean has been documented. A fishing depth and depth of bigeye tuna types of generalized linear models (GLMs): decline in standardized CPUE in the preferred habitat. The essential elements Poisson, negative binomial, zero-inflated subtropical gyres concurrent with stability in the model are as follows: Poisson, zero-inflated negative binomial in equatorial areas may represent a 1. Estimation of the depth distribution (ZINB) and delta-Gamma. Each of these contraction in the range of the population of the longline gear, using models represented a different hypothesis resulting from a decline in population information on gear configuration about the capture process for a bycatch abundance. The sensitivity of the results and ocean currents; species for which the catch data primarily to the habitat (temperature and oxygen) 2. Estimation of the depth distribution consisted of zero catch observations. The assumptions were tested using Monte of bigeye tuna, based on habitat five GLMs were fitted by forward entry Carlo simulations. preference and oceanographic data; variable selection, and the best fitting GLM for each species was selected on the basis of Akaike Information Criterion values and calculated Akaike weights. The best-fitting model selected for each species was a ZINB GLM. The ZINB model was comprised of a negative binomial counts model for expected zero catch sets and a positive catch per set distribution along with a binomial inflation model to account for excess zeros. For each species, the important explanatory variables for standardizing CPUE were fishing year, fishing (i.e., calendar) quarter and fishing region. The best fitting models indicated that standardized CPUE for striped and blue marlins decreased significantly during Fig. 16. Spatial comparison of bigeye standardized CPUE in the Japanese longline fishery the study period. It is suggested that during the last four decades. Source: Bigelow et al. 2002.

9 5. SELECT ECONOMIC PROJECTS 5.1 The Role of Social Networks on Fishermen Economic Performance in Hawai‘i’s Longline Fishery PingSun Leung, Shawn Arita and Stewart Allen (This summary is based on the abstract from Barnes-Mauthe et al. 2013.) Social networks have recently been identified as key features in facilitating or constraining collaborative arrangements that can enhance resource governance and adaptability in complex social- ecological systems. Nonetheless, the effect of ethnicity on social network structure in an ethnically diverse common-pool resource system is virtually unknown. The entire social network of Hawai‘i’s longline Fig. 17. Network configuration of all relations identified by Hawai‘i’s longline fishermen, fishery is characterized as an ethnically referred to as the entire HLF network. Nodes (representing actors) with the smallest path diverse competitive pelagic fishery. This lengths to each other are placed closest together in the graph by an algorithm that uses study investigated the network homophily, iterative fitting. E-A = Euro American, V-A = Vietnamese-American, K-A = Korean-American. network structure and cross-scale linkages. Source: Barnes-Mauthe et al. 2013. Results showed that ethnicity significantly influences social network quality within each market niche and Grading criteria were not always structure and is responsible for a consumer application defines the grade applied uniformly, but a common homophily effect, which can create and, ultimately the price, of fresh tuna. understanding of quality standards evolves challenges for stakeholder collaboration By contrast, marketing options are over time between fresh tuna sellers across groups. The analysis also suggested greatly reduced for conventionally frozen and buyers in each market. Research that ethnicity influences the formation of tuna, most of which is sold for canning results will enable Pacific island resource diverse network structures and can affect without individual grading of fish. The managers to value pelagic fisheries under the level of linkages to outside industry influence of quality gradations on fresh varied marketing scenarios. The findings leaders, government or management tuna pricing in the Hawai‘i market was also suggest some strategies that could officials, and members of the scientific assessed quantitatively by analyzing over enhance the economic viability of island- community. 8,000 individual tuna transactions during based tuna fisheries. This study provided the first empirical the summers of 1994 and 1995. 5.3 Incidental Catch of Non-target Hawai‘i grading standards were examination of the impact of ethnic Fish Species and Sea Turtles: diversity on resource user’s social compared and “calibrated” with those in major U.S. and Japanese fresh tuna Comparing Hawai‘i’s Longline networks in the common-pool resource Fisheries with Others literature, having important implications markets. Market connectedness is for collaborative resource management. demonstrated by comparing tuna prices John Kaneko and Paul Bartram in Hawai‘i with prices of equivalently The quantity and species composition 5.2. Factors Affecting Price graded fish in export markets. Fresh of longline targeted and incidental Determination and Market marlin, which is the largest bycatch of catch are strongly influenced by gear Competition for Fresh Pelagic Fish tuna fisheries and enters the same markets configurations, especially the depth of as fresh tuna, is a secondary focus of the John Kaneko and Paul Bartram hooks. The ecological impacts of pelagic research. Tuna quality grading is a highly longline fisheries vary with when, where This study examined the highly subjective process. Graders can easily and how the mainline and hooks are set. differentiated market for fresh tuna observe fish body appearance, but they Hawai‘i pelagic longline fisheries products and the relationship between can directly sample only a small section are sometimes characterized as having quality characteristics and market value. of the fish muscle. There are usually only “high bycatch.” To assess this statement Fresh tuna are individually graded, a few seconds to evaluate and assign a quantitatively, the present study examined and each fish is directed to the most grade for each tuna during purchasing diverse longline fisheries, including those appropriate (and profitable) market or export processing. and end use. The range of acceptable in Hawai‘i, that supply or have the

10 potential to supply the same pelagic fishery 1) scaling of pelagic longline bycatch rates amount of regulation and monitoring products to U.S. markets. Incidental catch from low to high and 2) comparison of of Hawai‘i longline fisheries and the rich rates of sea turtles and finfish bycatch Hawai‘i’s pelagic longline fisheries with source of data they provide for resource were estimated for the fisheries where others on this quantitative scale. assessment and technological solutions data were available. The term “bycatch” The major finding of this research is to bycatch issues qualify them as a model is defined as fish released at sea dead or that Hawai‘i’s tuna longline fishery has a for fisheries management. with a poor chance of survival. lower C/B ratio of sea turtles and finfish The positive attributes of the Hawai‘i Indices of bycatch per unit effort waste (except for longnose lancetfish) fishery can be considered a “value-added” (BPUE) and CPUE were calculated from compared to most competing pelagic component of Hawai‘i longline products reported target catch, effort and incidental longline fisheries studied. Claims of high to “brand” and differentiate them from catch data for these fisheries. Catch to rates of incidental catch of sea turtles non-Hawai‘i longline products that have bycatch ratios (C/B ratio) were calculated and finfish bycatch (waste) associated significantly higher associated bycatch. by dividing CPUE by BPUE. C/B ratios with Hawai‘i tuna longline fishing are, provide a standardized index that allows therefore, incorrect. The extraordinary

6. SELECT SOCIOCULTURAL PROJECTS 6.1 Local Fishery Knowledge: Its determine the local resource knowledge Consistent with ethnographic approaches, Application to the Management held by fishermen. Information relevant the oral histories were developed over and Development of Small to the management of Hawai‘i’s yellowfin time, with individuals and small groups, Scale Tuna Fisheries in the U.S. handline fishery was elicited on Hawai‘i’s until each crew member’s story was fully Pacific Islands bigeye longline fishery, Guam's blue documented. marlin troll fishery, and the management Much data were collected through John Kaneko and Paul Bartram and development of Samoa's (Western and participant-observation, as the researcher Effective natural resource management American) albacore alia longline fishery. and interpreter became regular fixtures on requires the best available knowledge The management and industry the docks for nearly two years. Many of about the biological, social, cultural, development implications of these the Filipinos had backgrounds in fishing economic and political factors that consensus views were discussed. Cultural and had substantial levels of related comprise a management system. Fishery consensus analysis was recommended training, such as marine engineering. managers base decision making on expert to fisheries managers as a potential Their main incentives for working in input from scientists and the concerns of management tool for use in resource issue the Hawai‘i longline industry were the various stakeholders. Defining expert or scoping, problem assessment, formulation economic benefits and status provided stakeholder consensus views on fishery of research agenda and management by overseas employment, although most resources is critical to understanding options, conflict resolution and selection appreciated the fishing lifestyle. Job how each group arrives at its particular of management policy. satisfaction was relatively high; salary assessments and opinions about 6.2 Sociological Baseline of levels were acceptable, and there was potential to earn additional income. management options. Hawai‘i-Based Longline Fishery: Despite being confined to the immediate Cultural consensus analysis was Extension and Expansion of Scope evaluated as a quantitative means of pier area because of their visa status, eliciting and analyzing the consensus Sam Pooley and Stewart Allen Filipino crew members derived benefits from several types of social networks and views on pelagic fisheries resources held The Hawai‘i based longline fishing exhibited many characteristics common by expert and stakeholder groups. The industry has been heavily regulated to communities. method is capable of determining if a with little analysis of the resulting group shares a consensus view on a set of social and cultural effects. In 2003–04, 6.3 An Analysis of Archaeological resource questions. The method generates NOAA PIFSC studied fishermen in the and Historical Data on Fisheries the consensus view (the answer key) Hawai'i-based longline fleet to develop for Pelagic Species in Guam and through individual interviews without a comprehensive sociocultural profile of Northern Mariana Islands the need to convene the expert group industry participants. and without knowing the answers ahead One focus of the study was the Judith Amesbury and Rosalind of time. Filipino crew members, who comprised Hunter-Anderson Using this method, a group’s about three-quarters of the longline crew The first people to arrive in the consensus view was determined without population working at the time. One Mariana Archipelago at least 3,500 years the politics inherent in a group consensus researcher, with the assistance of a Filipino ago were skilled fishermen. Their ability building process. The study investigated interpreter-community liaison, developed to reach the Marianas over a long distance the use of cultural consensus analysis to oral histories of 145 crew members. of open ocean was accompanied by the

11 ability to fish for open-ocean species. early Spanish Period described fishing Chamorro and Carolinian people engaged Analysis of fish bones from archaeological for flying fish, mahimahi, and billfish. in reef fishing. sites shows that the Chamorro fished for By all accounts the Chamorro were The next major development in pelagic species, especially mahimahi and exceptionally skilled sailors and fishermen. pelagic fishing was the pole-and-line marlin, throughout the long Prehistoric However, when hostilities broke out soon fishery operated by the Japanese in Saipan Period (at least 1500 BC to AD 1521). after Spanish colonization in 1668, the in the 1920s and 30s, which was the first A comparison of ten sites with pelagic Chamorro people and culture were commercial fishery in the Marianas. The species and MNI analysis indicates that drastically affected. labor was mostly Japanese and Okinawan; approximately sixteen percent of the fishes As a result of the 25-year long Spanish- and the fish were exported to Japan. caught were pelagic species. It is noted Chamorro Wars and the Spanish policy of Extraordinarily large amounts of skipjack that archaeological sites in Southern requiring nearly everyone in the Marianas were caught. The Japanese fishery ended Taiwan and the Northern Philippines to move to Guam, the flying proa was with the American takeover of Saipan in also have yielded bones of mahimahi no longer built by about 1750, and the 1944. For a few years after the war, a and marlin from deposits which date to Chamorro people did not participate in cooperative of Carolinian fishermen tried approximately the same time period as the pelagic fishing for the next 200 years. to resume the pole-and-line fishery, but it Pre-Latte Phase in the Marianas. Refaluwasch people from the Caroline did so with less success than the Japanese Pelagic fishing continued into the Islands moved into the Marianas and took had. Meanwhile in pre-war Guam, the Spanish Period with the addition of over inter-island travel during the second U.S. Navy decided to teach Chamorro iron for fishhooks. The writers of the half of the 1700s and the 1800s. Both men how to fish for pelagic species. A lack

Fig. 19. Points of composite fishhooks from archaeological sites in Guam. a = human bone point from Tarague. Courtesy of Robert Amesbury.

Fig. 20. Human bone point of composite Fig. 18. Guam, showing archaeological sites with pelagic fish and turtle remains. Courtesy fishhook from Ylig Bay, Guam. of Robert Amesbury. Rick Schaefer photo.

12 of boats prevented that idea from getting governors’ reports. By the mid-1960s of pounds of pelagic fish annually. Five off the ground. Boats became available there were only a few boats on Tinian species (mahimahi, skipjack, wahoo, in the 1950s and 60s as the economy and Rota, but more on Guam and Saipan. yellowfin and marlin) make up about 95% improved after the war. Good fishery data from the 1980s on of the catch. The Chamorro fishermen Pelagic fishing had begun by 1956 show that the small boat fishermen of the have reclaimed their heritage as great according to the post-war Guam Marianas now land hundreds of thousands pelagic fishermen.

7. SELECT OCEANOGRAPHY PROJECTS

7.1 Oceanographic Characterization of the American Samoa Longline Fishing Grounds for Albacore, Thunnus alalunga Michael Seki, Jeffrey Polovina and Reka Domokos The South Equatorial Counter Current (SECC) strongly influences the EEZ surrounding American Samoa and changes strength on a seasonal and El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle. A strong SECC is associated with a predominantly anticyclonic eddy field as well as increased micronekton biomass and CPUE for albacore tuna, the Fig. 21. Representative monthly sea surface Chl a concentrations over the Southwestern economically important target species of Pacific in winter (left) and summer (right) during non–El Nino (top) and El Nino the local longline fishery. (bottom) conditions. The EEZ borders around American Samoa are shown in the lower A strong SECC carries chlorophyll-a right in magenta. Source: Domokos 2009. rich waters from upwelling regions at the North coast of New Guinea towards the strength of upwelling and the resulting applied to determine the existence of EEZ, most likely resulting in the observed increase in chlorophyll a at New Guinea, statistically significant regime shifts in increase in micronekton biomass, as well as the Southern Oscillation time series of both ecosystem indicators forage for albacore. Relatively stable Index, could be used to predict the and tuna recruitment estimates. anticyclonic eddies show a further increase performance of the local longline fishery Shifts were found at times that are in micronekton biomass, apparently for albacore tuna in the EEZ surrounding broadly consistent with other studies advected from neighboring SECC waters. American Samoa. for the North Pacific (1976, 1989, The presence of forage presumably The borders of the EEZ around 1998) although earlier shifts (ca. 1964) concentrates albacore, thus resulting in American Samoa are shown at the lower appear to be just as significant. The the observed increase in CPUE. right in magenta. Source: Domokos 2009. methods were sound for the purposes High shear regions of neither 7.2 Regime Shifts in the of oceanographic monitoring and analysis but were inadequate to build causal or anticyclonic nor cyclonic eddies correlate Western and Central Pacific predictive relationships between the ocean with increased micronekton biomass. Ocean Tuna Fisheries Areas characterized by South Equatorial environment and tuna recruitment. Other Current (SEC) waters correspond to areas David Kirby, Patrick Lehodey, Valerie statistical models have proved useful in with the lowest micronekton biomass Allain and Adam Langley that regard and the best single indicator for monitoring the effect of long-term and the highest number of aggregative This analysis aimed to establish environmental variability on yellowfin structures, which are most likely whether the “regime shifts” documented tuna recruitment appears to be the area small pelagic fish shoals. Micronekton for the North Pacific Ocean are seen of the western Pacific warm pool. composition in SEC waters differs from in the WCPO and are relevant to Parallel research by other workers that in the SECC. recruitment variation for tropical tunas. suggests that the Atlantic Ocean acts as During El Niños, the seasonal signals Quantitative indicators of oceanographic a key pacemaker for the western Pacific at the North shore of New Guinea and state were derived by multivariate analysis decadal climate variability. in the SECC are exceptionally strong and of physical and biological variables output Observational analysis suggests that correspond to higher albacore CPUE in from an ocean general circulation and the western tropical Pacific (WTP) SST the EEZ. The results suggest that the biogeochemical model. Tests were

