Domestic Terrorism: Rethinking the Role of Islam in the Emerging Boko Haram Phenomenon in Nigeria

Home , Bashir Yusuf Ibrahim, Goodluck Jonathan, Isa Yuguda, Shehu Sani

Full Length Research Paper

Domestic Terrorism: Rethinking the role of Islam in the emerging Boko Haram Phenomenon in Nigeria

Obi Ndifon Neji

Doctoral Fellow, Peace and Conflict Studies Program, Institute of African Studies, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. E-mail:[email protected]

Accepted 5 March, 2014

Many Nigerians, especially Christians see the terrorist attacks of Boko Haram as part of a wider global religious war between Muslims and Christians. Although there is a general perspective that Islam in the World and indeed Nigeria has historically had a violent past, with trickles of it still existing, Christians in Nigeria appear to present a variety of narratives around issues of the theocracy of Islam. Part of this narrative is to establish a nexus between Islam and violence with the intent of deploying such linkage in explaining the Boko Haram phenomenon in Nigeria. The rapidity with which the Boko Haram Sect attacks the Nigerian State, innocent citizens and critical installations threatens not only the security and corporate existence of Nigeria but further reinforces this seeming nexus. Central to this threat and confusion is the often misconceived, misinterpreted and misapplied notion that Islam is the major driver of the Boko Haram phenomenon. This article therefore attempts a reconstruction of these narratives. It argues that in the nation’s quest to proffer more durable management measures one must look beyond Islam to interrogate the actual interests and core needs of the perpetrators .

Key words: Terrorism, Domestic Terrorism, Terrorist, Islam, Boko Haram, National Security, and Jihad.

INTRODUCTION

Terrorists utilizing suicide attacks are driven not by the presence of violence in many regions of the world Islamism but by a clear strategic political objective (Pape, ranging from Ireland to Lebanon to the Pacific Basin, 2005:28) to compel modern democracies to act in a Somali, Syria, Iraq and Palestine to Nigeria and involving particular way (Scott 2005). The official website of the many religions from Islam, Christianity to Hinduism, there Ahmadiyya Muslim Community under the heading Islam is a growing tendency to associate Islam more than any and Terrorism opens up with a statement that tend to other religion with violence. The Muslim conquest of suggest that the true meaning of Islam has been Spain, the crusades which were not begun by Muslims misconstrued, misinterpreted and misrepresented. The and the Ottoman domination of Eastern Europe have website noted that “It is unfortunate that Islam, the provided a historical memory of Islam as being related to religion of peace, hope, harmony, goodwill and force and power. Moreover, the upheavals of the past few brotherhood had been badly tarnished by perpetrators of decades in the Middle East, the American experience, various terrorist acts and barbarism as seen in recent the Boko Haram phenomenon in Nigeria and especially years (Al Islam, 2014)”. This coheres with a popular movements using the name of Islam and seeking to solve social media message which holds that “the biggest problems of the Muslim world created by conditions and enemy of Islam is the ignorant Muslim, whose ignorance causes beyond the control of Muslims have only leads him to intolerance, whose actions destroy the true reinforced the (mis)conception that in some special way image of Islam, and when the people look at him they Islam is supportive of violence. think that Islam is what he is” The above extracts After the events of September 11 th 2001, the issue of presupposes that Islam does not condone violence. To Islam and violence was brought to the front burner of Kramer, (2005), the motivation for suicide attacks is not social discourse. This issue attracted the attention of the just strategic logic but also an (mis) interpretation of Islam academia, clergy, civil society actors, multinational to provide a moral logic. Hezbollah for instance, initiated organizations and even artisans to cross fertilize ideas at suicide bombings after a complex reworking of the different levels on how to address the menace of concept of martyrdom (Kramer, 2005). However, despite terrorism. Unfortunately, what was considered an Scholarly J. Sci. Res. and Essay 48

