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Paperback of Comparative Grammar of Spanish, Portuguese, Italian Comparative Grammar of Spanish, Portuguese, Italian and French Learn and Compare 4 Languages Simultaneously MIKHAIL PETRUNIN MIKHAIL PETRUNIN Copyright © 2018 Mikhail Petrunin All rights reserved. ISBN: 9781983334269 !ii COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR OF SPANISH, PORTUGUESE, ITALIAN AND FRENCH To all language lovers like me. !iii MIKHAIL PETRUNIN !iv COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR OF SPANISH, PORTUGUESE, ITALIAN AND FRENCH CONTENTS Preface To the Learner xviii Six reasons why this book was written and why you xviii need it Acknowledgements xxiv Symbols xxv Introduction: Alphabet 1 Letter names and Pronunciations 1 Digraphs 4 Diacritics 7 Diphthongs 9 Chapter 1: Nouns 11 Gender of Nouns 11 Forming the Feminine 18 Plural Forms of Nouns 21 Special Cases of Forming the Plural Nouns 22 Nouns which are always Plural 27 Nouns which are always Singular 28 Chapter 2: Adjectives 30 Gender of Adjectives 30 Forming the Feminine 31 Plural Forms of Adjectives 38 Peculiarities of Adjective Use 39 Italian Bello 42 Italian Grande 43 !v MIKHAIL PETRUNIN Italian Buono and Nessuno 43 Chapter 3: Adverbs 45 Use of Adverbs 45 Forming Adverbs from Adjectives. Adverbs Ending in 45 -mente (-ment) Peculiarities of Adverb Use 46 Other Adverbs 46 Adverbs of manner 46 Adverbs of place 47 Adverbs of time 48 Adverbs of intensity 49 Adverbs of doubt 50 Adverbs expressing affirmation 50 Adverbs expressing exclusion 51 Adverbs composed of several words 51 Adverbial phrases 51 Position of Adverbs 53 Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs 53 Irregular Comparatives and Superlatives 58 Chapter 4: Articles 61 Origin of Articles in Romance Languages. Definite 61 and Indefinite Articles. Gender French 63 Italian 63 Spanish and Portuguese 63 Use of the Article 63 General Use of the Indefinite Article 64 General Use of the Definite Article 65 !vi COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR OF SPANISH, PORTUGUESE, ITALIAN AND FRENCH Omission of the Definite Article 72 Omission of the Article 73 The Neuter Article lo in Spanish 74 The Partitive 75 Contraction of the Article 77 Chapter 5: Pronouns 80 Personal Pronouns 80 Subject Pronouns 83 Overview 83 Use of Subject Pronouns 84 Omission of Subject Pronouns 88 Direct Object 90 Use of Direct Object Pronouns 92 Word Order of Direct Object Pronouns 93 Divergent Aspects in Word Order 95 Different Variants of Direct Object in Portuguese 97 Indirect Object 99 Use of Indirect Object Pronouns 100 Common Verbs Used with an Indirect Object in 102 Romance Languages Word Order of Indirect Object Pronouns 103 Contraction. Using Direct and Indirect Object 103 Pronouns in the Same Sentence Italian ci, ne and French y, en Special Pronouns 107 Italian ci and French y Pronouns 107 Use of ci and y 107 Italian ne and French en Pronouns 112 Use of ne and en 112 !vii MIKHAIL PETRUNIN Prepositional (Disjunctive) Pronouns 114 Use of Prepositional (Disjunctive) Pronouns 115 Special Forms of Prepositional Pronouns and 116 Prepositions in Spanish and Portuguese Use of Prepositional (Disjunctive) Pronouns in 118 French. Special Cases Reflexive Pronouns 119 Use of Reflexive Pronouns 120 Word Order of Reflexive Pronouns 121 Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns in Romance 122 Languages Possessive Adjectives 122 Possession with de (Spanish, Portuguese, French) 126 and di (Italian) Omission of Possessive Adjectives 127 Possessive Pronouns 127 Demonstrative Adjectives and Pronouns in Spanish, 130 Portuguese, Italian and French Demonstrative Adjectives 130 Forms of Demonstrative Adjectives 131 Demonstrative Adjectives this and these in Romance 132 Languages Demonstrative Adjectives that and those in Romance 133 Languages Demonstrative Adjectives that over there and those 134 over there in Spanish and Portuguese Combined Demonstrative Adjectives in Portuguese 135 Word Order of Demonstrative Adjectives 136 Demonstrative Pronouns 136 Forms of Demonstrative Pronouns 137 !viii COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR OF SPANISH, PORTUGUESE, ITALIAN AND FRENCH Possession with the Demonstrative Pronoun and de 138 (di) Neuter Demonstrative Pronouns in Spanish and 139 Portuguese Forms of Neuter Demonstrative Pronouns 139 Combined Neuter Demonstrative Pronouns in 140 Portuguese Interrogative Pronouns and Adjectives 141 Exclamations with Interrogative Pronouns 153 Relative Pronouns 156 Indefinite Adjectives and Pronouns 170 Chapter 6: Verbs 197 Overview 197 The Indicative Mood 201 The Present Tense 201 Irregular Verbs in the Present Tense 212 Verb Spelling and Vowel Changes 214 Use of the Present Tense 247 Special Use of the Present Tense and Prepositions 250 The Past Participle 251 Overview 251 Formation of Past Participle of Regular Verbs 251 Irregular Past Participles 252 Use of Past Participle 254 The Present Perfect 255 Formation