13 shows predominant variability over multi- decadal time scales, which is unlikely to be explained by the interdecadal Pacific oscillation. This variability is largely explained by the remote Atlantic multi- decadal oscillation (AMO). A suite of experiments successfully reproduces the WTP multi-decadal variability and the AMO–WTP SST connection. The AMO warm SST anomaly generates an atmospheric teleconnection to the North Pacific, which weakens the Aleutian low and subtropical North Pacific westerlies. The wind changes induce a subtropical North Pacific SST warming through wind-evaporation-SST effect. In response to this warming, the surface winds converge towards the subtropical North Pacific from the tropics, leading to Fig. 22. Yellowfin tuna recruitment estimates (first y-axis; units: millions of fish) from the anomalous cyclonic circulation and low stock assessment model MULTIFAN-CL and the GLM plotted with annual average warm pool pressure over the WTP region. The warm area (WP28.5, second y-axis; units: millions of square kilometers). Source: Kirby et al. 2007 SST anomaly further develops due to the SST–sea level pressure–cloud–longwave stock. Catchability, in turn, is dependent shear of the ocean currents also has a radiation positive feedback. to a considerable extent upon variable profound effect on catchability and For more details of the project, see oceanographic conditions. Oceanographic CPUE. It is important to note that both Kirby DS et al. 2004, Kirby et al. 2007, variability can significantly affect the depth vertical and horizontal velocity shears Lehodey et al. 2006, Lehodey et al. of the thermocline and the most likely affect the performance of longline gear. 2020, Sun et al. 2017 and Bertrand A depth of occurrence of bigeye tunas. The Although strong current shears generally et al. 2020. preferred foraging habitat of bigeye tunas tend to lift longline gear and prevent is the 8°–15° C water at or near the base it from penetrating to the depth of the 7.3 The Role of Oceanography of the thermocline. bigeye habitat, convergent flows can also on Bigeye Tuna Aggregation Evidence from a recently recovered result in deepening of the longline. and Vulnerability in the Hawai‘i NMFS archival tag from a bigeye tuna As these cases have demonstrated, Longline Fishery from Satellite, in Hawaiian waters revealed a repetitive CPUE does not necessarily reflect stock Moored and Shipboard Time Series pattern of remaining in the upper 10 abundance. Oceanographic features which m–90 m at night and diving to 350 affect the depth of the 8°–15° C layer Russell Brainard, Jeff Polovina, Michael m–500 m (8°–10° C) each day. During or result in regions of high vertical or Seki, Bo Qiu and Pierre Flament the day, the tuna remained at depth, horizontal velocity shear could impact Bigeye tuna (Thunnus obesus) is the apparently foraging, until its body CPUE of bigeye tuna. These features principal deep-water target species of temperature dropped to about 17° C undoubtedly include cyclonic and the longline fishery in the Pacific Ocean (typically at depth for about 45 minutes). anticyclonic mesoscale eddies, westward- yielding total annual catches exceeding The fish then briefly migrated to warmer propagating Rossby waves, shear 150,000 tons. In the Hawai‘i-based waters (50 m–150 m) before returning instability waves and large-scale inter- longline fishery, bigeye tuna have to depth. This behavior suggests that annual and decadal shifts in the positions consistently been one of the dominant at times when the thermal structure is and strengths of the North Pacific gyre. species in terms of landings and ex- depressed, bigeye tunas may be generally These features have significant variability vessel revenue. deeper and less aggregated due to their over time scales from diurnal to decadal Although stock assessment of bigeye extended vertical migrations. Although around the Hawai‘i Archipelago. Likewise, tuna has been conducted using indices of the stock abundance may be unchanged, the overall CPUE for bigeye tunas in abundance, non-equilibrium production catchability and CPUE are reduced. the Hawai‘i-based longline fishery shows models and yield-per-recruit analysis, Conversely, when the thermal structure significant variability over these time each of these methods requires the use is elevated, the habitat is generally scales. For purposes of stock assessment of longline fishery CPUE as an index shallower and bigeye tunas may be and management, it is necessary to have an of bigeye abundance. Unfortunately, more aggregated, resulting in increased index of the bigeye local abundance that is fishery-dependent CPUE does not catchability and CPUE. less biased by changes in fish aggregation necessarily represent the abundance of By modifying the depth of penetration or catchability of the gear associated with the stock but rather the catchability of the and performance of longline, the velocity these oceanographic features.

14 8. SELECT PROTECTED SPECIES PROJECTS 8.1 Comparing Sea Turtle identifies fishing areas where, given the not yet peer-reviewed, published or Distributions and Fisheries evidence of cumulative hotspots across readily accessible. Interactions in the Atlantic gear and taxa, traditional species or Moreover, most experiments have and Pacific gear-specific bycatch management and small sample sizes and have been mitigation efforts may be necessary conducted over only a few seasons in Molly Lutcavage and Selina Heppell but not sufficient. Given the global a small number of fisheries; many study Loss of megafauna, termed trophic distribution of bycatch and the mitigation designs preclude drawing conclusions downgrading, has been found to affect success achieved by some fleets, the about the independent effect of single biotic interactions, disturbance regimes, reduction of air-breathing megafauna- factors on turtle bycatch and target catch species invasions and nutrient cycling. bycatch is both an urgent and achievable rates; and few studies consider effects One recognized cause in air-breathing conservation priority. on other bycatch species. In the U.S. marine megafauna is incidental capture 8.2 Direct Tests of the Efficacy North Atlantic longline swordfish fishery, 4.9-cm wide circle hooks with fish bait or bycatch by fisheries. Characterizing of Bait and Gear Modifications megafauna-bycatch patterns across large significantly reduced sea turtle bycatch for Reducing Interactions of Sea ocean regions is limited by data availability rates and the proportion of hard-shell but essential to direct conservation Turtles with Longline Fishing Gear turtles that swallowed hooks vs. being and management resources. Empirical in Costa Rica hooked in the mouth compared to data were used to identify the global Yonat Swimmer 4.0-cm wide J hooks with squid bait distribution and magnitude of seabird, without compromising commercial Reducing bycatch of sea turtles in marine mammal and sea turtle bycatch viability for some target species. But pelagic longline fisheries, in concert with in three widely used fishing gears. Taxa- these large circle hooks might not be activities to reduce other anthropogenic specific hotspots were identified and effective or economically viable in other sources of mortality, may contribute to found evidence of cumulative impacts. longline fisheries. the recovery of marine turtle populations. This analysis provides an unprecedented The effectiveness and commercial Due to the state of management regimes global assessment of the distribution and viability of a turtle avoidance strategy may in most longline fisheries, strategies to magnitude of air-breathing megafauna- be fishery-specific, depending on the size reduce turtle interactions must not only bycatch, highlighting its cumulative and species of turtles and target fish and be effective but also must be commercially nature and the urgent need to build on other differences between fleets. Testing viable. Most research has been initiated existing mitigation successes. of turtle avoidance methods in individual only recently, and many results are Recent research on ocean health has fleets may, therefore, be necessary. It is a found large predator abundance to be a key element of ocean condition. Fisheries can impact large predator abundance directly through targeted capture and indirectly through incidental capture of non-target species or bycatch. However, measures of the global nature of bycatch are lacking for air-breathing megafauna. This study fills this knowledge gap and presents a synoptic global assessment of the distribution and intensity of bycatch of seabirds, marine mammals and sea turtles based on empirical data from the three most commonly used types of fishing gears worldwide. The study identifies taxa-specific hotspots of bycatch intensity and finds evidence of cumulative impacts across fishing fleets and gears. This global map of bycatch illustrates where data are particularly scarce—in coastal and small-scale fisheries and ocean regions Fig. 23. Olive ridley sea turtle entangled in a polypropylene multifilament line next to a that support developed industrial fisheries float (plastic jug). This gear is typical of that used in artisanal longline fisheries in Latin and millions of small-scale fishers—and America. Yonat Swimmer photo.

15 priority to conduct trials in longline fleets 8.3 A General Bayesian Integrated Bayesian analysis is an ideal framework that set gear shallow, those overlapping Population Dynamics Model for for delivering information on uncertainty the most threatened turtle populations Protected Species to the decision-making process. It also and those overlapping high densities of allows information from other populations turtles such as those fishing near breeding Mark Maunder or species or expert judgment to be colonies. In addition to trials using large Managing wildlife-human interactions included in the analysis, if appropriate. 4.9-cm wide circle hooks in place of demands reliable information about the Integrated analysis attempts to include smaller J and Japan tuna hooks, other likely consequences of management all relevant data for a population into one fishing strategies are under assessment. actions. This requirement is a general analysis by combining analyses, sharing These include the following: one, whatever the taxonomic group. A parameters and simultaneously estimating a. Using small circle hooks (≤ 4.6-cm method was developed for estimating all parameters, using a combined narrowest width) in place of smaller population dynamics and decision analysis objective function. It ensured that model J and Japan tuna hooks; that is generally applicable, extremely assumptions and parameter estimates were b. Setting gear below turtle-abundant flexible, uses data efficiently and gives consistent throughout the analysis, that depths; answers in a useful format. uncertainty was propagated through the c. Single hooking fish bait vs. multiple The case study involved bycatch of analysis and that the correlations among hook threading; a protected species, the Northeastern parameters were preserved. d. Reducing gear soak time and retrieval offshore spotted dolphin (Stenella Perhaps the most important aspect during daytime; and attenuata), in the tuna fishery of the of integrated analysis is the way it both e. Avoiding bycatch hotspots through EPO. Informed decision-making requires enables and forces consideration of the fleet communication programs and quantitative analyses considering all system as a whole so inconsistencies can area and seasonal closures. relevant information, assessing how be observed and resolved For more recent work, see Boggs and bycatch affects these species and how Swimmer 2007 and Swimmer et al. 2009. regulations affect the fisheries, and describing the uncertainty in analyses.

9. SELECT TROPHODYNAMICS PROJECTS 9.1 Integrating Conventional and to skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) in ubiquitous features of ocean circulation Electronic Tagging Data into the the Pacific Ocean. and shallow seamounts that can alter local Spatial Ecosystem and Population Tagging data improved estimates circulation patterns. These features can Model SEAPODYM of species habitat parameters and contribute significantly to patterning in movement rates and, hence, allowed pelagic ecosystems affecting organismal Inna Senina, Patrick Lehodey and better representation of spatial dynamics abundance, distribution, productivity and Francois Royer of fish population. Due to estimated lower trophic structure, including patterns in Spatial Ecosystem and Population diffusion and higher advection rates, large fishes such as tuna and cetaceans. Dynamics Model (SEAPODYM) the model predicted less non-observed Trawl and bioacoustics sampling have is a model that was developed for “cryptic” biomass, which leads to the been used to evaluate the effect of investigating spatiotemporal dynamics stock sizes being closer to those estimated mesoscale eddies in American Samoa of fish populations under the influence by stock assessment models commonly and Cross Seamount off Hawai‘i on of both fishing and the environment. used by tuna commissions. micronekton communities. The model simulated age-structured 9.2 Assessment of the Impacts The American Samoa region acoustics showed that micronekton biomass population dynamics using advection- of Mesoscale Oceanographic diffusion-reaction equations describing increased inside anticyclonic eddies and Features on the Forage Base movement, recruitment, and natural and within SECC waters, the water mass fishing mortality. for Oceanic Predators from which anticyclonic eddies formed. The dynamic processes are constrained Jeffrey Drazen and Reka Domokos In addition, micronekton composition by environmental data and distributions of in SECC waters differed from those In the pelagic food-web, micronekton prey species. Model parameter estimation in the surrounding SEC that flows in at the mid-trophic level are one of the using fishing data was implemented the opposite direction. Data indicated lesser known components of the ocean initially, based on a maximum likelihood that the enhanced biomass with distinct ecosystem despite being a major driver of estimation (MLE) approach and adjoint composition in the SECC was the results the spatial dynamics of their predators, of technique. Further work described the of seasonal upwelling and chlorophyll which many are exploited species (e.g., integration of tagging data into the bloom at the North shore of New Guinea tunas).The oceanic mesoscale includes existing MLE approach with application that were transported east with the SECC, dynamic features such as eddies that are likely providing forage for micronekton

