Introduction

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Notes

Introduction

1. Gellner differentiates nations from states and holds that both can emerge independent of each other. See Gellner, E. 2008. Nations and Nationalism. New York: Cornell University Press. 2. During the inter-war period and war years documentary was used for propagandist purposes to shape favourable public opinion towards the war. Leni Riefenstahl’s spectacular representations of Germany around the time of the Nazi ascendance to power, and Britain’s charged propaganda documentaries during the war both come to mind here. Propagandist documentary has also been mobilized to celebrate national development and planning programmes, for example, Dziga Vertov’s dynamic representations of the Soviet Union’s five-year plans through his kino-pravda series and other full-length documentaries. The vast body of investigative, activist and exposé documentaries has questioned nations, their institutions and ideological discourses. 3. Corner, J. 1996. The Art of Record: A Critical Introduction to Documentary. New York: Manchester University Press. 4. I take my cue here from Noel Carroll who, while discussing objectivity in relation to the non-fiction film, argues that documentary debate has been marred by con- fusions in the use of language that conflate objectivity with truth (Carroll 1983: 14). While I agree with Carroll that lack of objectivity does not necessarily mean bias, as a practitioner I am inclined to hold documentary making and reception as subjective experiences exercising subjects’, makers’ and the audiences’ ideological stances, knowledge systems and even aesthetic preferences. 5. Governmental and semi-governmental funding bodies such as Prasar Bharati (Broadcasting Corporation of India), Public Service Broadcasting Trust and the Indian Foundation for the Arts offer financial support for documentary makers and Indian filmmakers have also secured funding from international agencies such as the European Union’s cultural funds. 6. Paromita Vohra elaborates on this stating that ‘It may be an overstatement, but there are periods when imaginative, idiomatic forms flower and periods when more reality-based or classical forms again become prominent. It is not that one is supplanted by the other, but rather that these two formal approaches coexist with different intensity and visibility. In addition, it seems, each domi- nates the other in alternation. For instance, you see the 1960s as a time when formal approaches multiply in Films Division under Bhownagary. These then lose traction and are replaced by vérité and agit-prop forms, searching for a cinema that will be ‘a voice for the people’. With the coming of video, and then digital formats, you see again a proliferation of forms using fictional elements, which then give way to an emphasis, currently fuelled by European broadcaster funding, on character-driven, observational documentaries which will have the seamlessness of pure fiction while being made up of purely documentary material’ (Rajagopal and Vohra 2012: 17).

243 244 Notes

7. For example, Rahul Roy, Anjali Monteiro and K.P. Jayashankar. 8. Based on marketing strategies and audiences, Ashish Rajadhyaksha asserts that it is the parallel cinema and the popular Hindi movie that make up the ‘megalith’, Indian cinema. He states:

… the Indian cinema megalith since 1960 has been effectively catego- rized in popular discourse as two things: the ‘Hindi movie’ and ‘Satyajit Ray’: the former being the song-dance-action stereotype made in over twelve languages and representing the most enviable of all national possessions, a cultural mainstream, and the latter a highly generalized category involving a variety of different directors generically celebrated as being culturally rooted in their context. Both categories have been sustained as much by marketing strategies as by a committed and articu- late brand of cinephilia accompanying each of them. (Rajadhyakasha 1997: 678)

9. Dada Save, as he was called, went on to shoot many short actuality films, including documentation of such newsworthy events as the 1901 return of an Indian student from Cambridge who had earned a distinction in Mathematics, R. P. Paranjpaye, and the 1903 Delhi Durbar celebrating the coronation of Edward VII (Barnouw and Krishnaswamy 1980: 6). 10. Some of the names associated with the topicals include: Hiralal Sen, F.B. Thanawala, Jyotish Sarkar, Bulchand Karamchand, Dwarkadas Sampat, and J.F. Madan. 11. Short films became the staple for travelling cinema or bioscope shows. 12. To secure audiences, legislations such as the Defence of India Act 1943 made it mandatory for exhibitors to screen government-approved films, up to twenty minutes in length in each film programme. In 1943, the British government also launched the Indian News Parade (INP), whose screenings were compulsory in cinema halls. 13. IFI elicited productions from Indian film companies such as the Prabhat Film Company and Wadia Movietone. Musical Instruments of India, In Rural Maharashtra and Tree of Wealth are among the films produced during this time that document the cultural heritage and crafts of India. 14. Sanjit Narwekar elaborates:

The one positive effect of the War was that the documentary and its techniques filtered into the country, gaining considerable impetus due to the presence of such stalwarts as Jack and Winifred Holmes, Tom Stobart, Alexander Shaw and later Sinclair Road. A number of filmmakers like Paul Zils, Dr. P. V. Pathy, A Bhaskar Rao and Krishna Gopal were discovered and many others like V. M. Vijaykar, Clement Baptista, Homi Sethna were trained. (Narwekar 1992: 22)

15. The documentary fraternity echoed this understanding as this comment by one documentary commentator, Madhusudan indicates:

The function of a documentary in a largely illiterate society like ours imparting information through visuals is of prime importance. This is Notes 245

even more so in a formally democratic country again like ours, where each regardless of his mental equipment has a vote with the awesome power to influence your destiny. The potential of documentary in building public opinion is immense and also one which has remained largely untapped. (Chanana eds. 1987: 39)

16. In Life to those Shadows (1990), Burch extensively discusses the socio- economic and socio-ideological determinations of the IMR within the context of the French, British and American cinemas. 17. Some of these films can be accessed online at The Colonial Film Project website: http://www.colonialfilm.org.uk/production-company/information- films-of-india. The colonial film project is a combined project of universi- ties (Birkbeck and University College London) and archives (British Film Institute, Imperial War Museum and the British Empire and Commonwealth Museum). 18. A number of short documentaries produced by the Films Division between 1950 and 1965 can be accessed at the Library of Congress’s Indian Film Collection, Washington, DC. 19. For more details on the bureaucratic operations of the Films Division see Barnouw and Krishnaswamy, 1980. 20. They secured funding from private and semi-private sponsors such as Burmah-Shell, Technical Co-operation Mission (a wing of the International Co-operation Mission of the USA), Art Films of Asia and National Education and Information Films of India. A Short Film Guild was also formed compris- ing such figures as D.B.D. Wadia, Harnam Motwane and Paul Zils, who had played a key role in the initial years of the documentary movement under the Films Division. Zils was crucial in the founding of the journal entitled, Indian Documentary. 21. Sumita Chakravarty eloquently elaborates on the value of realism in Indian cinema stating that:

… in postindependence India a major source of tension affecting the social and national consciousness was (and continues to be) the problem of holding onto established norms and value systems while the nation made the challenging and vaunted transition from feudalism to industrialism, from colonialism to democracy, from economic backwardness to material advancement… Since the Indian sensibility tends to view complex issues as manifestations of moral choices, popular culture represented the felt experience of social change in terms of individual morality, of right and wrong, and ‘resolved’ them in various ways. Realist cinema could then explore the mixture of technological optimism (faith in the camera to reflect reality) and cultural pessimism, the idealization of village and community life in the face of mounting migrations to the city, material deprivation and the promise of easy wealth, widening class, regional and communal divisions eclipsing the vision of an unfractured national identity. (Chakravarty 1993: 99)

In relation to the institutionalized documentary form of the Films Division, Ashish Rajadhyaksha notes that it was influenced by the realism of the epic 246 Notes

melodrama of Hindi cinema from the 1950–60s. According to Rajadhyaksha, the realism of epic melodrama offered a cultural product that made compre- hensible the profound changes in Indian society following independence: mass migrations of partition and urban expansionism (Nowell-Smith eds. 1997: 681). 22. Indira Gandhi’s government had imposed military rule to combat what was projected as nation-wide anarchy. 23. While the framework of national cinemas facilitates claiming cultural authenticity and rootedness, film scholars assert that the category has to be opened up to resist perpetuating a sense of cultural and/or textual essen- tialism through film, and foregrounding the pragmatic forces that shape national cinemas such as national and international market dynamics, audiences and policies. 24. In this essay Rosen examines two canonical Film Studies texts: Sigfried Kracauer’s From Caligari to Hitler: A Psychological History of German Film (1947) and Noel Burch’s To the Distant Observer: Form and Meaning in the Japanese Cinema (1990). 25. Michael Renov elaborates how documentary got tied to objectivity and the ‘question of science’. He traces this to the early cinematic and protocin- ematic experiments such as Eadweard Muybridge’s locomotion studies that offered ways of observing and studying humans and socio-historical phe- nomena as observable and objective facts. ‘As an instrument of “reproduc- tive technology,” the cinema was endowed with the power to preserve and represent the world in real time’ (Renov 2004: 172). With this, documentary was purposed as a practice for representing facts objectively, a role that was to be furthered through documentary’s linkages with journalism and its overarching disparity from fiction film. 26. I have referenced individual essays with dates and the forums for which they were composed in the chapters on Shahani’s cinema.