‘American ailment’ at the time has crisscrossed rivers, segment that follows attempts to answer the question, valleys, mountains and even forests, has defied border can religious principles actually cause terror without the security checks, defied the customs, immigrations, army human factor? The fourth segment interrogates the and even the police and has made its way into Nigeria in seeming extant assertion that Islam is responsible for the West Africa. As the charred ruins of the June 16, 2011 emerging Boko Haram phenomenon by bringing to the Police Headquarters bombing and the August 26, 2011 fore some triggers of the domestic terrorism in Nigeria. bombing of the United Nations (UN House) in Nigeria, the The last two segments presents an argument that beyond bombing of St. Theresa's Catholic Church Madalla, Niger the ‘position’ presented by the Boko Haram sect lies their State and the emerging ‘child and female suicide ‘interests’ and core ‘needs’ and suggests that for any bombers’ as well as the multiple explosions in Adamawa, meaningful engagement to be made with the sect, these Bornu, Kaduna, Kano and Yobe States that claimed the core ‘interests and needs’ must be identified and lives of many lingers, since they can neither be washed addressed. The paper rounds off with a concluding away by the forces of space nor time, one cardinal but remarks captured in the submission that rather than look salient message is reiterated by these ruins – no to Islam for answers, the context, behaviors and attitudes individual, edifice nor nation is free from terrorist attack. of the conflict parties must change by ensuring that basic This assertion has placed one important but contentious demands of groups are not ignored. conundrum in the forefront of debate. Is there ‘something’ in Islam that encourages acts of violence and terrorism? Contextualizing Jihad As the impact of the various attacks in Nigeria penetrates more deeply, and the indications that the perpetrators The notion of Jihad has often elicited heated emotional came from the Islamic World (Boko Haram) appear to debates from scholars and practitioners alike. It has often grow clearer and more convincing, there is an apparent been used to justify fundamentalism yet it is also temptation to make generalizing statements about the considered a process of internal spiritual struggle. With Islamic religion or at least the societies it predominates. the ambiguity that seems to surround the notion, it has There are also historic, political and cultural reasons, become difficult to determine its true meaning. The which favor a prejudice against Islam especially in narrative that appears to have gained currency is that Western societies. While the weights of these reasons which qualify Jihad as a "holy war". This assertion has may threaten to further cement and reinforce this been criticized by Islamic scholars and practitioners. The prejudice, this study takes exception to them. This paper word Jihad according to Dodge (2009) stems from the is therefore built on the understanding that although Arabic root word J-H-D, which means "strive." Other religious fanaticism and Islamic fundamentalism have words derived from this root word include "effort," "labor," significantly contributed to the rise of violence and and "fatigue." Essentially Jihad is an effort to practice terrorism in contemporary Islam, it is however easy to religion in the face of oppression and persecution. As reconstruct this narrative drawing from available further noted by Dodge (2009), the effort may come in evidences that the hatred that Boko Haram direct against fighting the evil in your own heart, or in standing up to a the Nigeria State has more to do with political and social dictator. Military effort is included as an option, but as a factors than religion. last resort. Religiously, jihad is the expending of utmost The major preoccupation of this article therefore, is to effort in upholding and defending justice (Handwerk, establish a line of reasoning and argument that whereas 2010). Some scholars hold the view that there are two there exist historical and religious facts that may reinforce kinds of jihad because there are two kinds of violations of the (mis)conception that Islam like several other religions justice. These include jihad with words against false has some violence inducing provisions, the Boko Haram beliefs, and jihad with the sword against acts of injustice. phenomenon in Nigeria cannot be strictly tied to Islam. To Handwerk (2010), the first is the basic and continuous This line of reasoning can go a long way to blunt the jihad but it is the jihad of the sword that has received the sharp edges of protracted reprisal attacks, whether extant lion's share of global attention. Jihad in elaborate terms or prospective. The paper is divided into six segments. according to Pipes (2002) means the legal, compulsory Following the introduction is the first segment which and communal efforts to expand the territories ruled by examines the concept of Jihad. This is necessary in the Muslims at the expense of territories ruled by non- light of the fact that the concept seems to be a ‘clarion Muslims. Encarta (2009) summarily defined Jihad as an call’ for war against non-Muslims hence it is instructive to Islamic campaign waged by Muslims in defense of the examine it with the intent of situating it in the context of Islamic faith against people, organizations, or countries this discourse. The second segment x-rays the concept regarded as hostile to Islam. The later definition would of Islam which is the vortex of this study and calls the help situate the concept of jihad in the context of this attention of the reader to those ‘push factors’ that have narrative. the tendency to turn a once harmless boy in the Middle The purpose of jihad according to Pipes (2002) East into an ‘Osama Bin Laden’ and a seemingly therefore, is not directly to spread the Islamic faith but to innocent Nigerian into an ‘Imam Abubakar Shekau’. The extend sovereign Muslim power. Thus jihad is unabash- Neji 49