16 that are carried in the EEZ from the A) E) west. Off Cross Seamount, acoustics indicated enhanced biomass and a change in community composition over the seamount. However, trawls illustrated that there was significantly less large B) micronekton over the seamount than in the nearby open ocean. G) While predation might be partly the F) cause, the taxa absent from the summit all have daytime depths that are deeper C) than the depth of the summit, indicating avoidance may be a major reason for the low abundance. The seamount community was dominated by smaller taxa such as juvenile fishes and stomatopod D) larvae, which may be the drivers of the H) enhanced acoustic backscatter. Additional results from off the lee of Hawai‘i showed an enhanced micronekton abundance and biomass, but this may have related more to the moon phase at the time of sampling. Micronekton migrated close to the Fig. 24. Representative mesopelagic micronekton: A) Myctophum lychnobium surface during a new moon and were (Myctophidae); B) Oplophorus gradlarostris (Oplophoridae); C) Vindguerria nimbaria more susceptible to capture at this time. (Gonostomatidae); D) Pyroteuthis addolux (Pyroteuthidae); E) Janicella spinacauda The results help understanding of how (Oplophoridae); F) Sternoptyx sp. (Sternoptychidae); G) Hyalateuthis pelagica oceanographic mesoscale features altered (Ommastrephfidae); and H) Stomatopod larvae. Source: Drazen and De Forest 2008. micronekton distributions, resulting in north of Hawai‘i allowed a first illustration diets to evaluate whether skipjack tuna enhanced foraging opportunities for of the approach with actual data. Finally, (Katsuwonus pelamis) and yellowfin oceanic top predators. SEAPODYM is there are various sources of uncertainties tuna (Thunnus albacares) might be one modelling approach that includes associated with the use of acoustic data vulnerable to top-down control by large a representation of the spatial dynamics in micronekton biomass. pelagic predators in the Eastern tropical of several epi- and mesopelagic mid- For more details of this project see De Pacific Ocean. trophic-level functional groups. The Forest and Drazen 2009; Drazen and De The study identified potentially dynamics of these groups are driven by Forest 2008; and Drazen, De Forest and important predators of tunas by the physical (temperature and currents) and Domokos 2011. frequency, quantity, size and age of tunas biogeochemical (primary production, in their diets and considered the degree euphotic depth) variables. 9.3 Intra-Guild Predation and that predated tunas could have potentially A key issue is the parameterization Cannibalism in Pelagic Predators: contributed to the reproductive output of the energy transfer from the primary Implications for the Dynamics, of the population. The results indicated production to these functional groups. Assessment and Management of that the proportion of predator diets A method used in situ acoustic data to Pacific Tuna Populations consisting of skipjack and yellowfin estimate the parameters with a maximum tunas was high for sharks and billfishes. likelihood estimation approach. A series Tim Essington, Mark Maunder, Robert These predators also consumed a wide of twin experiments was conducted to Olson, James Kitchell and Enric Cortes size range of tunas, including sub-adults test the behavior of the model. This The ecological consequences of of the size capable of making a notable suggested that in the ideal case, that is, widespread fisheries-induced reductions contribution to the reproductive output with an environmental forcing perfectly of large pelagic predators are not fully of tuna populations. simulated and biomass estimates directly understood. Tropical tunas are considered The study suggested that in the correlated with the acoustic signal, a main component of apex predator guilds Eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, tropical a minimum of 200 observations over that include sharks and billfishes and thus tunas act as meso-predators more so than several time steps at the resolution of may seem unsusceptible to secondary apex predators. Sharks and billfishes have the model is needed to estimate the effects of fishing top predators. However, the potential to play an important role in parameter values with a minimum error. intra-guild predation can occur because regulating these tuna populations. This A transect of acoustic backscatter at 38 of size-structured interactions. The study study will inform future research that kHz collected during scientific cruises compiled existing data of apex predator

17 might ascertain whether diminished levels of large predators have enhanced the production of tuna stocks and whether the trophic interactions of skipjack and yellowfin tunas should be explicitly accounted for when their population dynamics are assessed. For more information, see Hoyle and Maunder 2004; Maunder 2004; McCarthy et al. 2004; and Hunsicker et al. 2012.

Fig. 25. Mean (+SD) percent frequency of occurrence of skipjack tuna (SKJ) and yellowfin tuna (YFT) in the diets of apex predators in the Eastern (ETP), Central (CTP) and Western (WTP) tropical Pacific Ocean. Estimates are based on summarized data sources. “Other tunas” category includes albacore, bigeye and Pacific bluefin tunas. NA: data not available. Source: Hunsicker et a1. 2012.

10. SELECT GENETICS PROJECTS 10.1 Analysis of Pacific Blue Marlin of the populations, then management not exceed a population’s ability to sustain and Swordfish Population Structure directives aimed at a broad geographic it. Several recent scientific management Using Mitochondrial and Nuclear area would be inappropriate and could panels agreed that identification of DNA Technologies lead to the irrevocable loss of regional billfish stock structure was a primary populations, decreasing the genetic need. Research into a species’ population John Graves and Barbara Block diversity and evolutionary potential of the stock structure provides managers with According to tag-and-release studies, species. On the other hand, management an understanding of the ranges and marlin and swordfish are capable of large- efforts divided on too fine a scale may be composition of fishery management units. scale movements that cover thousands overly restrictive. 10.2 Population Structure Genetic material from more than 60 of kilometers. For example, a swordfish and Dynamics in Mahimahi as tagged northeast of the Hawaiian individual blue marlin from the Atlantic Inferred through Analysis of Islands was recaptured off the coast and Pacific Oceans was analyzed. The of California, a straight-line distance preliminary results indicate that blue Mitochondrial DNA of approximately 3,000 km. Do such marlin in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans Carol Reeb long-distance recaptures mean that all represent genetically distinct populations Dolphinfish, or mahimahi (Coryphaena swordfish belong to a single, worldwide of a single species. These stocks were hippurus), are an important component stock or to particular basin-wide stocks, isolated at times in the past, but there is of local fisheries in many Western Pacific e.g., Pacific, Atlantic and Mediterranean? evidence of recent or current gene flow areas. However, to date, little is known And if the species is distributed into more between them. With regard to swordfish, about their stock structure, and no than one stock, what are the distribution genetic material from more than 125 estimate of sustainable yield is available. limits of each stock? And what is the individuals has been analyzed. The Genetic analysis of several pelagic amount, if any, of genetic-mixing between preliminary conclusions contrast sharply fish populations indicated a period of the stocks? Answering questions such with those for blue marlin. There appear instability about 18,000 years ago during as these is essential if effective fishery to be several genetic stocks in the Pacific the Pleistocene period (characterized by management policies are to be developed. Ocean alone. the spreading and recession of continental If the populations of a fishery are highly It is necessary to manage billfish ice sheets). structured, that is, there is little mixing populations that fishing pressure does

18 A study of mitochondrial DNA quick method to screen this molecular differentiation after Bonferroni correction. (mtDNA) indicated that dolphinfish were marker for use in future studies. The two geographically most-separated no exception. The genetic composition 10.3 An Assessment of Bigeye collections (Ecuador and the Philippines) of 55 dolphinfish from a collection of showed some evidence of differentiation Tuna (Thunnus obesus) Population 200 samples, collected from 11 sites for one microsatellite locus following worldwide, found 13 genetic types. Structure in the Pacific Ocean Bonferroni correction. The mtDNA data One of these types was found to be very based on Mitochondrial DNA and showed some indications of significant common and distributed worldwide while Microsatellite Variation. differentiation among the collections, the remaining 12 were quite rare. While Barbara Block and Carol Reeb but this became non-significant if the the data to date has not been useful in mtDNA analyses are considered as one of discerning population subdivisions, it does Nine collections of bigeye tuna from the several genetic tests of differentiation. suggest that dolphinfish had faced one of different regions of the Pacific Ocean, It is concluded that there is some three scenarios: with individual sample sizes ranging from evidence for restricted gene-flow between 1. A catastrophic near extinction; 69 to 105 specimens, were examined Ecuador and the Philippines but that, 2. Demographic parameters for genetic variation in mtDNA and otherwise, the data fail to allow the null favoring males; or microsatellite loci. Eight microsatellite hypothesis of a single panmictic Pacific- 3. Recurrent extinction and loci were examined in approximately 70 wide population of bigeye tuna to be recolonization of populations. fish from the two geographically most- rejected. Tagging data generally supports separated collections, Ecuador and the this conclusion. This research located a faster-evolving Philippines. None of these loci showed part of the mtDNA, which may provide a For additional information, see Reeb evidence of significant allele frequency et al. 2000 and Reeb et al. 2003. better study of the population structure differentiation after Bonferroni correction. of mahimahi. Mahimahi possess a very Four microsatellite loci were large mtDNA region that appears to be examined in 664–806 fish from the similar to a rapidly evolving microsatellite nine collections; again, none showed sequence. The study devised a novel and evidence of significant allele frequency

11. Conclusion It is clear from the foregoing that a the 1992 era have fallen by the wayside. there are existing science organization large volume of scientific investigation New players espousing new priorities such as the North Pacific Marine Science was begun and completed by the PFRP have emerged with the establishment of Organization (PICES), which conducts Research. (See Appendix 3 or go to the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries fishery and ecosystem research. https://www.soest.hawaii.edu/PFRP/ Commission (WCPFC), the Forum It is argued here that the roles and allpub.html.) Fisheries Agency (FFA), Parties to the priorities of all of the foregoing are very The Western Pacific Council has Nauru Agreement and the International likely to leave gaps and holes in the had and will continue to have a need Scientific Committee for Tuna and Tuna- scientific knowledge base that should be for high quality novel research covering Like Species (ISC). There are now more addressed by a program like the PFRP. the spectrum embraced by the topics intergovernmental bodies dedicated to Moreover, academia has a key role in above. Moreover, the landscape for advancing Pacific fishery science and more pelagic fisheries and ecological research Pacific pelagic fisheries research is very and diverse resources being devoted to in and of itself, which applies to Pacific. different to that identified in 1992. The the study and management of Pacific It is a big task. Finding and filling these 1992 workshop was to some extent pelagic resources. Further, the non-tuna gaps and holes in scientific knowledge is a dealing with a tabula rasa. Only two fish and squid have been the focus of difficult but beneficial undertaking. The multinational organizations dealt with other such relative newcomers like South defunding of PFRP in 2012 eliminated Pacific pelagic fisheries, the SPC Oceanic Pacific Regional Fisheries Management a significant contribution to the effort. Fisheries Program covering the WCPO Organization and the North Pacific Good fishery science depends upon public- and the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Fisheries Commission. private cooperation and coordination. Commission covering the EPO. Scientific Each organization has its own priorities Based on these criteria, the PFRP has work on pelagic species was limited to which may overlap and mesh with those of been partially successful. Projects which a relatively small group of individuals the other agencies. However, the objective elucidate the biology and population from a few metropolitan countries that of the Conventions is to ensure the long- dynamics of target and non-target comprised the primary resource of term conservation and sustainable use of species have been used extensively in harvesters and processors. fisheries resources while protecting the the amendment documents drafted by In the second decade of the new marine ecosystems of the Pacific Ocean the Western Pacific Regional Fishery century, the networks and patterns of in which these resources occur. Moreover, Management Council for its Pelagic

19 Fishery Management Plan, which This absence is problematic in a fisheries school and, in 2004, funded has been restructured into the Pacific number of ways. a contractor to work on developing a Pelagic Fishery Ecosystem Plan (FEP). First, a fisheries school/program adds graduate academic program in coastal The same is true to a similar extent of to the personnel and funds dedicated to and marine resources. The proposal the oceanography and trophodynamics fisheries research. would have had the School of Ocean projects and the projects that cast light on Second, the absence of fisheries and Earth Science and Technology at the the sociocultural dynamics of the Western school/program undermines institutional UH at Manoa establish a complementary Pacific fishing industries. strengthening by turning out graduates academic program, in collaboration with The inescapable facts, however, are that and post-graduates from Hawai‘i who the College of Tropical Agriculture and Council’s Pelagic FEP amendments and would stay to pursue a career in Hawai‘i Human Resources, the College of Social associate environmental impact studies and in other parts of the Western Sciences and the School of Law at the would be more speculative without the Pacific Region. UH at Manoa and with the College outputs of the PFRP. Third, fisheries management in the of Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Finally, the State of Hawai‘i and the Western Pacific is forced to develop Resource Management at the UH at Hilo. UH does not have a fisheries school. fisheries policy in an information vacuum Unfortunately, the collective wisdom of Nor do the University of Guam and for many types fishing activity and the the administration was that, without community colleges in American Samoa. stocks captured thereby. funding for permanent faculty positions, This is unusual, given that all coastal states Fourth, the social, cultural and the University could not increase positions and some inland states, especially around economic importance of fish and fishing or funding dedicated to fisheries research. the Great Lakes, have universities and remains poorly understood and thus It is obvious that there is a huge gulf colleges that have fisheries programs. fisheries policy may have unforeseen between science and policy. In the current Some of these fisheries schools are impacts on an occupation that contributes time, faced with a changing climate and recognized centers of excellence across the to social cohesion. the public health crisis of COVID-19, spectrum of the ecological, sociocultural Fifth, graduate students pursuing a this gulf is only exaggerated. If there is and economic dynamics of marine and higher degree are an importance resource an eventual resurrection of the PFRP or freshwater fisheries. This includes the and a relatively inexpensive pool of something like it, closing the gulf between University of Miami’s Rosenstiel School technical and scientific personnel to tackle science and policy should be explicitly of Marine and Atmospheric Science and gaps in fisheries knowledge mentioned as an objective. University of Washington’s School of The PFRP recognized the problems Marine and Environmental Affairs. posed by the absence of a regional

Appendix 1: Tuna Inclusion in the Magnuson-Stevens Act

(The following summary is freely adapted Council on the ground that there were not argued that its recommendation to subject from Carr 2004.) meaningful fishery resources to be managed tuna to U.S. fishery management jurisdiction By the mid-1980s, momentum was in the Western Pacific Region. The Western required the existence of the Council to carry building for tuna inclusion into the Fishery Pacific Council responded that most of the out such management. Conservation and Management Act (FCMA, catch from fisheries in the region occurred The Council’s response resulted in now known as the Magnuson-Stevens Act) in federal waters, regulated by the Council, the publication of an Addendum to the as the regional management councils were and that substantial tuna fishing within the study, which receded from the earlier frustrated in their efforts to regulate billfish. fishery conservation zones of the U.S. Flag recommendation to eliminate the Western Pacific islands, which the Council claimed had Pacific and Caribbean Councils. With tuna The movement for tuna inclusion would be given additional impetus in 1985 and 1986 as impelled it to advocate tuna inclusion from management identified, if not as its reason for the Western Pacific Council, threatened with its inception, had to be taken into account. existence, then as one of its essential functions, elimination, asserted it would play an essential Shortly thereafter, in 1986, a blue ribbon the Western Pacific Council would orchestrate role in the management of tuna. At the same study of fishery management commissioned the campaign of the fishery management time, however, the economic importance and by NOAA recommended tuna inclusion. councils for tuna inclusion. This campaign political clout of the California-based U. S. However, the same study recommended would culminate in 1990 with enactment distant water tuna industry was eroding. This elimination of the Western Pacific and of amendments repealing the tuna exclusion confluence of circumstance set the stage for Caribbean Fishery Management Councils provisions of the FCMA and subjecting tuna on the ground that most fisheries within enactment of amendments to the FCMA in to exclusive U.S. management in the EEZ. 1990 bringing tuna comprehensively under their regions were conducted within state, One of the main arguments of tuna U.S. management jurisdiction. commonwealth and territorial boundaries, inclusion supporters was that, while the U.S. In 1985, a draft report of the Office of rendering those councils largely purposeless. domestic fishery for tuna inside the U.S. the Inspector General of the Department To say that the Inspector General’s report and 200-mile zone had increased dramatically of Commerce recommended elimination NOAA fishery management study “activated” since enactment of the FCMA in 1976, this the Western Pacific Council to press for tuna economically valuable fishery could not be of the Western Pacific Council and the inclusion is an understatement. In response to managed by U.S. authorities and was subjected transfer of its responsibility to the Pacific the NOAA study, the Western Pacific Council to virtually unlimited foreign fishing. A further