1 Constructing the Self, Constructing Others: David MacDougall’s Observational films on Institutions for Children in India

1. Emphasis mine. As a film practitioner and theorist, I find MacDougall’s use of ‘good faith’ to describe the filmmaker’s approach to the subject critical, for it positions the filmmaker-subject relationship as principally human. 2. This emphasis on seeing ought not to be confused with a sense of occular- centrism, which has been critiqued in art history and visual culture studies. See for instance, Downcast Eyes: The Denigration of Vision in Twentieth Century French Thought (Jay 1993). Observational cinema’s emphasis on seeing was a move to break from conventional documentary forms that are conflict-driven and in which the image serves a function of illustrating what the voices (voiceover commentary or interviews) tell. Observational cinema challenges documentary viewers by requiring them to derive meaning from what they see and hear, not just what they are informed through verbal discourse. 3. The UCLA Ethnographic Film Programme ran from 1966 to the early 1970s. Notes 247

4. The needs-based discourse itself had colonial origins. Deriving from Dipesh Chakrabarty, David Ludden, and Partha Chatterjee who have illustrated that postcolonial India’s development discourse drew upon colonial dichotomies of civilization and backwardness, Roy elaborates:

Through the operations of the ‘rule of colonial difference,’ and its elaboration of a hierarchical distance between civilized colonial self and the primitive, to-be-civilized colonial other, colonial historicist reasoning had, from the nineteenth century onwards (and possibly earlier as well), placed India and Indians in a ‘waiting room’ outside the progressive march of history. (2007: 108)

5. This is indicated most clearly in the IMA’s oath when cadets get recruited as army officers.

‘I will remain as duty-bound, honestly and faithfully serve in the regular army of the Union of India and go wherever ordered by land, sea or air and that I will observe and obey all commands of the President of the Union of India and the commands of any officer, over me, even to the peril of my life…’

2 New Boys at the Doon School

1. Turner proposed the structural framework of liminality and communitas to define rites of passage in the context of highly structured rites such as the Ndembu Kanongesha ceremony in the Congo that was the basis for his own discussion in the first part of his essay. In the second part of the essay, Turner applied the concepts of liminality and communitas to more modern contexts and in these the attributes of liminal entities as described in relation to rites of passage were more relaxed. 2. For detailed discussion of MacDougall’s SchoolScapes, one of the three films on the Krishnamurthi schools see, Sharma, A. ‘The Theory–Practice Interface in Film Education: Observational Films in India’; in, Myer, C. (ed.) 2011. Critical Practice: Beyond the Theory of Film Practice. USA: Columbia University Press.

3 Gandhi’s Children

1. The Jahangirpuri Colony in northwest Delhi is a large slum resettlement colony set up by the Delhi municipal authorities for resettlement of slum dwellers who are low-scale casual labourers, scavengers and rag pickers. The colony is divided into 12 blocks and its total population is a little over 5 lakhs. The colony is dominated by migrants from Bihar, Bengal and Bangladesh. About 30 per cent of the population is Hindu, the rest are Muslims. Children and adults living in the colony engage with some form of labour. 2. Most state they earn anywhere between Rs. 50–200 ($1–4) per day. 3. Jacques Aumont notes that ‘psychic distance cannot be quantified’ (Aumont 1997: 77). He states that; ‘… a given representation in an image is more accurately described, in psychological terms, as the organization of “existential relations experienced with their instinctual force, with a predominantly 248 Notes