of the Present Perfect 255 Formation of the Present Perfect with the Verb to be 257 in Italian and French Agreement of the Past Participle 258 !ix MIKHAIL PETRUNIN Agreement of the Past Participle with avoir in French 259 Use of the Present Perfect 260 Special Use of the Present Perfect in Italian and 261 French Sp. acabar de; Port. acabar de; Fr. venir de + The 261 Infinitive The Preterite 261 Formation of the Preterite 261 Irregular Verbs in the Preterite 264 Irregularities in Formation the Preterite 268 Use of the Preterite 277 Special Use of the Preterite in French 279 Difference between the Preterite and the Present 279 Perfect in the Romance languages Asking Questions 280 Peculiarities of Interrogation in the Romance 281 languages Negation 284 Formation of Negation in Simple Tenses 285 Omission of Pas in French 286 Negation of the Infinitive 287 Negation with Adjectives and the Adverb Very 287 Formation of Negation in Compound Tenses 288 Other Negative Expressions 289 The Imperfect Tense 301 Formation of the Imperfect 301 Irregular Verbs in the Imperfect 304 Use of the Imperfect 305 Sp. desde hace; Port. desde; It. da; Fr. depuis + The 309 Imperfect Tense !x COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR OF SPANISH, PORTUGUESE, ITALIAN AND FRENCH Difference between the Preterite and the Imperfect 311 in the Romance Languages Compound Tenses in The Past 312 Overview 312 The Pluperfect Tense 312 Formation of the Pluperfect 312 Use of the Pluperfect Tense 316 Peculiarities of Use of the Pluperfect in the Romance 316 Languages Irregular Verbs of the Pluperfect in Portuguese 317 The Past Perfect (Anterior) Tense 317 Formation of The Past Perfect (Anterior) 317 Use of the Past Perfect (Anterior) Tense 321 The Future Tense 322 Regular Formation of the Future 322 Irregular Verbs in The Future 324 Irregularities in Formation of the Future in French 327 Use of The Future Tense 327 The Informal Future 329 Special Use of the Future 330 The Future Perfect Tense 331 Formation of the Future Perfect 331 Use of the Future Perfect Tense 334 Special Use of the Future Perfect 335 The Conditional Tense 336 Overview 336 Formation of the Present Conditional 337 Irregular Verbs in the Conditional 338 !xi MIKHAIL PETRUNIN Irregularities in Formation the Conditional in French 341 Use of the Conditional Tense 342 The Conditional Perfect Tense 344 Overview 344 Formation of the Conditional Perfect 344 Use of the Conditional Perfect Tense 347 Conditional Clauses 348 The Subjunctive Mood 351 Overview 351 Basic Rules for Indicative and Subjunctive 351 The Present Subjunctive 353 Formation of the Present Subjunctive 353 Irregular Verbs in the Present Subjunctive 355 Use of the Present Subjunctive 358 Sp. Ojalá (que) 360 Use of the Present Indicative instead of Subjunctive 369 Subjunctive with Subordinate Conjunctions 371 Indirect Commands in Romance languages 376 Subjunctive after Affirmation in Romance Languages 377 Subjunctive in Relative Clauses 377 Subjunctive with the Superlative and It. solo, unico; 378 Fr. seul, unique Subjunctive with Indefinite Words 379 The Present Perfect Subjunctive 381 Formation of the Present Perfect Subjunctive 381 Use of the Present Perfect Subjunctive 384 The Imperfect Subjunctive 385 Formation of the Imperfect Subjunctive 385 !xii COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR OF SPANISH, PORTUGUESE, ITALIAN AND FRENCH Irregular Verbs in the Imperfect Subjunctive 387 Use of the Imperfect Subjunctive 388 The Pluperfect (Past Perfect) Subjunctive 388 Overview 388 Formation of The Pluperfect Subjunctive 389 Use of the Pluperfect Subjunctive 393 The Future Subjunctive in Spanish and Portuguese 394 Overview 394 Formation of the Future Subjunctive 394 Irregular verbs in the Future Subjunctive 395 Use of The Future Subjunctive 395 The Future Perfect Subjunctive 396 Overview 396 Formation of the Future Perfect Subjunctive 396 Use of The Future Perfect Subjunctive 397 The Sequence of Tenses with the Subjunctive 399 The Imperative Mood 400 Spanish and Portuguese Let’s Commands with the 404 Verb Ir Irregular Imperative 405 The Negative Imperative 406 Softened Commands in the Romance Languages 408 The Present Participle (Gerund) 410 Overview 410 Formation of the Present Participle (Gerund) 410 Irregularities in Formation of the Present Participle 411 (Gerund) in Spanish and Italian Use of Present Participle (Gerund) 413 !xiii MIKHAIL PETRUNIN No Use of Present Participle (Gerund) 415 How to Avoid Using the Present Participle (Gerund) 416 The Compound Present Participle (Gerund) in 418 Portuguese and Italian Formation of the Compound Present Participle 418 (Gerund) in Portuguese and Italian Use of the Compound Present Participle in 419 Portuguese and Italian The Continuous Tenses 419 Formation of Continuous Tenses 419 Use of Continuous Tenses 420 The Present Continuous 421 The Imperfect Continuous 421 The Infinitive 422 Overview 422 Use of The Infinitive 422
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