20 argument put forward in support of tuna tuna until 1992. Nonetheless, the repeal of EEZs. The Honolulu Convention assigns the inclusion was that studies showed that tuna, the FCMA’s tuna exclusion provisions very Commission the responsibility and authority and particularly commercially important clearly signaled the waning of the U.S. distant to develop conservation and management skipjack and yellowfin species, were not, in fact, water tuna industry’s political power, which measures for both high seas and areas of highly migratory so as to require international had strongly influenced U.S. fisheries policy national jurisdiction. Although the text of management for their effective regulation. for much of the post-World War II era. While the Convention leaves it to the Commission Supporters of tuna inclusion also asserted that it is also widely understood to have signaled to decide how a particular measure is to be the 1987 Tuna Treaty had affected de facto the demise of the juridical position, in truth implemented, according to a U.S. negotiator, recognition of coastal state jurisdiction over one component of the juridical position would “[a] major assumption in the Convention tuna and that elimination of the FCMA’s tuna continue to persist as an important element is that coastal states will be willing to vote exclusion provisions and the U.S. juridical of U.S. fisheries diplomacy: the insistence on a case-by-case basis (but not as a general position would improve U.S. foreign relations that tuna be managed through international requirement built into a treaty) to apply in the Pacific. Finally, supporters of tuna cooperation as called for by Article 64 Commission measures within waters under inclusion emphasized difficulties in billfish of UNCLOS. their national jurisdiction.” At the same management posed by the FCMA’s tuna All of the developments canvassed above time, in light of the Convention’s failure to exclusion provisions. culminated in the conclusion in September specify that certain measures developed by Tuna inclusion was opposed, as it had 2000 of the Convention on the Conservation the Commission must be applied in EEZs, been for years, by U.S. distant-water tuna and Management of Highly Migratory Fish one Pacific island country commentator has interests and the Department of State. In their Stocks in the Western and Central Pacific observed that “it is not clear what role the views, the negotiating “leverage” afforded by Ocean (hereinafter “Western Pacific Tuna Commission will play in regulating EEZ areas.” the U.S. juridical position had made possible Convention” or “Honolulu Convention”). Anticipating an area of likely controversy in the conclusion of the 1987 Tuna Treaty and, This Convention resulted from negotiations the future, this same commentator believes moreover, that Treaty did not recognize among the Pacific island countries and “the Convention is not so clear as to whether coastal state jurisdiction over tuna. Opponents fishing nations in the Multilateral High-Level the powers of the Commission also include of tuna inclusion also challenged the claim Conference (MHLC) process that had begun adoption of measures for areas under national that tuna are not really highly migratory in December 1994. jurisdiction.” species, meriting international management. The chairman of the MHLC, Satya By leaving it to the Commission to decide They further argued that there was relatively Nandan of Fiji, underscored in his closing what measures, if any, to apply in areas of little foreign fishing for tuna in the U.S. EEZ remarks that, when the FFA was established national jurisdiction, the MHLC parties and so no need to regulate or exclude such in the late 1970s, “it was not opportune to took an approach similar to that spelled vessels. They also rejected the argument that negotiate” an Article 64 type body “mainly out in the Evensen Group’s draft article on the FCMA’s tuna exclusion provisions had because some distant water fishing nations did highly migratory species at the 1975 Geneva negatively impacted billfish management in not recognize the jurisdiction of coastal states Session of the Law of the Sea Conference. the U.S. EEZ. over highly migratory species in their exclusive That draft article had assigned to the regional Finally, a number of tuna inclusion economic zones.” The Honolulu Convention organization the responsibility and authority opponents characterized the push for it as opened for signature on Sept. 4, 2000. to develop conservation and management an effort by recreational fishermen to restrict However, the Honolulu Convention, measures and also to decide which of those commercial fishing in the U.S. EEZ for tuna. itself, definitively resolves neither the measures would be “standards” that coastal However, by the mid-1980s the U.S. distant- long-standing differences in view as to the states were obliged to implement in their water tuna industry no longer enjoyed the meaning and requirements of Article 64 EEZs. Of course, these provisions of the draft substantial political and economic clout that it nor how the compatibility requirement of article were not incorporated in Article 64, had exercised in the past. Between 1980 and Article 7 of the U.N. Fish Stocks Agreement which also left unresolved the related issue of 1985, U.S. tuna canneries relocated from the is to be implemented. As Nandan noted, the compatibility of measures for the high seas U.S. mainland to overseas sites. As a result, throughout the negotiations the island and zones of national jurisdiction. by the end of 1985, only one small cannery countries and fishing nations were “keenly The Honolulu Convention mandates was left operating in the mainland United aware that they had differing views of Article the Commission to adopt a variety of States. Cannery-based jobs and incomes 64’s duty to cooperate and the compatibility conservation and management measures and declined by close to 95% during 1980–1985. requirement of Article 7 of the U.N. Fish requires coastal states to apply in areas under Moreover, the negative economic impacts of Stocks Agreement” and they “did not try to their national jurisdiction those measures the restructuring were not limited to canneries directly persuade each other of their views.” determined applicable to such areas by the and their employees. As one commentator Instead, the parties agreed upon a formulation, Commission. The Convention further seeks to put it, “When an industry that produces $1.5 consisting of several articles, “that in important insure compatibility of measures in high seas billion in food products moves out of the U.S. ways reconciles their differing interests.” and areas of national jurisdiction by requiring and attracts support industries to offshore The most important of these articles measures adopted by the Commission to be sites, the indirect and induced economic losses concerns application of regulatory measures compatible with coastal state measures and by spread to many sectors of the U.S. economy.” developed by the Commission to areas of enjoining coastal states to insure that measures It was from this greatly weakened position national jurisdiction. As had been the case they adopt and apply in areas under their that the industry opposition to tuna inclusion in the negotiations concerning the highly jurisdiction do not undermine the effectiveness was mounted. The debate on these issues migratory species article at UNCLOS, of measures adopted by the Commission. culminated in the enactment of amendments the parties to the MHLC could not reach As to the decision-making procedures bringing tuna under the FCMA in late 1990. agreement on whether or not coastal states established by the Convention, again the The amendments delayed the effective would be required to apply regulations influence of the Evensen Group’s draft date for the assertion of U.S. jurisdiction over developed by regional organizations in their article, affording coastal states significant

21 protections, is evident. The Evensen Group’s countries and non-FFA member countries, Hence, although the Honolulu draft article provided for the organization to respectively. The Convention also specifies Convention may indeed be the “final chapter” adopt binding “standards” and non-binding that “in no circumstances shall a proposal in the relations between the Pacific island “recommendations” by consensus or, in its be defeated by two or fewer votes in either countries and distant water fishing nations, it absence, “a two-thirds majority, including the chamber.” is a chapter that remains to be completed. The votes of all coastal States of the region present “This key proviso,” according to one Convention does not itself definitively resolve and voting.” This effectively gave each coastal commentator, “prevents a very small minority the “inside-outside” problem with respect state in the organization a veto. The Honolulu within one chamber from vetoing proposed to management of highly migratory species. Convention specifies that only decisions of measures.” In this respect, the Convention, But the Convention specifies principles and the Commission concerning the allocation of as a formal matter, provides somewhat less procedures according to which states party, the total allowable catch or the total level of protection to coastal states than the Evensen through the Commission it establishes, are to fishing effort, including decisions related to text would have. However, as a practical implement Article 64’s duty to cooperate and the exclusion of vessel types, must be taken matter, the Commission will be unable related injunction to ensure the conservation by consensus. All other decisions regarding to impose measures in areas of national of highly migratory species both within and conservation and management measures jurisdiction unless the great majority of the beyond exclusive economic zones. Whether may be decided by a three-fourths majority, island countries agree to such measures. At the Commission will serve as a laboratory if consensus cannot be reached. However, the the same time, the two-chamber voting system for further elaboration of Article 64’s three-fourths majority vote must be supported provides protection to the fishing nations, requirements remains to be seen. by the votes of three-fourths of each of two which the Evensen text would not have. “chambers,” composed of FFA member

Appendix 2: Targeted and Non-targeted Pelagic Species Caught in the Western Pacific Region A summary of the status of WCPO tuna, return to the WCPO perhaps annually, in surface waters to depths of 50–100 m during billfish and shark stocks is given in Table 2. the late fall and winter, where they tend to the night but typically make repeated dives Illustrations courtesy of NMFS. remain as they mature. to cooler waters at depths of up to 500 m In the South Pacific the length at 50% or more during the day to exploit the deep 1. Tuna maturity is about 87 cm fork length (FL) at scattering layer. Some dives exceeded 1,000 an estimated age of 4.5 years. Spawning occurs m where temperatures were less than 3° C. over seven months, March to September, Such dives expose adults to a wide range of in tropical oceanic waters off Taiwan and temperatures and, in certain areas, waters of the Philippines. Like other tunas, albacore low oxygen concentrations. Bigeye tuna can are batch spawners with asynchronous egg rapidly alter their body thermal conductivity. development and indeterminate annual Bigeye tuna are a highly migratory Albacore fecundity. Albacore spawn in the South species. Conventional tag data demonstrate Albacore is a highly migratory, epipelagic Pacific every 1.3 days during peak spawning that individuals can undertake movements in and mesopelagic oceanic species that is from October to December. Generation excess of 7,000 km; however, the vast majority abundant in surface waters of 15.6° C to 19.4° length is not well known for albacore but of tag returns are for much smaller distances. C. Deeper swimming, large albacore are found is conservatively estimated to be eight to In the EPO, greater than 95% of conventional in waters of 13° C to 25.2° C. Temperatures 10 years. tag recoveries occurred within 1,894 km of as low as 9° C may be tolerated for short the release location, and similar frequencies of periods. Vertical behavior differs substantially long-distance movements have been observed between tropical and temperate latitudes. At in other ocean basins. tropical latitudes, albacore show a distinct Bigeye tuna spawning has been recorded diel pattern in vertical habitat use, occupying between 10° N and 10° S in the EPO. shallower warmer waters above the mixed layer Sexual maturity for bigeye tuna is reached at night and deeper cooler waters below the at 100- to 130-cm FL at an age of about mixed layer during the day. In contrast, there Bigeye Tuna 3 years. However, minimum length at first is little evidence of a diel pattern of vertical maturity for females can be 80- to 102-cm Bigeye tuna are pelagic and oceanodromous behavior in albacore at temperate latitudes, FL and predicted length at 50% maturity is and occur in surface waters with temperatures with fish limited to shallow waters above the 102- to 135-cm FL. Spawning peaks from ranging from 13°–17° C, with an optimum mixed layer almost all of the time. April through September in the Northern is between 17° C and 22° C. This coincides Immature albacore recruit into surface Hemisphere and between January and March with the temperature range of the permanent fisheries in the Western and Eastern Pacific in the Southern Hemisphere. Although thermocline. Variation in occurrence is closely and before maturing, gradually move near spawning apparently occurs widely across related to seasonal and climatic changes in their spawning grounds in the WCPO, where the equatorial Pacific Ocean, the greatest surface temperature and thermocline. Juveniles they are vulnerable to more deeply set longline reproductive potential appears to be in the and small adults school within the upper 50 m gear. Details of migration in the Eastern North Eastern Pacific, based on maturation, size in monospecific groups or mixed with other Pacific remain unclear, but juvenile fish (2- to frequencies and CPUE. tunas of similar size and may be associated 5-year-olds) are believed to move into the Bigeye tuna are opportunistic feeders, with floating objects. Adults occupy warm EPO in the spring and early summer and eating fish, squids and invertebrates. 22 in the water, constantly swimming at about thermocline, preferring temperatures of 18°– 69 cm/sec, or 1.6 body lengths/sec. Their 22° C. They migrate toward temperate or cold lower temperature limit appears to be about waters for feeding in the summer and back 15°–18° C, but the upper temperature limit to warm waters in the fall for spawning and apparently varies with size, from 30° C or overwintering. Swordfish typically forage in more for small fish to 25° C for the largest deep waters during the day and stay in the fish. Skipjack are also limited to water with mixed layer to feed at night, and there is a Pacific Bluefin Tuna unusually high concentrations of dissolved tendency to remain closer to the surface with Pacific bluefin tuna are known to spawn in oxygen, at least 3.0–3.5 ml/1 (4–5 ppm) for lower lunar light levels. Based on records of only two areas of the Western North Pacific: long-term survival. forage organisms taken by swordfish, depth from the Philippine Islands north to the Ryuku distribution in the Western North Pacific Islands from April to June and further north normally ranges from the surface to a depth in the Sea of Japan from June to August. of about 550 m, but there are depth records The distribution of sizes of fish on the two down to 2,878 m. The maximum depth of spawning grounds differs, with larger fish swordfish tagged in the Eastern South Pacific (modal size 220-cm FL) on the Southern was 1,136 m, and five of six swordfish dove grounds and with smaller fish (modal size Yellowfin Tuna deeper than 900 m. Temperature and depth 150 cm FL) spawning in Sea of Japan. The ranges for tagged fish in the Central North Yellowfin tuna are epipelagic and oceanic, difference in size distributions results in a Pacific were 3.2°–28.8° C and 0–1,227 m; occupying surface waters ranging from 18° difference in estimated age at 50% maturity: five fish dove as deep as 1,200 m. to 31° C. They spend most of their time in age 11 for the Southern grounds and age 4 Swordfish are reported to spawn in the the mixed layer above the thermocline but for the Northern grounds. upper layers of the water column, from the adults routinely make repetitive bounce dives The fraction of females in spawning surface to a depth of 75 m. The distribution during the day into cooler waters at depths of condition increases steadily on the spawning of larval swordfish indicates that spawning 200–300 m to forage on deep scattering–layer grounds through the spawning season, as occurs in waters with a temperature of 24° prey organisms. Electronic archival tag data females leave the area immediately after C or more and salinity of 33.8 to 37.4 ppt. indicate that yellowfin tuna can dive to depths spawning ceases. The sex ratio is about 1:1. Spawning appears to occur in all seasons in of at least 1,602 m. Females are batch spawners and can spawn equatorial waters but is restricted to spring and Vertical distribution and time at depth is almost every day, with an average batch summer at higher latitudes. Pairing of solitary restricted by the yellowfin tuna’s physiological fecundity of 6.4 million oocytes. Batch males and females is thought to occur when tolerance to oxygen and temperature. There fecundity increases with length, from about spawning. Estimates of egg numbers vary is a close correlation among the vulnerability 5 million eggs at 190-cm FL to about 25 considerably, from 1 million to 16 million in of the fish to purse-seine capture, the depth million eggs at 240-cm FL. The life cycle of a 168 kg female and 29 million in a 272 kg of the mixed layer and the strength of the the Pacific bluefin tuna has been completed female. Pelagic eggs measure 1.6–1.8 mm, temperature gradient within the thermocline. under aquaculture conditions, the first for a and the newly hatched larvae is 4 mm long. Yellowfin tuna are confined to the upper 100 large species of tuna. Genetic heterogeneity has been reported m of the water column in areas with marked Scientists consider Pacific bluefin tuna among swordfish from various locations in oxyclines (upwelling zones) and are not usually as a single North Pacific-wide stock. The the Pacific, and evidence is consistent with caught below 250 m in the tropics. U.S. longline fleet rarely catches Pacific four separate Pacific sub-stocks: northwest, Spawning is widespread spatially and bluefin tuna. northeast, southwest and southeast. temporally throughout the world’s oceans at SSTs of 24° C or higher, with the majority of spawning occurring at temperatures greater than 26° C. Spawning seasonality occurs in the Northern and Southern summer months in subtropical regions. Spawning occurs almost entirely at night between 2200 and 0600 hours. Length at 50% maturity in the EPO Skipjack Tuna was 69 cm for males and 92 cm for females, Skipjack tuna are pelagic and corresponding to an age of about 2.1 years Pacific Blue Marlin oceanodromous in offshore waters to depths for females. Blue marlin are deep cobalt blue on top of 330 m, with one record down to 596 m. 2. Billfish and silvery white on the bottom. They have a Skipjack tuna exhibit a strong tendency to pronounced dorsal fin and a long, spear-shaped school in surface waters, often in association upper jaw (bill). Blue marlin live throughout with floating objects, sharks and whales. tropical and subtropical waters of the Indian, They often form mixed schools with small Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. They may grow yellowfin and bigeye tuna when associated to be more than 12 feet long and may weigh with floating objects. up to 2,000 pounds. Female blue marlin grow Skipjack maintain elevated body larger than males and may live 20 years. Male temperatures, 4° to l0° C above the blue marlin reach 7 feet in length and may temperature of the water around them. North Pacific Swordfish live up to 10 years. Males mature around 2 Lacking a swim bladder, skipjack rely on lift Swordfish are oceanic but are sometimes years old, and females mature between 3 and from their pectoral fins to help keep them up found in coastal waters, generally above the 4 years old. Blue marlin spawn between May