affective sensorial register (tactile or visual) and a defensive intellectual organization.” He adds that this ‘existential’ relation between the spectator and the image has a; ‘spatiality that is linked to spatial structures in general’ and also a temporality ‘linked to the events represented and the temporal structure flows from these.’ These qualify the concept of ‘psychic distance.’ Aumont also cites Pierre Francastel’s (1983) definition of psychic distance.’ ‘The typical imaginary distance that regulates the relation between, on the one hand, objects of representation and, on the other, the relation between the object of representation and the spectator’ (Aumont 1997: 77). 4. Burch identifies hapticity in early cinema of the pre-code era to describe the visual flatness of the interior tableaux in these films. 5. See, for example, blockbuster Bollywood films such as Border (1997), which recreates the final war between India and Pakistan in 1971 and Lakshya (2004), which focuses on the 1999 Kargil war between India and Pakistan.

4 An Arrested Eye: Trauma and Becoming in Desire Machine Collective’s Documentary Installations

1. This installation was part of the ‘Being Singular Plural’ exhibition at the Guggenheim Museum that ran from March–June 2012. Curated by Sandhini Poddar, this exhibition included select works by contemporary Indian moving image artists. 2. Desire Machine Collective, as the name suggests, draws on the ideas of Deleuze and Guattari, particularly their concept of desiring machines that they define in relation to the operations of capitalism. Deleuze and Guattari emphasise that there is no such thing as desire, only desiring machines that are principally binary machines, with one machine always coupled with another. ‘The productive synthesis, the production of production, is inherently connective in nature’ with flows that create a linear series (Deleuze and Guattari 1977: 5). DMC is interested in confronting how capitalism perpetu- ates many forms of fascism and violence and though their work is situated in northeast India, they are committed to a cinema practice that speaks to the links of capitalism and violence globally. 3. Interview conducted with Tambor Lyngdoh, member of the Khasi community in the Mawphlang Sacred Forest, 19 June 2012. 4. For example, 25/75 is a surreal exploration of the links between dreaming and the game ‘teer’ or arrow betting popular in the Khasi hills of Meghalaya. 30/12 juxtaposes an audio announcement of Saddam Hussein’s execution with a market scene in Shillong, Meghalaya. A+Type dwells on traditional Assamese home architectures to invite viewers into a sensory spatial imaginary. 5. Northeast India is bordered by China in the north, Burma in the east, Bhutan and Bangladesh to the west. A narrow corridor of land to the north of West Bengal, popularly called the Chicken’s Neck, links the northeast to mainland India. Seven states, collectively known as the seven sisters constitute the northeast region. These are: Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and Manipur. Topographically the northeast is composed of low-lying soft hills, river basins and plains. The plains flank either side of the wide and ferocious river Brahmaputra that originates in the Notes 249