-edly offensive in nature, with the eventual goal of practice terrorism. Domestic terrorism refers to acts of achieving Muslim dominion over the entire globe. Jihad in violence or threats by citizens of a particular country the sense of territorial expansion has always been a against its citizens to coerce the government, or group of central aspect of Muslim life. According to Zahoor (1997), people to act in a way and manner they would not it was through jihad that Muslims came to rule much of ordinarily have acted. To avoid the difficulties associated the Arabian Peninsula by the time of the death of Prophet with defining a terrorist, this paper will simply define a Muhammad in 632 AD. That was also how a century terrorist to mean anybody who engages in act or acts of later; Muslims conquered a region from Afghanistan to terrorism. With the concept of terrorism placed in Spain. Jihad subsequently spurred and justified Muslim perspective the question can now be asked as to how conquests of such territories as India, Sudan, Anatolia, Islam fits into the definition of terrorism especially in the and the Balkans. Today, jihad is seemingly considered context of jihad and the emerging Boko Haram the world's foremost source of terrorism, inspiring a phenomenon in Nigeria. Seyyed (2011) noted that as far worldwide campaign of violence by self-proclaimed as 'force' is concerned, Islam is not completely opposed jihadist groups. Despite the forgoing, the arguments of to its use but rather seeks to control it in the light of the some scholars seem to converge around the point that divine Law (al-shari'a). He further noted that this world is jihad is first and foremost an internal spiritual struggle, one in which force is to be found everywhere, in nature rather than a holy war against Christians. (Cruise and as well as in human society, among men as well as within Coulon 1988; Westerlund and Rosander 1997, Levtzion the human soul. The goal of Islam according to Seyyed is and Pouwels 2000; James and Vikør 2005; Hurst 2007; to establish equilibrium amidst this field of tension of Hefner 2011). It may be instructive to now examine the various forces. The scholar also argues that the Islamic linkage between jihad, Islam and violence. . concept of justice itself is related to equilibrium, the word for justice (al-'adl) in Arabic being related in its etymology The nature of Islam to the word for equilibrium (ta'adul). Going by his line of reasoning, all forces deployed under the guidance of the To understand the nature of Islam and the truth about the divine Law with the aim of re-establishing an equilibrium assertion often made of Islam's espousal of violence and that is destroyed is accepted and in fact necessary, for it terrorism, it may be useful to examine this assertion means to carry out and establish justice. This perhaps clearly remembering that the word Islam itself means coheres with what Dodge (2009) refers to as ''military peace. What is considered an important strategy in this effort''. Seyyed (2011) argued that not to use force in regard is to first define what we mean by terrorism in such a way is to fall prey to other forces which cannot but order to situate it in the context of this discourse. The increase disequilibrium and disorder and result in greater definition of terrorism is often influenced by the injustice. background of the person defining it. This influence has If the primacy of Islam drawing from the foregoing is to generated huge literature on terrorism and terrorist. It is ensure justice and equilibrium in an unjust society then however beyond the purview of this paper to review ''jihad with the sword'' as espoused by Handwerk (2010) literature on terrorism. The study will therefore adapt a can only be justified in an environment of manifest working definition that would aid its analysis. According injustice as a result of disequilibrium. It is now apt to ask to Miller (2005), terrorism refers to violent actions inflicted if there is any disequilibrium or injustice in the Nigerian upon secondary targets that may be conducted by an polity?. If the answer to this poser is in the affirmative individual, group, or government with the wider purpose then it may also be necessary to ask the following of attracting attention, gaining support, or forcing questions: What is the origin and nature of this injustice? concessions from the primary target on personal or What informed the timing in the correction of this political issues. injustice? The answers to these contentious questions When used by government, it may signal efforts to stifle would perhaps help this narrative properly establish the dissent but when used by insurrectionists or guerrillas, it place of Islam in the emerging Boko Haram phenomenon may be part of an overall effort to effect desired political in Nigeria. Before attempting answers to these questions, change. This narrative points to the fact that the it may be expedient to first examine certain Qur`anic government can equally adopt terrorism as a weapon of provisions that have often been misconceived, intimidation. To Mike (1999), it is the use of violence, misinterpreted and very frequently misapplied by some sometimes indiscriminately against person or property for overzealous Islamic fundamentalists and conflict the purpose of making a political statement intending to entrepreneurs to fan the embers of terror in Nigeria inspire terror. For the purpose of this paper, terrorism is especially in the context under review. construed as the use of violence or threats meant to coerce an individual, group, or entity to act in a manner in Understanding the push factors in Islam which such a person or group could not otherwise lawfully force them to act. Terrorist group means any Muslims, who take it upon themselves to destroy their group practicing or that has significant subgroups that alleged enemies in the name of Allah, can rightly claim to Scholarly J. Sci. Res. and Essay 50