23 and September. They eat mostly tuna and documented by Hyde et al. 2006, based on a female tagged off California was captured other open-water fishes. identification of seven larvae from Hawaiian in the Central Pacific by a Japanese research Blue marlin are typically solitary but may waters. Spawning activity in the Southern vessel, meaning this fish traveled more than form small aggregations for feeding or possibly Coral Sea, off the coasts of Fiji, and south of 2,776 km (1,725 miles). Another specimen mating. Acoustic and electronic tagging of French Polynesia was confirmed by Kopf et swam (2,128 km (1,322 miles) in 37 days, blue marlin have provided considerable al. 2011. Spawning occurs in concentrated averaging 58 km (36 miles) a day. information on habitat utilization. The aggregations across a broad longitudinal Shortfin mako sharks over 3 m have fish spend the majority of their time in the band. An average 109 kg female may produce interior teeth considerably wider and flatter upper 10 m but are capable of making dives an annual reproductive output of 90–281 than smaller mako, which enables them to prey below 500 m. million hydrated oocytes spread across 27– effectively upon dolphins, swordfish and other In the Pacific, size at first maturity of males 90 spawning events per season. Age at 50% sharks. Mako also tend to scavenge long-lined is thought to range from 130- to 140-cm eye- maturity is 2.5 years. Length at 50% maturity and netted fish. Its endothermic constitution FL (86.8% to 87.8% of body length), with age was 160 cm LJFL for males and 210 cm LJFL partly accounts for its relatively great speed. at maturity estimated as two years. Blue marlin for females. Like other lamnid sharks, the shortfin mako spawning probably takes place year-round in shark has a heat-exchange circulatory system equatorial waters to 10° latitude and during 3. Sharks that allows the shark to be 4°–7° C warmer summer periods in both hemispheres to 30° than the surrounding water. N/ S, in all oceans. Based on the capture of Silky Shark gravid females or early life history stages. In the Pacific Ocean, concentrations of spawning Silky sharks have a restricted habitat range fish occur around French Polynesia, and gravid compared to the other highly migratory females, eggs and larvae have been collected North Pacific Blue Shark species, but, within this range, they are most off Hawai‘i. The blue shark is an oceanic and epipelagic common in longline and purse seine catches shark found worldwide in deep temperate and (Rice and Harley 2013). tropical waters from the surface to about 350 The silky shark is one of the three most m. It lives as far north as Norway and as far common pelagic sharks along with the blue south as Chile. Blue sharks are found off the and oceanic whitetip sharks. It counts among coasts of every continent, except Antarctica. Its the most numerous large oceanic animals in greatest Pacific concentrations occur between the world with a population of at least tens of Striped Marlin 20° and 50° N but with strong seasonal millions. Compared to the other two species, it fluctuations. In the tropics, it spreads evenly is less strictly pelagic with the greatest numbers Striped marlin are widely distributed, between 20° N and 20° S. It prefers water found in offshore waters associated with land, pelagic and oceanodromous, usually found temperatures between 12° and 20° C but can where food is more readily obtained than above the thermocline and shallower than be seen in water ranging from 7° to 25° C. farther out in the truly open ocean. This shark 120 m, although they have been known to Blue sharks are viviparous, with a yolk-sac is often found around floating objects such occur as deep as 532 m. They generally inhabit placenta, delivering four to 135 pups per litter. as logs or tethered naval buoys. cooler water than either black or blue marlin. The gestation period is between nine and 12 Silky sharks in most parts of the world are Abundance increases with distance from the months. Females mature at 5 to 6 years of thought to reproduce year-round. However, continental shelf; they are usually seen close to age, and males at 4 to 5. in some cases, the presence of reproductive shore only where deep drop-offs occur. Striped Sharks have been observed and seasonality may have been obscured by biases marlin are mostly solitary but form small documented working together as a “pack” in data collection. Females give birth after a schools by size during the spawning season to herd prey into a concentrated group gestation period of 12 months, either every and are also known to feed cooperatively on from which they can easily feed. Blue sharks year or every other year. The litter size ranges schooling prey. They are usually dispersed at may eat tuna, which have been observed from one to 16 and increases with female size, considerably wide distances. taking advantage of the herding behavior to with six to 12 being typical. The pups are born Pop-up satellite archival tag deployments opportunistically feed on escaping prey. in reef nursery areas on the outer continental throughout the Pacific Ocean demonstrate shelf, where there are ample food supplies and that striped marlin spend more than 50% of protection from large pelagic sharks. The risk their time in the upper 10 m of the water of predation has selected for fast growth in column and tend to be at shallower depths at young sharks, which add 25–30 cm to their night than during the day. Striped marlin occur length within their first year of life. After a over a wide range of surface temperatures few months, the now-sub-adult sharks migrate (15°–31° C), spending almost all of their time out from the nursery into the open ocean. in waters within 8° C of the SST. North Pacific Shortfin Mako Shark Striped marlin spawning is known to occur The shortfin mako inhabits offshore 4. Other Pelagic Species in several areas within the Pacific, evidenced temperate and tropical seas worldwide. It is by the seasonal occurrence of mature females a pelagic species that can be found from the and early life history stages. Larvae are surface to depths of 150 m, normally far from most abundant in the respective local early land, though occasionally closer to shore, summers. The lower temperature limit for around islands or inlets. One of the very few the distribution of larvae is approximately known endothermic sharks, it is seldom found Mahimahi 24° C in the Pacific Ocean. Spawning sites in waters colder than 16° C. Mahimahi, or dolphinfish, has a wide are between 10° S and 30° S in the Southwest Shortfin mako sharks travel long distances distribution throughout the tropical and Pacific. A central Pacific spawning ground was to seek prey or mates. In December 1998,

24 subtropical waters of the world’s oceans and Particularly valued by the restaurant trade 20°–25° C and chlorophyll-a concentrations is mostly found in the surface water. It is one in Hawai‘i, these exotic, deep-water fishes are are less than 2 mg per cubic meter of seawater. of the most important species caught in the generally harvested in small, but nevertheless Previous studies have reported a skewed artisanal fisheries of the coastal nations of significant, quantities. Since neither are sex ratio in wahoo populations, ranging from the EPO, ranging from Chile in the south to targeted species, these fishes have historically 1.3 to 3.4 females to every male. Wahoo Mexico in the north. Their flesh is soft and been poorly studied and as a result available exhibit early sexual maturity. They live for at oily, similar to sardines. The body is slightly information pertaining to the biology and least five to six years, and some may live as long slender and long, making them fast swimmers; ecology are virtually nonexistent. as 10 years. Generation length is estimated to they can swim as fast as 50 knots (92.6 km/ be between three and five years. Off eastern hour). Available fisheries statistics indicate that Australia, 50% of females reach maturity by the EPO is the dominant region in global 104.6 cm and approximately 7 months of age. production of this species. Wahoo have an extended spawning season Mahimahi can live for up to five years, during warmer months in both the Northern although they seldom exceed four. Females are and Southern Hemispheres. usually smaller than males. Catches typically Off the Pacific coast of Australia, female are 7 to 13 kg and a meter in length. They wahoo spawn October to February. Females rarely exceed 15 kg, and mahimahi over 18 Wahoo are multiple batch spawners and are highly kg are exceptional. Mahimahi are among the fecund. Mean spawning frequency has been fastest-growing of fish. Wahoo (known as ono in Hawai‘i) is an reported as two to nine days during a spawning Males and females are sexually mature in oceanic, epipelagic species frequently found season. Predicted mean weight at length in their first year, usually by the age of four to five solitarily or forming small, loose aggregations Hawai‘i was highest at the beginning of the months. Spawning can occur at body lengths rather than compact schools. The global spawning season in June and lowest after of 20 cm. Females may spawn two to three stock structure of wahoo is uncertain. The the spawning season in September. Fish times per year and produce between 80,000 species is reputed to exist as a single panmictic in different maturity stages are frequently and 1,000,000 eggs per event. Mahimahi population worldwide (Theisen et al. 2008). caught at the same time. Batch fecundity is spawn in warm ocean currents throughout It spends the vast majority of its time both positively correlated with fish size in eastern much of the year, with greater numbers of day and night above the thermocline, at least Australia, ranging between 0.65 and 5.12 larvae detected in spring and fall. In waters at around topographic features, but occasionally million oocytes. Relative fecundity was 28 °C, mahimahi larvae are found year-round. dives to at least 340 m. The probability of estimated at 122 oocytes per gram of ovary- Mahimahi has been thought of as highly occurrence of wahoo in the EPO has been free body weight. resilient to overfishing due to its high predicted to be the highest when SSTs are productivity in all the oceans of the world. However, stock assessments are needed to obtain a better picture of the stock status of the species and develop reference points for management.

Opah and Monchong Opah (moonfish) and monchong (pomfret) are two pelagic species incidentally caught by Hawai‘i-based longliners targeting bigeye tuna in the North Pacific. Opah exhibit sexual dimorphism that enables the determination of a fish’s gender without cutting into the peritoneal cavity to examine the gonads for the determination of sex. In general, smaller individuals are taken at higher latitudes ranging from 30 to 107 cm with a mean of 64 cm. The monchong harvested in Hawai‘i-based fisheries are composed principally of two species: the sickle pomfret (Taractichthys steindachneri) and the lustrous pomfret (Eumegistus illustris). Fig. 26. About to release a striped marlin marked with a popup satellite tag. David Itano photo.

25 Table 2. Overview of stock status of interest to the Western and Central Pacific Fishery Commission (as of Oct. 31, 2019).

(*The determination of overfished and overfishing is not a firm statement but one of likelihood. Percentages provided indicate probability. SC=Science Committee of the WCPFC.)

Next Stock Latest Assessment Overfished* Overfishing* Assessment WCPO Tuna

Bigeye tuna (Thunnus obesus) Update 2018 (SC14) No (100%) No (94%) 2020

Yellowfin tuna (T. albacares) 2017 (SC13) No (92%) No (96%) 2020

Skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) 2019 (SC15) No No 2022

South Pacific albacore tuna(T. alalunga) 2018 (SC14) No No 2021

Northern Stocks

North Pacific albacore(T. alalunga) 2017 (SC13) No No 2020

Pacific bluefin tuna(T. orientalis) UPDATE 2018 (SC14) Yes Yes 2020

North Pacific swordfish(Xiphias gladius) 2018 (SC14) No No 2022

WCPO Billfish

Southwest Pacific swordfish(X. gladius) 2017 (SC13) No (100%) No (68%) 2021 Southwest Pacific striped marlin 2019 (SC15) Likely (50%) No (56%) 2023 (Kajikia audax) North Pacific striped marlin(K. audax) 2019 (SC15) Yes Yes 2024

Pacific blue marlin(Makaira nigricans) 2016 (SC12) No No TBD

WCPO Sharks Oceanic whitetip shark 2019 (SC15) Yes Yes TBD (Carcharhinus longimanus) Silky shark (C. falciformis) 2018 (SC14) No (indicative) Yes (indicative) 2023 South Pacific blue shark 2016 (SC12) N/A N/A 2021 (Prionace glauca) North Pacific blue shark(P. glauca) 2017 (SC13) No No 2022 North Pacific shortfin mako 2018 (SC14) No (>50%) No (50%) 2023 (Isurus oxyrinchus) Pacific bigeye thresher shark 2017 (SC13) N/A N/A 2022 (Alopias superciliosus) Southern Hemisphere Porbeagle shark 2017 (SC13) N/A Very low 2022 (Lamna nasus) Productivity Susceptibility Whale Shark (Rhincodon typus) N/A N/A TBD Analysis 2018 (SC14)