high plateaus of Tibet and cuts through Arunachal Pradesh and Assam before entering Bangladesh where it merges into the Gangetic Delta. The northeast region houses dense rainforests with rich deposits of natural resources such as coal, rubber, petroleum and minerals. The region is best known for its world famous, Assam tea. 6. Hinduism, brought by settlers of India, and Christianity, spread through missionary contact during colonial times, have been differentially assimi- lated by the region’s indigenous peoples. 7. Sir James Bampfylde Fuller, the first British Governor of the provinces of East Bengal and Assam, famously termed the region as a ‘museum of nationali- ties’, referencing the region’s cultural diversity (cited in Playfair 1909: xii). 8. Datta classifies the region’s population into three broad groups: tribal communities occupying the hills; tribal communities occupying hills and plains; and the non-tribals. While this classification draws from the policies of segregation enforced in colonial times, it is reflective of the complex cultural architecture of contemporary northeast India. In Datta’s schema, a first group of communities is composed of those tribals who occupy distant hills and are rather ‘isolated and free’ of organized Hindu or Christian contexts. The second category is composed of communities whose tribal identity per- sists alongside their acculturation with non-tribal cultures. These communities can be found in both the hills and plains. Besides Hinduism, a number of such communities (the Khasis from Trespassers… for instance) practice Buddhism or Christianity alongside tribal belief systems. The third category is the non-tribal population who are mostly within the fold of the Hindu, Sanskritized social and cultural structures (Datta 2012: 9–11). 9. During British colonial rule, all the states that today make up the northeast constituted a single administrative unit that was called Assam. Today Assam is one of seven states in northeast India. 10. Today Cooch-Behar is a district in West Bengal, while Cachar is included in Assam. 11. The Tai-Ahoms are linked to the Tai peoples whose presence spans across southeast Asia where they are known by different names for eg. Shan in Burma, Thai in Thailand or Tay-Thai in Vietnam (Baruah 2011: 217 and Das 1999: 8). 12. Throughout British colonial rule, a range of policies were exercised to main- tain the segregation of the hill regions. The Government of India Act 1919 pronounced the hill regions as ‘backward’ and later, the Simon Commission of 1930 termed the hill regions as ‘excluded’, implying that the hill regions were in such a state that they fell outside the social and cultural mainstream of British India. 13. At the time of India’s independence the British administration even made a proposition for the segregated hill regions to form into a separate ‘Crown Colony’ of the British Empire on the grounds that these areas were so ‘backward’, they were not ready for independence or assimilation into independent India. 14. Under colonial rule, Christian missionaries were encouraged and gained wide- spread following across the hill regions with the result that today hill states such as Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland are predominantly Christian. 15. The addition of Assam to the Bengal Province was to facilitate the trade of tea and other cash crops through the nearest port of Calcutta. This also became the basis for mass migration of landless peasants displaced from the eastern 250 Notes

districts of Bengal, now Bangladesh. These migrations have continued in contemporary times. 16. By ‘Assam’, I am now referring to the state of Assam in India. It is one of the seven states that make up northeast India. 17. This coincides with Partha Chatterjee’s discussion that industrial modernisa- tion necessitates cultural homogeneity (Chatterjee 1993b: 5–6). 18. Following the dissatisfactions from the 1985 Assam Accord the movement assumed militant and separatist overtones, asserting Assamese nationalism. 19. Print news media analysis in a study conducted by this author reveals how mainstream Indian newspapers reductively represent the northeast, often deeming the discord and insurgency in the region as the only relevant news from the region. These are presented without any historical or cultural context. For more details, see Sharma, A. 1999. Assam: What is the Story? Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for BA (Hons.) Journalism, University of Delhi. 20. The work’s emphasis on news is because news programming is the dominant visual regime through which northeast India gets depicted in Indian media. Besides daily news, the topic of insurgency has been represented in news-based programming. Newstrack, produced by investigative journalist Madhu Trehan and Independent Media Private Limited’s, Balanced View are some examples of news-based programming that have taken up northeast insurgency. 21. Daily Check-up has been screened as an installation where it runs on a loop; and it can be viewed as a short film too. 22. Enacted in 1958 when the Naga peoples’ movement was gaining momen- tum, the AFSPA constitutes a ‘legal framework’ for conducting counter- insurgency operations against armed rebellions in the northeast. Since the late 1950s, most territories of northeast India have been steadily brought under the purview of the AFSPA. 23. The Act empowers armed forces personnel to:

1. Fire upon or use other kinds of force even if it causes death; 2. Arrest without warrant and with the use of ‘necessary’ force anyone who has committed certain offences or is suspected of having done so; 3. Enter and search any such premise in order to make such arrests (Baruah 2012: 62).

24. This footage circulated widely through the internet. 25. See, for example, Mona Hatoum’s Measures of Distance, 1988; Fiona Tan’s Saint Sebastian, 2001; and Eija Liisa Ahtila’s The Hour of Prayer, 2006. 26. In experimental, documentary and avant-garde films as also genres such as film noir this principle of lighting has been problematized and alternative lighting designs devised that complement the overall film aesthetic and ideologies.