be following his commands in the Qur'an. This minority including Christianity, has shown itself to be extremely group in Islam who resort to terrorism, are not an violent under certain historic and social conditions not aberration to Islam in this context, (reasons would be because the religions are either violent or peaceable in adduced below) but in fact can legitimately claim to be themselves but because the people who adhere to them working within the basic parameters of ''jihad with the can easily become aggressive. This is obviously a good sword''. This study will now turn to the evidence in template to build on in an attempt to examine the role of support of this claim. The following are only some of the Islam in the emerging Boko Haram phenomenon in verses in the Qur'an as translated by Abdullah (2000) that Nigeria. This narrative recognizes the fact that all can and have been used in the history of Islam in support religions have some violent inducing scriptural verses but of terrorism in the name of Allah and the glories of suffice it to say that these are just ‘inanimate’ scriptural martyrdom in a holy war. provisions that become ‘animated’ by the various religious actors. The notion of Jihad in the context of our 2:190-193 "Fight in the cause of God those who fight you analysis has been misconstrued, misinterpreted and ... And slay them wherever ye catch them ... And fight deliberately misapplied by certain religious actors to them on until there is no more tumult or oppression and achieve predetermined objectives. there prevail justice and faith in Allah..." To Eck (2001), a true Jihad according to Muslim 3:157-158 "And if ye are slain or die in the way of Allah, doctrine can exist only when a genuine caliph exists or forgiveness and mercy from Allah is far better than all when the Muslim faithfuls are under attack very often. A they could amass. And if ye die, or are slain, Lo! It is unto false Jihad on the other hand (one not justified by the Allah that ye are brought together." religious teachings) is declared for political reasons. 3:169 "Think not of those who are slain in Allah's way as Actual armed Jihad according to a popular Muslim dead. Nay, they live finding their sustenance in the apologist Jamal Badawi as cited in Eck (2001) is presence of their Lord." permissible under two conditions alone: one is for self- 3:195 "... Those who have ... fought or been slain, verily I defense, and the other is for fighting against oppression. will blot out from them their iniquities and admit them into Although Badawi is quite accurate in describing the Gardens with rivers flowing beneath; a reward from the conditions of armed Jihad in Islam, what he fails to say is presence of Allah ..." that the definitions of "self-defense" and "fighting against 4:95 "Not equal are those believers who sit (at home) and oppression" are much broader than usually understood. receive no hurt and those who strive and fight in the To Kelsay (1993) many orthodox Muslims believe that if a cause of God with their goods and their persons. Allah nation's leaders do not acknowledge the rule of Islam, hath granted a grade higher to those who strive and fight then those rulers are "oppressors" and thus a legitimate with their goods and persons than those who sit (at target for war. Kelsay’s submission coheres with that of home). this author whose understanding of the situation on 4:101 "... For the unbelievers are unto you open ground is that ‘some Muslims’ see the current Nigerian enemies." President Goodluck Jonathan and by extension the 5:54 "O ye who believe, take not the Jews and the People’s Democratic Party (PDP) as political oppressors Christians for your friends and protectors. They are but who breached the zoning arrangement of the party that friends and protectors to each other. And he amongst you was designed to produce a President of Northern that turns to them (for friendship) is of them. Verily God extraction. These oppressors now in authority brought guideth not a people unjust." their values and policies of the Goodluck Jonathan's (GEJ) led PDP government to bear on all Nigerians A simple reading of the above Qur'anic passages makes including of course, the Northerners who feel cheated by it obvious how easy it is for many Muslims to feel hatred the distortion in the PDP zoning arrangement. Thus any and enmity against Jews, Christians and other non- fight against GEJ/PDP is done in self-defense. Consistent Muslims. One cannot therefore ignore the weight and with this line of reasoning therefore, there is no end to impact of the above passages on a ‘devout Muslim’ who how a Muslim group can define "self-defense" and wants to obey the will of Allah as found in the Qur'an. "oppression" and thus find an Islamic justification for While these push factors may be deployed by some violence. misguided Islamic fundamentalists to justify acts of These misinterpretations, misrepresentations and terrorism, this article takes exception to them. This is so misapplications of scriptural provisions have resulted in because to this author, the Boko Haram phenomenon and the emergence of extremist groups like Boko Haram. A the upsurge of terrorism in Nigeria has more to do with group considered as ‘Muslim’ and purportedly supported political and economic factors than religion as the by Islam because its members are predominantly of segment below would attempt to establish. Muslim extraction. A group that claims to be against Western education yet uses its technology in prosecuting its cause. Religion as an inanimate entity A group seemingly committed to Islamizing Nigeria yet kills people considered ‘fake Muslims’. A group that According to Hottinger (2001), every world religion, appears to be driven by religion but actually pursue Neji 51