26 Appendix 3: List of PFRP Projects and Principal Investigators

Additional information on the projects, 14. Distributions, Histories, and Recent 31. Nursery Origin of Yellowfin Tuna including progress reports, can be accessed Catch Trends with Six Fish Taxa Taken (Thunnus albacares) in the Hawaiian at https://www.soest.hawaii.edu/PFRP/ as Incidental Catch by the Hawai'i-Based Islands. Jay Rooker and David Itano. Kim allprojects.html. Commercial Longline Fishery. William Holland, David Itano and John Hampton A. Walsh 32. Pop-Off Satellite Archival Tags to Biology Projects 15. Early Life Stage Dispersal of Yellowfin Chronicle the Survival and Movements 1. Age and Growth of Striped Marlin, Tuna (Thunnus albacares) in the Central of Blue Shark Following Release from Kajikia audax, in the Hawai‘i-based North Pacific. Kelvin Richards and Longline Gear. Michael Musyl and Longline Fishery. R. Keller Kopf and Claire Paris Richard Brill Robert Humphreys Jr. 16. Ecological Characterization of American 33. Population Biology of Pacific Oceanic 2. Analyses of Catch Data for Mahimahi Samoa's Small-Scale Alia Albacore Sharks. Chris Boggs (Coryphaena hippurus) and Wahoo Longline Fishery. John Kaneko, Paul 34. Reproductive Biology of Yellowfin Tuna, (Acanthocybium solandri) from the Bartram and Elvin Mokoma Thunnus albacares, in Hawaiian Waters Hawai‘i-Based Longline Fishery and Other 17. Evaluating Biochemical and Physiological and the Western Tropical Pacific Ocean. Pacific Fisheries. William A. Walsh Predictors of Long Term Survival in David Itano and Richard Shomura 3. Aspects of the Ecology of the Red Squid Released Pacific Blue Marlin Tagged with 35. Scaling Up: Linking FAD-associated (Ommastrephes bartramii), a Potential Pop-Up Satellite Archival Transmitters Local Behavior of Tuna to Regional Target for a Major Hawaiian Fishery. (PSATs). Michael Musyl, Chris Moyes and Scale Movements and Distribution. Kim Richard Young Richard Brill Holland and Laurent Dagorn 4. Assimilating in situ Bio-acoustic Data in 18. Examining Pelagic Food Webs using 36. Survivorship, Migrations, and Diving Mid-Trophic Level Model and its Impact Multiple Chemical Tracers. Jeffrey Drazen Patterns of Sea Turtles Released from on Predicted Albacore Feeding Habitat and Brian Popp Commercial Longline Fishing Gear, in the American Samoa Waters. Reka 19. Feasibility of Airborne Laser Devices for Determined with Pop-Up Satellite Domokos and Patrick Lehodey Pelagic Fish Surveys. John Sibert and Archival Transmitters. Richard Brill, Yonat 5. Associative Dynamics of Tropical Tuna to Chris Schoen Swimmer, George Antonelis, George Balazs a Large-Scale Anchored FAD Array. Kim 20. Fishery Dynamics in the Samoan and Jeffrey Polovina Holland, David Itano and John Hampton Archipelago. Keith Bigelow, Adam Langley 37. Synchronous Assessment of Bigeye Tuna 6. Automated Monitoring of Yellowfin Tuna and John Hampton (Thunnus obesus) and Micronekton at Hawaiian FADs and Relationship to 21. Hawai‘i Regional Tuna Tagging Project. Biomass, Distribution, and Movement Water Mass Dynamics based upon Satellite Kim Holland and David Itano Patterns at Cross Seamount, and the Imagery. Peter Klimley and Charles 22. Hawai‘i Tuna Tagging Project 2. Kim Effects of the Seamount Environment. Holloway Holland, David Itano and Kevin Weng Reka Domokos, Kim Holland and Jeffrey 7. Biology and Habitat Use of Monchong 23. Impacts of Fishing on Vulnerable Non- Polovina (Eumegistis illustris) at Cross Seamount, target Species at Seamounts. Kevin Weng 38. A Tag and Release Program for the Hawai‘i. Kevin Weng 24. Instrumented Buoys as Autonomous Hawai‘i Seamount Yellowfin and Bigeye 8. Biotelemetry Tag Retention in Pelagic Observatories of Pelagic Ecosystems. Kim Tuna. Kim Holland Tunas. T. Todd Jones, John Wang and Holland and Laurent Dagorn 39. Three-Dimensional Laser Confocal Michael Musyl 25. Investigating the Life History and Ecology Microscopy as a Tool to Age Fish Otoliths 9. Describing the Vertical Habitat of Bigeye of Opah and Monchong. Michael Seki by Optical Sections: Validation of Daily and Albacore Tunas and Post-Release 26. Investigation of Pacific Broadbill Micro-increments by both Injected Dyes Survival for Marlins in the Central Pacific Swordfish Migration Patterns and and Theoretical Otolith Growth Models. Longline Fisheries with Pop-Up Archival Habitat Characteristics using Electronic Robert Gauldie Transmitting Tags. Jeffrey Polovina and Archival Tag Technology. Chris Boggs and 40. Trophic Ecology and Structure-Associated Michael Seki John Gunn Aggregation Behavior in Bigeye and 10. Design of Tag-Recapture Experiments 27. Investigation of Aggregation Behavior of Yellowfin Tuna in Hawaiian Waters.Kim for Estimating Yellowfin Tuna Stock FAD-associated Small Yellowfin Tuna and Holland, Richard Young, Richard Brill Dynamics, Movements and Fishery Size Project status. Kim Holland, Laurent and Laurent Dagorn Interactions. John Sibert and Peter Bills Dagorn, David Itano and Dean Grubbs 41. Workshop on How to Improve Studies on 11. Developing Biochemical and Physiological 28. Laboratory and Field Research to Enhance the Collective Behavior of Pelagic Fish. Predictors of Long Term Survival in Understanding of Tuna Movements and Laurent Dagorn and Kim Holland Released Blue Shark. Christopher Moyes, Distribution, and to Improve Stock Richard Brill and Michael Musyl Assessment Model. Richard Brill Oceanography Projects 12. Developing Tools to Assess Sex and 29. Long-Term Deployment of Satellite Tags 1. Development of Oceanographic Atlases for Maturational Stage of Bigeye Tuna using the California Harpoon Fleet. Heidi Pelagic and Insular Fisheries and Resource (Thunnus obesus) and Swordfish (Xiphias Dewar and Jeffrey Polovina Management of the Pacific Basin.Russell gladius). Malia Chow and E. Gordon Grau 30. Modeling the Eco-physiology of Pelagic Brainard, John Sibert and David Foley 13. Development of “Business Card” Tags: Fishes and Sharks with Archival and Pop- 2. Evaluation of Remote Sensing Inter-individual Data Transfer. Laurent up Satellite Archival Tags (PSATs). Michael Technologies for the Identification of Dagorn and Kim Holland Musyl, Hans Malte and Richard Brill Oceanographic Features Critical to

27 Pelagic Fish Distribution around the 9. Evaluation of Data Quality for Catches of Genetics Projects Hawaiian Archipelago. Gary Mitchum Several Pelagic Management Unit Species 1. Analysis of Pacific Blue Marlin and and Jeffrey Polovina by Hawai‘i-Based Longline Vessels and Swordfish Population Structure 3. A Numerical Investigation of Ocean Exploratory Analyses of Historical Catch using Mitochondrial and Nuclear Circulation and Pelagic Fisheries around Records from Japanese Longline Vessels. DNA Technologies. John Graves and the Hawaiian Islands. Bo Qiu and William A. Walsh and Keith Bigelow Barbara Block Pierre Flament 10. Improved Effectiveness of WCPFC 2. An Assessment of Bigeye Tuna (Thunnus 4. Ocean Acidification Impacts on Tropical through Better Informed Fishery Decision obesus) Population Structure in the Pacific Tuna Populations. Simon Nicol, Dan Makers. Simon Hoyle, Shelton Harley and Ocean based on Mitochondrial DNA and Margulies and Vernon Scholey Fabrice Bouye Microsatellite Variation. John Hampton 5. Oceanographic Characterization of 11. Incorporating Oceanographic Data in and Peter Grewe the American Samoa Longline Fishing Stock Assessments of Blue Sharks and 3. Genetic Analysis of Population Structure in Grounds for Albacore, Thunnus alalunga. Other Species Incidentally Caught in the Pacific Swordfish (Xiphias gladius) using Michael Seki, Jeffrey Polovina and Hawai‘i-based Longline Fishery. Pierre Microsatellite DNA Techniques. Barbara Reka Domokos Kleiber and Hideki Nakano Block and Carol Reeb 6. Physical Characteristics of the Environment 12. Integration of Hawai‘i Longline Fishery 4. Population Structure and Dynamics in influencing Pelagic Fishes. Pierre Flament Performance Models with Environmental Mahimahi as Inferred through Analysis of 7. Regime Shifts in the Western and Central Information. Chris Boggs Mitochondrial DNA. Carol Reeb Pacific Ocean Tuna Fisheries. David Kirby, 13. Integrative Modeling in Support of the Patrick Lehodey, Valerie Allain and Adam Pelagic Fisheries Research Program: Economics Projects Langley Spatially Disaggregated Population 8. The Role of Oceanography on Bigeye Dynamics Models for Pelagic Fisheries. 1. Analysis of Alternatives for Participation Tuna Aggregation and Vulnerability in the John Sibert, Peter Bills and Kevin Weng in International Management of Pelagic Hawai‘i Longline Fishery from Satellite, 14. Integrating Electronic and Conventional Fisheries. Sam Pooley Moored and Shipboard Time Series. Tagging Data into Modern Stock 2. Analyzing the Technical and Economic Russell Brainard, Jeff Polovina, Michael Assessment Models. Simon Nicol, Mark Structure of Hawai‘i’s Pelagic Fishery. Seki, Bo Qiu and Pierre Flament Maunder and Pierre Kleiber PingSun Leung 9. Trophic Structure and Tuna Movement 15. Investigation of Shark Bycatch in the 3. Contributions of Tuna Fishing and in the Cold Tongue-Warm Pool Pelagic Hawai‘i-Based Longline Fishery, and Transshipment Operations to Local Ecosystem of the Equatorial Pacific. an Extension of Analyses of Catch Data Economies. Michael Hamnett and Valerie Allain, Robert Olson, Felipe Galvan from Widely Separated Areas in the Pacific Sam Pintz Magana and Brian Popp Ocean. Keith Bigelow, Mark Maunder, 4. A Dynamic Model to Evaluate the Effect Adam Langley and Pascal Bach of Regulation on the Hawai‘i Commercial Statistical and Modeling Projects 16. Local Pelagic Catch and Effort Data Fisheries. Ujjayant Chakravorty 5. Economic Contributions of Hawai‘i’s 1. Addition of Multi-species Capability, Sex Analysis and Integrated Modeling to Fisheries. PingSun Leung, Stuart Structure and other Enhancements to the Quantify the Effects of Local Fisheries Nakamoto and Sam Pooley Length-Based, Age-Structured Modeling on Fish Availability. Chris Boggs 6. Economic Fieldwork on Pelagic Fisheries Software MULTIFAN-CL. John Hampton, 17. Mixed-Resolution Models for Investigating in Hawai‘i. Minling Pan and Sam Pooley Pierre Kleiber and John Sibert Individual to Population Scale Spatial 7. Economic Interactions between U.S. 2. Analyses of Catch Data for Blue and Dynamics. Patrick Lehodey, Jeffrey Polovina, Longline Fisheries. Michael Travis Striped Marlins (Istiophoridae). William David Kirby and Raghu Murtugudde 8. The Economics of Recreational Fishing A. Walsh and Jon Brodziak 18. Pacific-Wide Analysis of Bigeye Tuna for Pelagics in Hawai‘i. K. Ted McConnell 3. Biological, Economic, and Management (Thunnus obesus) using a Length-Based, 9. Evaluating Closed-Area Management Drivers of Fishery Performance: A Global Age Structured Modeling Framework Regimes in the Gulf of Mexico, Northwest Meta-Analysis of Tuna and Billfish (MULTIFAN-CL). John Hampton, Atlantic, and Central Pacific Highly Stocks. Trevor Branch, Ray Hilborn and Richard Deriso and Naozumi Miyabe Migratory Species Longline Fisheries. Olaf Jensen 19. Performance of Longline Catchability David Kerstetter and John Graves 4. Causes of Rapid Declines in World Models in Assessments of Pacific Highly 10. Factors Affecting Price Determinations Billfish Catch Rates. Ransom Myers and Migratory Species. Keith Bigelow, Mark and Market Competition for Fresh Pacific Peter Ward Maunder, Adam Langley and Pascal Bach Pelagic Fish, Phase I: Tuna and Marlin. 5. Combining Individual and Population 20. Rescue, Compilation, and Statistical John Kaneko and Paul Bartram Based Estimation of Migration Patterns. Characterization of Historic Longline 11. Hawai‘i Pelagic Fishing Vessel Economics. Anders Nielsen and John Sibert Data, Pacific Ocean Fisheries Investigation Sam Pooley 6. Comparisons of Catch Rates for Target 1951–73. Performance of Longline 12. Incidental Catch of Non-Target Fish and Incidentally Taken Fishes in Widely Catchability Models in Assessments of Species and Sea Turtles: Comparing Separated Areas of the Pacific Ocean. Pacific Highly Migratory Species.Bert Hawai‘i’s Pelagic Longline Fishery Against William A. Walsh Kikkawa Others. John Kaneko and Paul Bartram 7. Development of Assessment Model for 21. Stock and Fishery Dynamics of Yellowfin 13. Modeling Longline Effort Dynamics and Yellowfin Tuna. John Sibert Tuna, Thunnus albacares, in the Western Protected Species Interaction. PingSun 8. Estimation of Bycatch and Discards of and Central Pacific Ocean: Development Leung, Naresh Pradhan and Sam Pooley Sharks and Other Species by the Hawai‘i of an Integrated Model Incorporating Size 14. A Multilevel and Multiobjective Longline Fishery. Pierre Kleiber, Chris and Spatial Structure. John Hampton and Programming Model of Hawai‘i Boggs and William Walsh David Fournier