5 Passage

1. The United Liberation Front of Assam, one of the key separatist outfits of Assam, has categorically termed as ‘colonial’ the relationship between Assam Notes 251

and New Delhi on account of the exploitation of the state’s resources by mainland India and the inequitable distribution of economic benefits for the state. (Baruah 2011: 150). 2. In a film (celluloid) camera, for each focal length there is a separate lens. 3. Used principally in news, travel or automotive programmes, the zooming movements have become an established visual idiom for providing information: the zoom-in often directs the viewer’s attention to a detail from a wider, panoramic view; while conversely, a zoom-out spatially contextualizes minu- tiae in relation to a wider whole. 4. I am using ‘effect’ to refer to the formal and visual effects of the prism-like instrument as seen in the image. This is different from ‘affect’ which is the sensory and emotive response the visual effects provoke in the viewer. 5. While for Burch the PMR does not bear a modernist investment, Tom Gunning has noted that avant-garde cinema, particularly in America bears points of comparison with early cinema and its PMR. According to him, while both early and avant garde cinema are distinct from commercial, institutional film in specific ways, their codes and regimes are comparable especially because filmmakers such as Ernie Gehr, Hollis Frampton and Ken Jacobs directly borrowed techniques from early cinema (Testa 1992: 18). Baart Testa further argues that it is ‘inevitable’ for avant garde filmmakers including the struturalist-materialists, to turn to early cinema’s visual regimes as a move to ‘recover the origins of their art’ (Testa 1992: 08–09). DMC’s Passage can be understood as imbued with this will to recover the origins of cinema. 6. The painterly tendency was exemplified through the works of such artists as Moholy-Nagy, Man Ray and Hans Richter (mostly cubists) and the liter- ary tendency was best exemplified through the cinema of the Soviet School including Eisenstein, Vertov and Dovzhenko (Wollen 1976: 78).

6 Residue

1. The film has been presented as a single screen installation. It is 39 minutes long and it contains end credits. After these have rolled, the installation loops back to the start. Viewers can enter and leave the screening at any time. 2. See disparity between realism and montage in Hill, J. & Gibson, P. C. (2000, 2nd edn.) Film Studies: Critical Approaches. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 3. According to Deleuze, the ‘movement image’ is related to cinemas such as classical Hollywood in which the image involves causal action. Then there is the ‘time image’ that depicts time in non-causal terms. Deleuze relates the rise of the ‘time image’ after the Second World War because the link between the sensory-motor schema, at the heart of the action and movement images was broken-up. He states that after the war there has been a ‘rise of situations to which one can no longer react, of environments with which there are now only chance relations, of empty or disconnected any-space-whatevers replacing qualified extended space’ (2001: 272). 4. Emphasis mine. 5. Deleuze identified the any-spaces-whatever in Italian neorealist films. These often focused on sites devastated by the Second World War. Here characters were pushed away from being active protagonists to seers and observers, 252 Notes

feeling the limitations of rationalizing what they were witnessing. The young child in Rosellini’s Germany Year Zero, the old man in De Sica’s Umberto D – these are all the characters who witness, who see and cannot perform any action in the empty, deserted spaces where they are emplaced. They are the ‘new race of mutants’ who do not act but see (Deleuze 2001: xi). 6. The masses in Eisenstein’s masterpieces, Battleship Potemkin and October come to mind here. They were visible subjects of history. 7. Acousmatic sounds in the film follow the wave principle. They arise and per- sist over a series of images. A sound will be steadily introduced on low level and it will slowly gain in pitch and level. After peaking and being held at that level for a while, where on most occasions it is all we hear, it will slowly wear off through a long drawn fade-out.