political or warlike goals yet regards itself not as tied to Islam can logically be traced to the politicians, warriors or terrorists, but as true Muslims and operationalization of certain clauses of the ruling People's indeed acts as if they are the only true believers. This Democratic Party's (PDP) Constitution and the process group has developed an outright sectarian mentality that led to the emergence of Goodluck Jonathan as which involves certain fanaticism that may extend to total President. self-sacrifice for the objectives of the sect. How then does According to the notorious section 7(3c) as amended of such group arrive at their profound hatred of the Nigerian the PDP Constitution (2012) in pertinent part, it states “ in State? Political and social causes are far more deeply pursuant of the principles of equity, justice and fairness, involved than religious ones. the party shall adhere to the policy of rotation and zoning of party and public elective offices and it shall be Basic triggers of the emerging terrorism in Nigeria enforced by the appropriate executive committee at all levels ”. This very contentious provision accounts for The Western media and many Nigerians see the terrorist much of what is happening in Nigeria today especially as attacks of Boko Haram as part of a wider global religious it relates to security of lives and properties. The said war between Muslims and Christians. The New York section has always/only been interpreted to suit the Times , for instance, claims that “the radical Islamist whims and caprices of a select group of people at any group… has struck mostly at Christians and burned particular point in time. It is believed that the PDP entered churches (Worth, 2012)”. As for the Christian Association into an accord to rotate the office of the president of Nigeria (CAN), it insists on the possibility of a religious between the North and South in line with the above war, and it has found fault with President Goodluck provision (in obvious neglect of other confederating Jonathan’s statement that Boko Haram killed more zones). In line with this understanding, the South-West Muslims than Christians (Akowe, 2013). The CAN produced the President in the person of Olusegun President Pastor Ayo Oritsejafor was quoted by Akowe Obasanjo (1999-2007) and it was logically supposed that (2013) to have remarked that Boko Haram is first and the next slot was an exclusive preserve of the North. The foremost an extremist group “fuelled by a religious demise of President Umaru Yar’Adua threw up some fundamentalist ideology”. He further acknowledges that challenges that threatened to turn the table against the the sect indoctrinated the poor and was manipulated by North and eventually did when President Goodluck politicians. To Pérouse de Montclos (2014), Boko Haram Jonathan then Vice President became Acting president is basically an indigenous uprising with a religious and eventually substantive president through the ideology, a political meaning, and some social support ‘Doctrine of Necessity’ at the death of his principal locally. Yar`Adua. The 2011 presidential elections inadvertently It is common drawing from the foregoing for people to set the stage for the Boko Haram phenomenon to thrive see the Boko Haram terror attacks as a religious war and gain currency. The early warning signals became between Muslims and Christians. The origin of Boko obvious when president Jonathan indicated interest to Haram can be traced to 2003-2005 a period termed the contest the 2011 presidency on the platform of the PDP ‘Kanama phase’ by Kyari (2014) when a militant jihadist against the seeming provision of section 7/3c of the group waged war on the Nigerian state but was repelled party`s constitution and against the warning by the with casualties on both sides. This group was led by leadership of the Northern Political Leaders Forum Muhammad Ali, a Nigerian who was radicalized by jihadi (NPLF) that the “PDP will reap the consequences” if it literature in Saudi Arabia and was believed to have failed to pick a Northern candidate. At the end of the fought alongside the mujahideen in Afghanistan. This electoral process, President Goodluck Jonathan emerged continued till the suppression of the group and the killing the winner defeating even his closest rival Muhammadu of its leader Mohammed Yusuf in 2009. It may be Buhari in his stronghold. The upsurge of domestic instructive to note here that this period coincided with the terrorism and the Boko Haram phenomenon in Nigeria by time during which the health of President Umaru the assessment of this author therefore is a result of the Yar’Adua was failing that culminated in his eventual distortion in the supposed zoning arrangement of the death on May 5 2010. This was a very defining moment PDP. It is however beyond the scope of this paper to in the history and emergence/upsurge of terrorism in delve into the gamut of issues that surrounds the PDP Nigeria. With the death of President Yar’Adua, his deputy zoning debacle. Goodluck Jonathan became President through the Lending credence to this line of reasoning, Idowu ‘Doctrine of Necessity’ amidst stiff opposition. This period (2010) in an article entitled Zoning: Northern Elders issue also witnessed the victory of Goodluck Jonathan at the 2 Weeks ultimatum to PDP noted that the Northern 2011 Presidential election; a victory that threatened and Elders in a memo jointly signed by Mallam Adamu still threatens lives and property in Nigeria. This Ciroma; Dr. Iyiorcha Ayu; Alhaji Kaita; Alhaji Bello Kirfi; background is considered necessary to create the Ambassador Yahaya Kwande and Bashir Yusuf Ibrahim relevant platform for this narrative. This paper argues that warned that the failure of PDP to stop Jonathan from the emergence and upsurge of terrorism rather than been contesting the presidential election would plunge Nigeria Scholarly J. Sci. Res. and Essay 52

into unimaginable chaos . The memo further requested Boko Haram claimed responsibility. Manuel and Lou the PDP to specifically declare that the 2011 presidency (2014) noted that more than 25 beer gardens and was the exclusive preserve of the North in line with the markets associated with barracks have been targeted by existing zoning formula in operation within the party. Boko Haram militants since 2009. Eighteen days after Similarly, Adeyemi (2010) in an article entitled 2011: We Jonathan was sworn-in precisely on 16 June 2011, a Must Produce President, Northern Groups Insists noted Boko Haram suspect detonated a car bomb in the car that in a communiqué issued by the leader of Northern park of the police headquarters in Abuja, leaving at least Elders Assembly (NEA) Alhaji Bashir Dalhatu, the group two people dead in the first reported suicide bombing in warned that “ any attempt to deny the North the Nigeria. As a deliberate strategy to internationalize its Presidential slot may lead to political uncertainty.” The attacks, create more terror and gain more popularity, a zoning formula according to the group was an innovation Boko Harm suicide bomber on 26 August 2011 drove his that originated from the North in order to make it possible vehicle into the United Nations building in Abuja, killing for the minority elements, particularly from the South to 25 people and injuring more than 100. This was the first be able to access power at the highest level in the time the sect targeted the international community. political equation in Nigeria. Adeyemi (2010) further noted In this context, Boko Haram fits quite well the terrorist that the group urged the North to resist any attempt to model of insurgents who aim to create panic in order to deny them the 2011 president, noting that it would destabilize the state. The sect prefers to organize gradual amount to political instability in the country if a Northerner and sporadic attacks on churches and hapless Nigerians does not emerge president. to intimidate and pressure the government to negotiate. The Sheikh Ahmed Lemu Panel report on post-election But the sect has also played with local politics. In its violence in Nigeria noted that provocative utterances by love–hate relationship with the Nigerian state it both many individuals especially the political class was at the manipulated, and was manipulated by, its political center of the 2011 post-election violence in Nigeria. sponsors. Pérouse de Montclos (2014) noted that in Another potent trigger that informed the Boko Haram Borno, it is on record that Governor Ali Modu Sheriff used phenomenon as captured in the Lemu report was the Boko Haram to win the elections of 2003; in exchange, burning desire for change. Ikuomola (2011) in an article followers of Mohammed Yusuf were rewarded: Alhaji Buji titled Lemu Panel Indicts Buhari over Post-Election Foi was nominated Commissioner for Religious Affairs on Violence noted that the existing widespread desire for April 2003, and Abubakar Adam Kambar was released change as a result of frustration and disappointment of from jail, where he had been held for armed robbery. The many members of the general public regarding the press, the blogosphere, and street conversations inability of the successive past regimes to solve the speculate on who benefits from the insurgency. In the problems of power failure nationwide, deplorable state of North, some believe that Boko Haram was first and Federal government roads, bribery, corruption and foremost a plot by the PDP to destabilize the opposition. injustice which have virtually been legitimized in all affairs They argue that violence mainly affected the All Nigerians of the nation were also reasons for the violence. This People’s Party (ANPP) (now All Progressive Congress- was/is the sorry state of the Nigerian polity and President APC) states like Borno and Yobe, whereas in neighboring Jonathan was not seen as possessing the required Bauchi, Governor Isa Yuguda, who changed allegiance to political prowess to address these daunting challenges the PDP in 2009, is suspected of having harbored hence the need for a change. On the flip side of the coin, members of the sect to avoid being attacked by them. Jonathan’s closest rival Muhammadu Buhari was seen as Many Muslims from the North also claim that curfews, a Nigerian with required credentials to address this State of Emergency and the war on terrorism prevented seeming albatross. Many saw the candidacy of Buhari as the opposition and Muhammadu Buhari from an epitome of sincerity and justice and had displayed the campaigning in 2011 and that it will help the PDP to rig political will to tackle such challenges when he was the the next elections in 2015 (Pérouse de Montclos, 2014). military Head of State as a result many especially the Interestingly enough, such speculations mirror the Northerners believed he could do it again. There was opposite views of southern Christians, who think that therefore, in the minds of these apostles no Nigeria Boko Haram is a Muslim conspiracy to destabilize without Buhari. The victory of Jonathan over Buhari at President Goodluck Jonathan, or “a Frankenstein the 2011 polls unconsciously set the stage for the terror monster created by some elite of the North (Okpaga et al that is witnessed almost on a daily basis. 2012)”. On 8 April 2011 Goodluck Jonathan was declared How does Islam fit into all of these? The activities of winner of the presidential elections with 59 per cent of the Boko Haram have posed serious threat to national votes. This announcement sparked a series of post- security. National security according to Buzan (1983) is electoral violence in parts of northern Nigeria. On 29 May the ability of a nation to protect its internal values from 2011 (Nigerian Democracy Day) three bombs ripped external threats. These internal values include the idea through a beer garden situated inside military barracks in and conception of the state that is held by its citizens; the the northern city of Bauchi, killing 13 and wounding 33. political, economic, and social institutions within the state; Neji 53