28 Commercial Fisheries. PingSun Leung 6. Integrated Information System for Pelagic 4. Direct Tests of the Efficacy of Bait and Gear and Stuart Nakamoto Fishery Research and Management. Modifications for Reducing Interactions 15. Regulatory Impact Analysis Framework Robert Skillman of Sea Turtles with Longline Fishing Gear for Hawai‘i Pelagic Fishery Management. 7. Local Fishery Knowledge: Its Application in Costa Rica. Yonat Swimmer Minling Pan and Keiichi Nemoto to the Management and Development 5. A General Bayesian Integrated Population 16. Recreational Fisheries Meta Data - of Small-scale Tuna Fisheries in the Dynamics Model for Protected Species. Preliminary Steps. Paul Dalzell and U.S. Pacific Islands.John Kaneko and Mark Maunder Sam Pooley Paul Bartram 6. Integrated Statistical Model for Hawaiian 17. The Role of Social Networks on Fishermen 8. Small Boat Bigeye and Yellowfin Tuna Albatross Populations. Daniel Goodman Economic Performance in Hawai‘i’s Operations and Regulatory Scenarios in and Jean-Dominique Lebreton Longline Fishery. PingSun Leung, Shawn the Main Hawaiian Islands. Ed Glazier 7. Robust Statistical Re-evaluation of the Arita and Stewart Allen and John Petterson (Impact Assessment Inc.) Effect of Pelagic Longline Fisheries on 18. Spatial Modeling of the Tradeoff between 9. Social Aspects of Pacific Pelagic Fisheries, Loggerhead Sea Turtle Stocks in the Sea Turtle Take Reduction and Economic Phase I: The Hawai‘i Troll and Handline Pacific. Milani Chaloupka Returns to the Hawai‘i Longline Fishery. Fishery. Marc Miller Minling Pan, Shichao Li and Michael Parke 10. Social Aspects of Pacific Pelagic Fisheries, Trophodynamics Projects Phase II: The Hawai‘i Troll and Handline 1. Assessment of the Impacts of Mesoscale Sociocultural Projects Fishery. Marc Miller Oceanographic Features on the Forage 1. An Analysis of Archaeological and 11. Sociological Baseline of Hawai‘i-Based Base for Oceanic Predators. Jeffrey Drazen Historical Data on Fisheries for Pelagic Longline Fishery: Extension and and Reka Domokos Species in Guam and Northern Mariana Expansion of Scope. Stewart Allen 2. Climate and Fishing Impacts on the Spatial Islands. Judith Amesbury and Rosalind 12. A Sociological Baseline of Hawai‘i’s Population Dynamics of Tunas. Patrick Hunter-Anderson Longline Fishery. Sam Pooley and Lehodey and Olivier Maury 2. Coordinated Sociocultural Investigation Stewart Allen 3. Examining Latitudinal Variation in Food of Pelagic Fishermen in American Samoa 13. A Sociocultural Study of Pelagic Fishing Webs leading to Top Predators in the and the Commonwealth of the Northern Activities in Guam. Donald Rubinstein Pacific Ocean. Jock W. Young, Robert Olson, Mariana Islands. Michael Hamnett, Robert and Thomas Pinhey Valerie Allain and Jeffrey Dambacher Franco and Craig Severance 4. Integrating Conventional and Electronic 3. Descriptive Assessment of Small-Scale and Protected Species Tagging Data into the Spatial Ecosystem Traditional Fisheries in the Western Pacific. 1. Comparing Sea Turtle Distributions and and Population Model SEAPODYM. Inna Ed Glazier and John Petterson Fisheries Interactions in the Atlantic and Senina, Patrick Lehodey and Francois Royer 4. Distribution and Use of Seafood in the Pacific.Molly Lutcavage and Selina Heppell 5. Intra-Guild Predation and Cannibalism Context of the Community: A Case Study 2. Development of a Hierarchical Model to in Pelagic Predators: Implications for the of the Main Hawaiian Islands. Ed Glazier Estimate Sea Turtle Rookery Contributions Dynamics, Assessment and Management and Stewart Allen to Mixed Stocks in Foraging Habitats. Ben of Pacific Tuna Populations. Tim Essington, 5. Human Dimensions Analysis of Hawai‘i’s Bolker, Karen Bjorndal and Alan Bolten Mark Maunder, Robert Olson, James Ika-Shibi Fishery. Ed Glazier and John 3. Diet Dynamics and Trophic Relations Kitchell and Enric Cortes Petterson of Laysan and Black-footed Albatrosses. David Duffy and Jeremy Bisson

Fig. 27. Swapping out an acoustic receiver mounted below an anchored FAD in Hawai‘i. These devices receive and store data from tuna that have been marked with coded transmitter tags to study FAD-associated behavior. David Itano photo.

29 Appendix 4: Meetings Convened, Co-Convened and Supported by PFRP The PFRP regularly convened meetings of PIs and co-convened other workshops in association with some of them. The PFRP also strongly supported other meetings and pelagic fisheries initiatives. Documents and agendas for the meetings listed below are available at https:\\www. soest.hawaii.edu/PFRP/meetings.html.

Table 3. Meetings convened, co-convened or supported by PFRP.

Year Meeting

1998 Pacific Bigeye Tuna Research Coordination Workshop, Nov. 9–10, East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawai‘i

Report of the MULTIFAN-CL Workshop Feb. 1–3, Imin Conference Center, UH Manoa, Honolulu, Hawai‘i 2000 Symposium on Tagging and Tracking Marine Fish with Electronic Devices Feb. 7–11, Imin Conference Center, UH Manoa, Honolulu, Hawai‘i

PFRP PI Meeting: Ecosystem-Based Management of Pelagic Fisheries 2001 Dec. 4–6, Campus Center Ballroom, UH Manoa, Honolulu, Hawai‘i Protected Species Modeling Workshop, Nov. 13–14, Imin Conference Center, UH Manoa, Honolulu, Hawai‘i

Standing Committee on Tuna and Billfish (SCTB) 15, July 22–27, Hawai‘i Convention Center, Honolulu, Hawai‘i First Meeting of the Scientific Coordinating Group, July 29–31, East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawai‘i 2002 International Workshop on the Current Status and New Directions for Studying Schooling and Aggregation Behavior of Pelagic Fish, Oct. 7–9, UH Hawai‘i Institute of Marine Biology, Kane‘ohe, Hawai‘i PFRP PI Meeting and “Tying One On” Workshop, Dec. 4–6, Hemenway Theater, UH Manoa, Honolulu, Hawai‘i

PFRP PI Meeting, Data Rescue: Discovery, Verification, Documentation and Analysis of Long-Term Data 2003 Dec. 9–11, Imin Conference Center, UH Manoa, Honolulu, Hawai‘i

PFRP PI Meeting, Ecosystem Approaches to Fishery Management (processes occurring at mid-trophic levels) 2004 Nov. 29–Dec. 1, Imin Conference Center, UH Manoa, Honolulu, Hawai‘i

PFRP PI and Climate Impacts on Oceanic Top Predators (CLIOTOP) Working Group 3 Workshops 2006 Nov. 14–17, Imin Conference Center, UH Manoa, Honolulu, Hawai‘i

Pelagic Longline Catch Rate Standardization Meeting Feb. 12–16, Imin Conference Center, UH Manoa, Honolulu, Hawai‘i 2007 2nd International Symposium on Tagging and Tracking Marine Fish with Electronic Devices Oct. 8–11, Donostia-San Sebastian, Spain Climate Impacts on Oceanic Top Predators - 1st CLIOTOP Symposium, Dec. 3–7, La Paz, Mexico

2008 PFRP PI Workshop, Nov. 18–19, Imin Conference Center, UH Manoa, Honolulu, Hawai‘i

2009 PFRP PI Workshop, Nov. 19–20, Imin Conference Center, UH Manoa, Honolulu, Hawai‘i

2010 PFRP PI Workshop, Dec. 15–16, Imin Conference Center, UH Manoa, Honolulu, Hawai‘i

2011 PFRP PI Meeting, Dec. 15–16, Imin Conference Center, UH Manoa, Honolulu, Hawai‘i

2012 PFRP PI Meeting, Nov. 26–27, Imin Conference Center, UH Manoa, Honolulu, Hawai‘i

30 Appendix 5: List of PFRP Newsletter Issues and Articles

October 1996 (volume 1, number 1) • Access fees, economic benefits in January–March 2000 • About the Pelagic Fisheries the Western Pacific U.S. purse-seine (volume 5, number 1) Research Program tuna fishery • More data required to assess bigeye • Using DNA to analyze the • Biological “threats” to sustainable tuna population population structure of swordfish tuna fisheries • Reflections on MHLC5 and Pacific blue marlin • Upcoming events • Fishermen rewarded for return of • Bigeye tuna population structure archival tag July 1998 (volume 3, number 3) • Upcoming events. in the Pacific Ocean • Keeping our eye on bigeye • Were dolphinfish once an • Archival tags—a wealth of information April–June 2000 (volume 5, number 2) endangered species? • All things considered, eating fish is better • Tagging and tracking with electronic • Schedule of upcoming events • Tracking Hawai‘i’s tuna devices (Tagging Symposium) January 1997 (volume 2, number 1) • Preparing for the Hawai‘i Tuna Tagging • The substitution effect of area closures • Social sciences in fisheries research Project (HTTP) • The trophic ecology of two Hawaiian • Price determinants in the marketing • How to assist the HTTP Ommastrephid squids of fresh Pacific tuna • Upcoming events • Upcoming events. • Tuna economics in the Pacific Islands • PFRP technical reports July–September 2000 • The 1993 Hawai‘i-based longline fleet October 1998 (volume 3, number 4) (volume 5, number 3) • The social value of Hawai‘i’s troll and • Do you know where your longline is? • MHLC6 assesses science and costs of handline fishery • How to set a longline to a desired depth migratory stock management • Schedule of upcoming events • Reducing longline bycatch • IATTC tags bigeye tuna in EPO April 1997 (volume 2, number 2) • Predicting the shape of longlines • Protected species workshops • Tuna tagging in Hawai‘i • Recovered archival tag loaded with data • Charter fishing patronage in Hawai‘i • The Western Pacific region: • Schedule of upcoming events • Conference targets marine debris Small islands, big changes • Economic contributions of Hawai‘i's January–March 1999 • Schedule of upcoming events marine fisheries (volume 4, number 1) • Tournament-tagged marlin. July 1997 (volume 2, number 3) • Workshop consensus: International • Oceanography and fishery management project on bigeye tuna needed October–December 2000 • Current and eddy statistics for the • Creating the big picture for Pacific (volume 5, number 4) Hawai‘i EEZ bigeye tuna • Swordfish fisheries and • Tracking fish by mapping ocean features • New data fuels old debate on management today • Modeling the ocean circulation around bluefin tuna • December workshop for PFRP PIs the main Hawaiian Islands • Schedule of upcoming events • NMFS workshops for longliners • Schedule of upcoming events well attended April–June 1999 (volume 4, number 2) • New PFRP projects funded in FY 2000 October 1997 (volume 2, number 4) • MHLC4 sets convention area, calls • Upcoming events. • Tuna behavior and physiology for scientific support • Tuna telemetry in Tahiti • How to get the best science into January–March 2001 • How tuna physiology affects tuna regional fishery management (volume 6, number 1) movements and distribution • Archival tags—the good, the bad • PFRP research continues to diversify • Yellowfin tuna biology and fisheries and the desired • The importance of local knowledge in in the Pacific • Upcoming events fisheries management • Schedule of upcoming events July–September 1999 April–June 2001 (volume 6, number 2) January 1998 (volume 3, number 1) (volume 4, number 3) • Bluefin spawning in central • Managing highly migratory species • New Pacific bigeye tuna projects North Atlantic • Legal considerations for managing • Oceanography's role in bigeye tuna • Luring anglers to research highly migratory fish aggregation and vulnerability • A sociocultural study of pelagic fishing • The importance of tuna to the • Pacific-wide stock assessment in Guam Pacific Islands of bigeye tuna • Bigeye moorings recovered/deployed • School behavior and site fidelity • Upcoming events • MHLC7—Evaluation and comment of monitored tuna (interview with Ziro Suzuki) October–December 1999 • PFRP technical reports (volume 4, number 4) July–September 2001 • Schedule of upcoming events • Status of South Pacific tuna stocks (volume 6, number 3) April 1998 (volume 3, number 2) • Pacific blue marlin stock is healthy says • New discoveries in visual performance • Economics and fishery management new analysis • The associated tuna-school fishing • How many purse seiners should exploit • Upcoming events technique the Western Pacific tuna fishery • MHLC7—Evaluation and comment (interview with Talbot Murray)

31 • Blue shark study nets early results • Status of yellowfin tuna in the Western • Ocean atlases to provide data for fisheries • MHLC: Years remain to bring order to and Central Pacific and resource management of the Pacific high seas tuna fisheries • Fisheries research in brief • Upcoming events • PSATs will tell swordfish secrets • Abstract: Status of the U.S. Western • Publications of note • Upcoming events Pacific tuna purse-seine fleet July–September 2004 • MHLC—Evaluation and comment October–December 2001 (volume 9, number 3) (Anna Willock, Traffic Oceania, (volume 6, number 4) • Nations gather for PrepCon6 • Trends in NE Atlantic and Australia) • Commission to meet in December Mediterranean bluefin abundance January–March 2003 • Principal investigators workshop set • Fourteenth SCTB: Conservation, (volume 8, number 1) • Ocean Commission report calls for recruitment FADs and MSY • Hawai‘i cyclonic eddies and blue marlin balance in national policy • December gathering for PFRP PIs catch patterns • PFRP Collaborator Arauz wins top U.K. • MHLC7—Evaluation and Comments • A FAD of a different function conservation award (interview with Peter Ward) • PrepCon3 moves MHLC forward • Managing our nation’s fisheries • Upcoming events. • Compendium—Fisheries research in brief • Accomplishments cited in PFRP • Upcoming events online report January–March 2002 • Upcoming events (volume 7, number 1) April–June 2003 (volume 8, number 2) • Incidental catches of fishes by • Population dynamics of bigeye and October–December 2004 Hawai'i longliners yellowfin tuna in Hawai‘i’s fishery (volume 9, number 4) • Meetings in 2002 (from SPC listing) • The hazards of tying one on • Convergent evolution of vertical • PFRP PIs workshop 2001—Introducing • Upcoming events movement behavior in swordfish, bigeye ecosystem-based management • Compendium—Fisheries research in brief tuna and bigeye thresher sharks • Pacific agency’s technology nabs • Vertical niche partitioning in the pelagic July–September 2003 Atlantic scofflaw environment as shown by electronic (volume 8, number 3) • The marine mammal • The biology of FAD-associated tuna: tagging studies authorization program • Fishery monitoring and Temporal dynamics of association and • Protected species workshops continue for economics program feeding ecology Hawai‘i longliners • After the storm—Highly migratory • Upcoming events • PrepCons advance MHLC • Integrated model for protected species species area closures: Do the predictions • Giant “mystery squid” caught on video • Publications of note match the results? • Upcoming events • Pacific Tuna Treaty on track for 2004 • Correction April–June 2002 (volume 7, number 2) entry into force: New commission January–March 2005 • Quantifying sea turtle mortality taking shape (volume 10, number 1) with PSATs • Upcoming events • Climate Impacts on Oceanic Top • New discoveries in the olfactory • Report on the International Workshop Predators (CLIOTOP) Working capability of sea turtles on Current Status and New Directions Groups focus on climate, ecosystem • MHLC7—Evaluation and comment for Studying Schooling and Aggregation dynamics study (Robin Allen, IATTC) Behavior of Pelagic Fish • PFRP PI Workshop tackles ecosystem • Compendium—Fisheries research approaches to management October–December 2003 in brief. • Publications of note (volume 8, number 4) • PFRP new projects—FY 2004 July–September 2002 • Tuna and Billfish Forum meets for • Upcoming events (volume 7, number 3) annual scientific assessments • Predicting post-release survival • Upcoming events April–June 2005 (volume 10, number 2) in pelagics • The effect of ocular heating on vision in January–March 2004 • Recreational meta-data: Using swordfishes (volume 9, number 1) tournament data to describe a • Do tuna and billfish see colors? • U.S. Pacific Island fishery managers poorly documented pelagic fishery • Seeking responsible commercial fishing address overfishing of bigeye tuna • Upcoming events • Fishing regulations recommended solutions in Costa Rica: Study tests new • Longlining in American Samoa— for proposed Northwestern Hawaiian bait to reduce accidental capture of The fleet and its economics sea turtles Islands Sanctuary • PrepCon2—Progress on MHLC • Developmental changes in the visual • Publications of note • Upcoming events financing and scientific structure pigments of the yellowfin tuna, • Upcoming events Thunnus albacares July–September 2005 October–December 2002 • Upcoming events (volume 10, number 3) (volume 7, number 4) • WCPFC shapes up in Rarotonga • End of the line: Using instrumented • Tuna scientists aggregate in Honolulu longline to study vertical habitat of April–June 2004 (volume 9, number 2) for 15th SCTB and 1st MHLC Scientific • A sociological baseline of the Hawai‘i pelagic fishes • Council votes for federal permits, Coordinating Group longline fishery • PFRP PIs to gather in December • Web sites related to pelagic fisheries logbooks; addresses Pacific bigeye tuna and bottomfish overfishing • PrepCon2 to meet in Manila • Comparing the environmental baggage of longline fisheries

32 • A novel approach for improving shark October–December 2006 May–August 2008 bycatch species identifications by (volume 11, number 4) (volume 13, number 2) observers at sea • Process or progress? Time to fish or cut • What if you don’t speak “CPUE-ese”? • Community fishery projects selected to bait for Western Pacific Commission • Pelagic fishing in prehistoric Guam, receive federal funding • Spatial-temporal distribution of albacore Mariana Islands • Electronic tagging data repository catches in the North-Eastern Atlantic • Publications of note • A facility for information exchange and its relationship with SST • Upcoming events • Let’s talk about sex: The development • The role of squid in pelagic marine September–December 2008 of sex-specific molecular markers for environment (volume 13, number 3) three species of billfish-striped marlin • Upcoming events • Patterns of change in Hawai‘i’s small- (Tetrapturus audax), blue marlin January–June 2007 boat commercial handline fisheries (Makaira nigricans) and black marlin (volume 12, number 1) • The influence of Hawaiian seamounts (Makaira indica) • Western and Central Pacific Fisheries and islands on the forage base for • Publications of note Commission cuts more bait oceanic predators • PFRP new projects—FY 2005 • CLIOTOP/PFRP Workshop: The role 2009 Annual Issue • Upcoming events of squid in pelagic marine ecosystems (volume 14, number 1) October–December 2005 • Papua New Guinea tuna-tagging project • Predation, cannibalism and the dynamics • Pelagic fisheries science in the Pacific, (volume 10, number 4) of tuna populations • Highly migratory scientists meet 2005 and beyond—PIFSC and PFRP • A graph-theoretic approach to analyzing • Climatic oscillations and tuna catch rates in Noumea food webs leading to top predators in in the Indian Ocean • Deploying satellite tags on swordfish three regions of the Pacific Ocean using the California harpoon fleet • Mapping the seasonal distribution • Supply, demand and distribution of of bluefin tuna • Longline fishers announce 12-point plan pelagic seafood on O‘ahu: Select results • Upcoming events • From physics to fish: An example from the PFRP Seafood-Distribution • Publications of note of the Madden-Julian Oscillation Project • Upcoming events January–March 2006 • Hawai‘i Tuna Tagging Project Two • Erratum (volume 11, number 1) (HTTP2) • Publications of note • Behavior of bigeye and skipjack tunas • Proceedings of the National Academy within large multi-species aggregations July–September 2007 of Sciences Publication for Graduate associated with floating objects (volume 12, number 2) Student • PFRP updates research priorities: • The Pacific albacore troll and baitboat • Upcoming events Changes form new basis for 2006 RFPs fishery data collection program at the No issue published for 2010 • 2005 PFRP PIs project presentation Southwest Fisheries Science Center updates and Research Priorities • A study of the swimming behavior of 2011 Annual Issue Workshop guest speakers skipjack and small yellowfin and bigeye (volume 15, number 1) • U.S. Pacific Islands offshore fisheries tunas around drifting FADs to develop • Nursery origin of yellowfin tuna in benefit from change to place-based mitigation measures reducing the the Hawaiian Islands management incidental catch of juvenile yellowfin • TUMAS: A tool to allow analysis of • Upcoming events and bigeye tunas management options using WCPFC • Pelagic longline catch-rate stock assessment April–June 2006 (volume 11, number 2) standardization • PFRP publications of note 2010–2011 • The new PFRP tag: Using stable isotope • Upcoming events • Socioeconomic linkages of Hawai‘i’s techniques to better understand the fishery sector trophic ecology and migration patterns October–December 2007 • Upcoming events of tropical tuna (volume 12, number 3) • Economic assessment of open fishing • Regime shifts and recruitment in 2012 Annual Issue tournaments in Hawai‘i the WCPO (volume 16, number 1) • Analyses of incidental catch and bycatch • The importance of monitoring the social • Novel research into the impacts of ocean by the Hawai‘i-based longline fishery impacts of fisheries regulations acidification upon tropical tunas • A short history of pelagic fishing in the • Upcoming events • Integrating conventional and electronic Mariana Islands tagging data into SEAPODYM January–April 2008 • PFRP-supported research underlies • Upcoming events (volume 13, number 1) conservation measures for the Oceanic • The Pacific-Atlantic Sea Turtle July–September 2006 whitetip shark (volume 11, number 3) Assessment Project: Bringing disciplines • How much seafood does Hawai'i • The effect of pelagic longline fishing on together to evaluate the causes of sea consume? turtle decline Laysan and black-footed albatross diets • Upcoming events • Trade-offs between sea turtle interactions • Oceanographic investigation of the • Publications of note and profitability of the Hawai‘i-based American Samoa albacore habitat and longline fleet longline fishing ground • Scientist discuss fisheries issues; Council • Upcoming events votes on recommendations • 2006 PFRP projects • Upcoming events

33 References Barnes-Mauthe M et al. 2013. The influence (Thunnus obesus) dive behavior in the McCarthy MA et al. 2004. Comparing of ethnic diversity on social network central North Pacific Ocean. Prog in predictions of extinction risk using models structure in a common-pool resource Ocean 86 (1-2):81–93. and subjective judgment. Acta Oecologica system: implications for collaborative Hoyle SD and Maunder MN. 2004. A 26:67–74. management. Ecol and Soc 18(1):23. Bayesian integrated population dynamics Polovina JJ. 1995. Decadal variation in http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-05295- model to analyze data for protected the trans-Pacific migration of northern 180123. species. EURING proceedings. Anim bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) coherent Bertrand A et al. 2020. El Niño Southern Biodiv and Conserv 27(1):247–66. with climate-induced change in prey Oscillation (ENSO) effects on fisheries Hunsicker ME at al. 2012. Potential for abundance. Pacific Climate Workshop, and aquaculture. FAO Fish and Aquac top-down control on size structure of Pacific Grove, Calif. 1995 May 2–5. 46th Tech Paper 660. Rome, FAO. https:// predator-prey interactions. Mar Ecol Proj Tuna Conference, Lake Arrowhead, Calif. doi.org/10.4060/ca8348en. Ser 445:263–77. 1995 May 14–17. Bigelow KA, Hampton J, Miyabe N. 2002. Hyde JR et al. 2006. A Central North Pacific Polovina JJ. 1996. Climate and ecosystem in Application of a habitat-based model to spawning ground for striped marlin, the North Pacific. IWC meeting, Turtle estimate effective longline fishing effort and Tetrapturus audax, Bull of Mar Sci 79(3): Bay Hilton, O‘ahu, Hawai‘i.1996 March relative abundance of Pacific bigeye tuna 683–90. 25–29. (Thunnus obesus). Fish Oceanogr 11(3): Kirby DS et al. 2004. Regime Shifts in Western Polovina JJ, Hawn D, Abecassis M. 2008. 143–55. and Central Pacific Ocean tuna fisheries. Vertical movement and habitat of opah Boggs CH, Swimmer Y. 2007. Developments 17th Meeting of the Standing Committee (Lampris guttatus) in the Central North (2006-2007) in scientific research on the on Tuna and Billfish. Majuro, Marshall Pacific recorded with pop-up archival tags. use of modified fishing gear to reduce Islands, 9-18 Aug 2004. SCTB17 Working Mar Biol 153(3):257–67. longline bycatch of sea turtles. Presented Paper ECO-5. 21 pp. Reeb C, Arcangeli L, Block B. 2000. to the WCPFC Scientific Committee, 3rd Kirby DS et al. 2007. Regime Shifts and Structure and migration corridors in Regular Session. 2007 Aug 13–24. Recruitment in the Western and Central Pacific populations of the swordfish Carr CJ. 2004. Transformations in the law Pacific Ocean. Pel Fish Res Prog News Xiphius gladius, as inferred through governing highly migratory species: 1970 12(3):1-4. analyses of mitochondrial DNA. Mar Biol to the Present. In: Caron DD, Scheiber 136:1123-31. https://doi.org/10.1007/ Kleiber P et al. 2009. North Pacific blue shark HN (eds.). 2004. Bringing New Law s002270000291. stock assessment. NOAA Tech Memo to Ocean Waters. NY: Koninklijke Brill. NMFS-PIFSC-17. US Dept Comm, Reeb C, Arcangeli L, Block B. 2003. pp 55-94. NOAA, PIFSC. Development of 11 microsatellite loci De Forest LG, Drazen JC. 2009. The influence for population studies in the swordfish, Kopf RK et al. 2011. Age and growth of of a Hawaiian seamount on mesopelagic Xiphius gladius (Teleostei: Scombridae). striped marlin (Kajikia audax) in the micronekton. Deep Sea Res I 56:232–50. Mol Ecol Notes 3(1):147–9. https://doi. Southwest Pacific Ocean. ICES J of Mar org/10.1046/j.1471-8286.2003.00385.x Domokos R. 2009. Environmental effects on Sci 68(9):1884–95. doi:10.1093/icesjms/ forage and longline fishery performance fsr110. Rice J, Harley S. 2013. Updated stock for albacore (Thunnus alalunga) in the assessment of silky sharks in the Western Kopf RK, Humphrey R Jr. 2012. Age and American Samoa Exclusive Economic and Central Pacific Ocean. Scientific growth of striped marlin (Kajika audax) Zone. Fish Oceanogr 18(6):419–38. Committee Ninth Regular Session, caught in the Hawai'i-based longline Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia. Domokos R et al. 2007. Oceanographic fishery. Presentation to the PFRP Principal 2013 Aug 6–14. WCPFC-SC9-2013/ investigation of the American Samoa Investigators meeting. 2012 Nov. 26-27. SA-WP-03. 71 pp. albacore (Thunnus alalunga) habitat and Honolulu. Available at soest.hawaii.edu/ longline fishing grounds. Fish Oceanogr PFRP/nov12mtg/kopf.pdf. Sun C et al. 2017. Western tropical Pacific 16(6):555–7. multidecadal variability forced by Lehodey P et al. 1997. El Niño Southern the Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Drazen JC, De Forest LG. 2008. The influence Oscillation and tuna in the Western Pacific. Nat Commun 8:15998. https://doi. of Hawaiian seamounts and islands on the Nature. 389:715–18. 10.1038/39575. forage base for oceanic predators. Pel Fish org/10.1038/ncomms15998 Lehodey P et al. 2006. Climate variability, fish Res Prog News 13:4–8. Swimmer Y et al. 2009. Movements of olive and fisheries. J of Clim 19(20):5009–30. Drazen JC, De Forest LG, Domokos R. 2011. ridley sea turtles Lepidochelys olivacea Lehodey P et al. 2020. ENSO impact on Micronekton abundance and biomass and associated oceanographic features marine fisheries and ecosystems. In: in Hawaiian waters as influenced by as determined by improved light-based ENSO Impact on Marine Fisheries and seamounts, eddies and the moon. Deep geolocation. Endang Spec Res 10:245– Ecosystems. McPhaden MJ, Santoso A, Sea Res I 58:557–86. 254. 10.3354/esr00164. Cai W (eds). Am Geophys Union. https:// Theisen TC et al. 2008. High connectivity Friedlander AM. 2018. Marine conservation doi.org/10.1002/9781119548164.ch19. in Oceania: Past, present and future. Mar on a global scale in the pelagic wahoo, Maunder M.N. 2004. Population viability Poll Bull 135:139-49. Acanthocybium solandri (tuna family analysis, based on combining integrated, Scombridae). Mol Ecol 19, 4233-4247. Howell EA, Hawn DR, Polovina JJ. 2010. Bayesian and hierarchical analyses Acta Spatiotemporal variability in bigeye tuna Oecologica 26:85–94.

34 Joint Institute of Marine and Atmospheric Research School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology, University of Hawai‘i at Manoa

Fig. 28. Participants at the PFRP PI meeting, Nov. 1997: (Front) John Sibert, Paul Bartram, Dodie Lau, John Kaneko, Judith Swan, David Itano; (2nd row) Paul Callaghan, Craig MacDonald, Robert Skillman, Marcia Hamilton, Michael Travis, Craig Severance, Richard Brill; (3rd row) Charles Daxboeck, Patrick Bryan, Keiichi Nemoto, Ujjayant Chakravorty, Harry Campbell, Cheryl Anderson, Minling Pan; (4th row) Sam Herrick, Sam Pooley, Tom Pinhey, Marc Miller, PingSun Leung, Knut Heen, Khem Sharma, Fang Ji. (Not shown) Tony Kingston, Stuart Nakamoto, Shankar Aswani, Ed Glazier, Michael Seki, Ray Clarke, Jeff Nagel, Thomas Kraft, Deane Neubauer, Dan Curran, Mike Musyl, Scott Miller, Rose Pfund, Bob Franco. PFRP photo.

35 Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council 1164 Bishop Street, Suite 1400 Honolulu, Hawaii 96813 Tel: 808-522-8220 Fax: 808-522-8226 [email protected] www.wpcouncil.org

ISBN 978-1-944827-57-1