and the geographical and territorial ‘base’ of the state -hensive solutions to the problem in question and tend to with all its endowments. Perpetrators of acts of terrorism be expressed as concrete statements or narrow demands therefore, only hide under the guise of religion (Islam) to sometimes presented in extreme terms. One problem is commit crimes in line with the above reckless utterances that positional bargaining can contribute to the kind of as a deliberate stratagem to cause instability and bring to win/lose, competitive deadlocks described by Hopmann question the administration of the incumbent. Boko (2001) as a threat to relationship in the post conflict Haram, a sect that was seemingly harmless has become phase. Generally, positions often acquire totemic status a vehicle through which the political class of certain and may deliberately or otherwise, constrain leadership persuasion manipulates the sensibilities of Nigerians. To flexibility, thereby contributing potentially to intractability some scholars (Fluehr-Lobban, 1987; Hunwick, 1992; (Crocker, 2004) as the phenomenon under review clearly Pérouse de Montclos, 2003; Warburg, 2003), Boko indicates. Interests on the other hand, are the Haram uses religious references to legitimize political fundamental needs that inform positions. In the words of grievances as a moral right. In the midst of this confusion, Fisher and Ury (1992), "The basic problem in a how can one determine the core needs of Boko Haram? negotiation lies not in conflicting positions, but in the conflict between each side's needs, desires, concerns, Boko Haram: A Needs Assessment and fears... Such desires and concerns are interests ." Interests are therefore "the silent movers behind the To facilitate the reading of this article, the paper use the hubbub of positions. The scholars further noted that name Boko Haram rather than Jama’atu Ahlis-Sunnah position is something one has decided upon. One's Lidda’awati Wal Jihad (“People Committed to the interests are what caused an individual to so decide." Propagation of the Prophet’s Teachings and Jihad”), the Crocker, Hampson, and Aall (2004) add, "The interests of real name of the organisation. The paper qualify the the parties may, in fact, be quite different from their group as a sect because of its distinctive religious beliefs, stated positions, and disentangling the two is a central its deviance from mainstream Islam, its intolerance, its challenge." The needs are what parties to a conflict must claim to possess unique access to the truth, the selection have to be satisfied. According to Kelman (2007), of its members, their fanatic indoctrination, and the ''conflict must be conceived as a process in which fascination exerted by their former guru, Mohammed collective human needs and fears are acted out in Yusuf. It also describes Boko Haram as a movement powerful ways. Such conflict is typically driven by non- because of its social basis. And it call ‘terrorist’ the faction fulfillment or threats to the fulfillment of basic needs. which began to plant bombs and resort to suicide attacks To get to the root cause of any conflict, it is expedient after the killing of Mohammed Yusuf on 30 July 2009. to look beyond the common positions presented by Nigerians seem to have been sharply divided into two conflict parties to identify their interests and needs. Until groups with one group urging the government to such interests and needs are identified, the tendency for negotiate with the Boko Haram sect and accede to its such conflict becoming intractable is inevitable. It would demands and the other opposed to any form of therefore be misleading to attempt to address the Boko negotiation. The superiority of this plea perhaps informed Haram phenomenon based on their public the Federal government’s decision to suggest amnesty to positions/demands. The position of the sect by this the Boko Haram members and the constitution of the analysis is political and social phenomena and deviations amnesty committee. This attempt however, elicited more even if they cloak themselves in Islamic garb. Their horrific reactions from the sect that culminated in the motives are not of an Islamic religious nature nor are their declaration of a state of emergency in 3 north east states goals; rather, they are based on a sense of political and of Adamawa, Bornu and Yobe on May 14 2013. The social dead-ends, which erupts in violence against one’s desire to create a window of opportunity for negotiation own person and against all others, preferably the most perhaps also explains why the rights campaigner Shehu powerful among the others. Evidence in history reveals Sani earlier brokered a meeting between former that majority of the terrorist acts perpetrated the world President Olusegun Obasanjo and Babakura Fugu, over are initiated and executed by Muslims especially in brother-in-law of the late Boko Haram leader Mohammed Muslims dominated countries but this cannot reinforce Yusuf on 15 th September 2011. Fugu was shot dead the prejudice that such acts of terror are executed purely outside his house in Maiduguri on 17 th September 2011 for religious reasons. It becomes highly contentious two days after acting as an intermediary in a peace therefore, to assert that Islam in the circumstance is meeting between Obasanjo and Boko Haram. It may responsible for the upsurge of domestic terrorism in Nigeria. bebinstructive to attempt probing the needs of Boko Haram Muslims or Christians don’t go about killing innocent at this point. People and destroying structures, obviously their religion This paper argue here that beyond the generally known does not instruct them to. People engage in violence over position and demands (which are purely of Islamic a grievance, that not faith is the common thread that runs nature) presented by the sect lies their ‘interests’ and through all violence. Oklahoma bomber, Timothy Mcreigh core ‘needs’. Positions are what negotiators say they and Osama Bin Laden, Tony Okah and Imam Abubakar want, they are ambitions usually presented as compre- Shekau are identical in that manner, but not in their faith. Scholarly J. Sci. Res. and Essay 54

Bin Laden and Abubakar Shekau may portray their for all to see and hear (in this instant, the position course as religious, but it is purely political. If the represents what the Boko Haram sect say they want) and domestic terrorism and the Boko Haram phenomenon in analysis based on this outer layer could lead to wrong Nigeria are driven by some Islamic religious submissions. Underlying the outer layer is the inner layer considerations, how then does one explain the carnage in which represents the interests of the conflict parties-what the multiple blasts in Kano where more than 70% of the the parties really desire to achieve from the conflict. victims were Muslims? Evidently, when the terrorist’s Beyond this layer is the innermost layer which represents religion is the same as ours, we see the problem as the core needs that must be met for the conflict parties to residing in the terrorist, not in the faith they share with us. be satisfied. It is pertinent to carry out this analysis for But when they are of a different faith, we see the problem each of the parties involved in a conflict, but this paper in their faith. This is simply wrong reasoning. We need will however take exception to this general principle. The therefore to investigate long festering grievances, not tool will therefore be used to analyze the Boko Haram organized religions. As a people, we actually need to look phenomenon vis-à-vis the Nigerian state. The purpose of beyond the common positions/demands of members of this tool according to Fisher et al (2000) is to move Boko Haram to establish their core interests and needs. beyond the public position of each party to a conflict and An approach that is considered useful in establishing understand each party`s interests and core needs. It is the interests and needs of the sect is the doughnut also adopted when trying to find a common ground framework. Doughnut is a common snack with three between groups that can become the basis for further concentric layers-the outer layer, the inner layer and the discussions and it is often used as part of an analysis to inner most layer. The outer layer in this context understand the dynamics of a conflict situation. This can represents the positions that conflict parties take publicly be graphically represented in figure 1 below.

Figure 1. Diagrammatic representation of the needs assessment of Boko Haram Neji 55

The Boko Haram sect and the interest it represents as sect is the request for a public apology from very high reflected on the diagram have a need for political control. standing members of the society for the part their Political power here is conceived as the sub structure government played in the alleged murder of their former upon which every other desire can be achieved. Their leader Mohammed Yusuf. These apologies were interest is in political and economic control of the Nigerian rendered by the Bauchi State governor Isa Yuguda and polity which the creators of the ‘Frankenstein monster’ the ex-governor of neighboring Gombe state Danjuma see as a right in the light of the PDP zoning arrangement. Goje. The apologies were made in separate statements. In addition to this, is insincerity and injustice on the part Elombah News (2011) quoted Governor Yuguda as of government which has seemingly become a norm. The saying: "I apologize to the members of Jama'atu group therefore demands justice by investigating and Ahlussunnah lidda'awati wal Jihad for perceived bringing those found culpable in the murder of their injustices caused them as they have the full rights to be members to book by facing justice according to the protected by the law and I hope this will further the Sharia law. What the sect expresses publicly is their healing of the trauma on Jama'atu Ahlussunnah , ...open position-the sect wants to Islamize Nigeria, they fight the door to meaningful dialogue that will end hostilities against oppression by the government, they demand and usher in peace for which the religion of Islam is all unconditional release of their members across the about." Danjuma Goje, now a senator, on the other hand country and desires full implementation of Sharia law in was also quoted by the same source as having said "as a Nigeria. true Muslim, who believes in peace and brotherhood ... I It could be gleaned from the foregoing that in a hereby tender my public apology to the organization for situation of conflict and instability, actions may no longer any wrong done to it in the course of performing my duty come directly from needs. Actors may therefore look at as the then Governor of Gombe State". The government the more collective and abstract level of interests and of Borno State in another development was noted to have base their actions on these. When those interests are paid the sum of one hundred million naira as under attack as is the case under review, they may take compensation (Elombah News, 2011) to the family of the up and defend a position that is still further removed from late Babakura Fugu. Despite this public their basic needs making it difficult to strike a acknowledgement of culpability on the part of some compromise. For any progress to be made in the quest to critical state governments and the Federal government’s identify the interests and core needs of the sect, trust and attempts at negotiation with the sect, its attacks on the confidence must be entrenched. This essential ingredient Nigerian state seem to have increased. These attacks seems to be lacking both on the side of the government appear to have climaxed with the declaration of intention and the sect. The Shehu Sani brokered peace talk by President Goodluck Jonathan to still run for the between the government (represented by Obasanjo) and presidency in 2015. One is persuaded to think following Boko Haram (represented by Babakura Fugu) and the the spate of attacks before, during and after the 2011 eventual murder of Fugu 48 hours later for playing host to elections as well as the regime of terror unleashed on the the government representative is a clear sign of the lack Nigerian state by Boko Haram as a result of Jonathan’s of trust that characterizes the phenomenon under review. declaration that the Boko Haram phenomenon would be As part of the difficulties associated with trying to manage emasculated and pale into oblivion if a northerner conflict from a ‘positional perspective’ the Nigerian emerges the President government on 17 October 2014 announced that a ceasefire agreement was reached with the sect as part of the processes for negotiation to end hostilities and Summary, Recommendations and Conclusions release the kidnapped ‘Chibok girls’. According to Aljazeera (2014), Shehu Sani noted at the time that “he There is plenty in the Islamic religion which can be drawn had never heard of Danladi Ahmadu, whom a senior aide upon to justify violent terrorist activities and Islamic to President Jonathan Hassan Turkur claimed fundamentalists have done so on many occasions in the represented the sect at the talks in Chad”. Within this twentieth century if not before. The concept of Jihad or period, the sect attacked and seized Mubi, a town of Holy war, the division of the World into the “domain of 200,000 people in Adamawa State, detonated a bomb in Islam and that of Christians”, contempt towards Gombe killing scores of people. The leader of the sect unbelievers and the urge to spread the message was quoted in a recent video within the period of the universally – all these ideas exist in Islam and can be purported ceasefire to have said “all we are doing is marshaled in favor of an extreme interpretation of it. slaughtering people with machetes and shooting people In history too, the association between Islam and with guns…war is what we want” (Boko Haram leader violence can be frequently observed. The Algerian civil appears in video, 2014). These are strong indications that war, which has raged since 1991/92 between extreme the government thus far has been engaging the sect from Islamic groups and the military has been unimaginably a positional perspective. savage. The decades–old war of the Arab–Muslim It is on record that amongst the initial demands of the Sudanese North with the Christian and animist south has Scholarly J. Sci. Res. and Essay 56

been ugly. The terror associated with the bloodletting for behaviors that are not violent that will all contribute to struggle to establish the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria reducing the level of terror and aggression. (ISIS) has inadvertently redirected global attention to this It is however safe to conclude drawing from the ‘axis of evil’. In Egypt, extreme Islamic groups have foregoing that people would make a serious mistake if in perpetrated terrorist acts against tourists, Coptic and their shock they regard the sect simply as “Muslims” and Muslim Egyptians in their uprising against the regime of then react against all Muslims in word and deed. For their Hosni Mubarak from 1992 to 1997. The conduct of the mistaken reaction to the attack of the deviant sectarians now infamous Taliban is also a pointer in this direction runs the danger of turning not only the sectarians, but and the activities of the Boko Haram sect against the also all Muslims into their enemies. And should those Nigerian State is also but a recent example. On the other who have been attacked strike back indiscriminately at hand, the provisions in the Qur`an have often been “The Muslims” in general, they will greatly compound the interpreted to suit the circumstance of the perpetrator of phenomenon (two wrongs that cannot make a right). violence. Jihad is at the center of the driving force for Islamic principles like any other religious principles can violence and war against infidels is only one of the many both encourage and discourage violence but it should be misconceived meanings of Jihad. The foregoing noted that those principles are inanimate and only instances seriously threaten to cement the assertion, that become animated by the religious actors. Islam is a religion of violence. This paper has therefore tried to introduce a new line of reasoning by taking exception to the widely held view that REFERENCES Islam fans the embers of violence. 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