7 A Turn Towards the Classical: the Documentaries of Kumar Shahani

1. Kala: art, kavya: poetry, sangeet: music. 2. Ritwik Ghatak migrated from East Pakistan, now Bangladesh, to India. Throughout his career he questioned the partition. 3. For example, Romila Thapar elaborates on the role of ideology in the inter- pretation of early Indian history. In her discussion she raises how a post- Renaissance worldview inflected the studies of nineteenth-century Orientalists, Indologists and administrator-scholars of the East India Company. This historical tradition reflected the political and ideological interests of Europe and was geared to uphold those interests (Thapar 2000: 3). Sumit Sarkar notes that in the 1950s the project of history writing assumed a ‘new look’, ‘due in part to the much greater use of archival material, private papers, as well as of local sources unearthed through field studies’ (Sarkar 1983: 6). 4. In Kosambi’s understandings, dynastic changes and religious upheavals were in themselves indicative of ‘powerful changes in the productive basis’ and hence ought to be studied in this wider, class-related context and not in isolation (Kosambi 1975: 13). Critiquing charges of economic-determinism in this approach, Kosambi insisted that the dialectical materialist method did not posit causes, but worked by recognizing conditions in society (Kosambi 1975: 10). 5. Kosambi’s emphasis on the materialist approach arose from an understanding of the difference of Indian history from the established canons of European histories. India, unlike Europe, did not have a history based on dynastic episodes. Arguing that India was a unique country of long survivals, he asserted that multiple historical periods could be seen operating simultaneously in India (Kosambi 1975: 8). 6. Kumar Shahani, in an interview with author, 2006. Full interview transcript available in Sharma, A. Montage and Ethnicity: Experimental Film Practice and Editing in the Documenattion of the Gujarati, Indian Community in South Wales. PhD thesis, 2007. 7. Shahani has side-stepped the binarisms that western film theory was to enforce between realism and modernism, first in the classical period of film theory and later, the political modernist. See, Dossier – Kumar Shahani, 1986. 8. For a detailed discussion see, Shahani, K. ‘Reflections’. Notes 253

9. This has provoked very complex equations with funding bodies that have supported Shahani and found that his films do not contain the ideologies they would like to advance. It is for this reason that Shahani’s documentaries, Bhavantarana and The Bamboo Flute, both made by support from public sources, have received sparse distribution. 10. For further discussion of Shahani’s break with Godard see, Sharma, A. ‘The Theory-Practice Interface in Film Education’; in, Myer, C. (2011 ed.) Critical Cinema: Beyond the Theory of Practice. USA: Columbia University Press. 11. All classical dances of India draw upon the other arts, synthesizing influences from literature, sculpture and music. The themes of the dances span the epic and mythic narratives of Hindu Gods, asuras (demons), kings and humans. Kapila Vatsyayan notes that Indian dances cannot be separated from the broader canon of drama. Drawing upon the seminal text, Bharata’s Natyashastra Vatsyayan states that ‘… at a very early stage of development, both these arts [dance and drama] fused themselves into one and, by the time Bharata wrote his treatise, dance was very much a part of drama, they had many points of contact and both were consciously perceived as one’ (Vatsyayan 1974: 6). 12. The dancer is in a traditional Odishi costume that serves in locating this dance for it has ikkat patterns particular to Odisha. The distinctly identifiable waist belt and other ornaments such as those for the hair have designs in silver filigree that is typical to Odisha. 13. See, Banerji, Anurima. 2012 ‘Dance and the Distributed Body: Odissi, Ritual Practice, and Mahari Performance’, About Performance. No. 11. Centre for Performance Studies. 14. Within dance documentation discussions, often the function of the camera is reduced to recording – standing back and documenting movement. The aim of such documentation is to preserve the performance in its entirety. While this approach has methodological relevance in that performers and dancers can use such footage to study their own work; both performers and filmmakers find this role of the camera passive and limiting. Some scholarship in the field of dance and camera has argued for a more dialogical relationship between both. See Rosenberg, D. 2000. Screen Dance. available @ http://www. dvpg.net/docs/screendance.pdf and, Harrington & Sharma 2013. ‘Practices of Undisciplining: Notes on the Interface of Dance and Moving Image Performance’; in, Journal of Choreographic Practices, 4.2, 151–71. 15. Vatsyayan bases this classification on classical texts, including Bharata’s Natyashastra, the Abhinaya Darpana, and the Sangitaratnakara alongside numer- ous medieval texts. 16. Gotipuas are cross-dressed transgender performers who perform a less refined form of dance in public spaces. 17. Maharis were female ritual dancers who performed exclusively in the temple. This practice has now completely diminished. 18. Tribhangi is also known as tribhanga. The two terms refer to the same posture. Tribhangi is used more commonly in Odissi parlance. 19. This position entails a dipping of the spine towards the earth. 20. Comparing Indian dance with western forms such as ballet Vatsyayan states:

In the latter, a moment in space where the human form is free from gravity is emphasized. Western ballet strives thus to eliminate space by covering as much space as possible, whether floor-space or air-space. It cuts space into 254 Notes

chunks of movement, leaps and floor choreography. These are woven into the most intricate patterns. The Western dancer is reaching out into space vertically and horizontally in order to arrest a moment of perfect dynamic movement. Whatever perfection the Western dancer achieves, he does by making geometrical patterns in space, where movement is conceived as an attempt to be free from gravity. The Indian dancer, on the other hand, attempts quite the opposite; consequently the two differ completely in their approach to movement. The Indian dancer’s preoccupation is not so much with space as with time, with the dancer constantly trying to achieve the perfect pose to convey a sense of timelessness. The human form here achieves geometrical shapes in time rather than in space, for the intricacy of the nritta technique depends on the very fine and deliberate manipulation of rhythm (tala) to achieve a series of poses. The perfect pose is a moment of arrested time – in limited space. (Vatsyayan 1974: 09) 21. Indian parallel cinema depictions of Odishan performance practices such as the gotipua dance have also been set in outdoor locations for example, Amol Palekar’s 1996 film, Daayra. For discussion see, Sharma, A. ‘The Square Circle: Probelmatising the National Masculine Body in Indian Cinema’; in Fouz-Hernandez, S. 2009 (ed.) Mysterious Skin: Male Bodies in Contemporary Cinema. London: I. B. Tauris. 22. Two popular exceptions include Michael Jackson’s music video Black or White, in which an Odissi dancer is seen on the curb of a busy freeway and the opening montage of Zee TV’s travelogue Namaste India in whose closing shot we see an Odissi dancer performing against a temple entrance. 23. Similarly, dance sequences pertaining to episodes from the Mahabharata are composed in locations that uphold the complex dynamics of the political moves from the epic poem. The game of dice where Yudishthira pawns all his possessions including his brothers and wife is composed against a pitch black background against which Guru Mohaptara performs in a striking red silken outfit – the limited and strong colours of this sequence enhancing the overall tension in this piece. 24. Camera movements are at the most basic level geared to accommodating all elements necessary within the mise-en-scene and reflecting their interrela- tions within the visual field, here the frame. Even when the camera moves in a more subjective way, say when emulating a character’s shifting points of view as s/he moves navigating space, camera movement remains geared towards accommodating those aspects of the visual field that are pertinent to the mise-en-scene, here in relation to the subjective stance of the character. Camera movements are thus planned and/or rehearsed with the entire team of camera operators including focus pullers so that any magnification changes that may take place during movement can be supported with necessary focal length changes. 25. Merleau-Ponty elaborates on vision and touch stating that while at an immediate level, these are distinct senses, tactile perception draws on them together. He states:

… the tactile localization of an object, for example, assigns to it its place in relation to the cardinal points of the body image. This property which, at Notes 255

first sight, draws an absolute distinction between touch and vision, infact makes it possible to draw them together. It is true that the visible object is in front of us and not on our eye, but we have seen that in the last resort the visible position, size or shape are determined by the direction, scope and hold which our gaze has upon them. (Merleau-Ponty 2006: 367)

8 The Bamboo Flute

1. Feminist phenomenologists such as Luce Irigaray have elaborated on how the sense of touch develops before and through birth. See, Irigaray, L. 1993b. (2nd edn. Translated by Gillian C. Gill) ‘Divine Women’ in, Sexes and Genealogies. New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 55–72. 2. The hearing impaired are not necessarily devoid of the experience of sound. Their listening apparatus does not recognize the vibrations that constitute the normative levels of sound. 3. On music and abstraction, see Kendall L. Walton. ‘What is Abstract about the Art of Music?’, The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Crtiticism, 46.3, 351–64. 4. Michel Chion notes that cinema is principally verbocentric – the assembly and reading of images is often, across genres, driven by verbal discourse that anchors and shapes our understanding of the image. He elaborates how sound impacts the perception of movement, speed and even time in the image. Chion holds that sound perception is of a different nature, slightly faster in pace than visual perception (Chion 1994: 9–11). 5. See Banerji, S.C. 1976. Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance. India: L.D. Institute of Indology & Bose, H. 1988. Philosophy in Indian Music. India: Rupa and Co. 6. Indian music’s emphasis on cyclicality should not be understood with a view to perpetuate an east-west binary with western music understood as linear and therefore operating on principles opposite to those of Indian music. According to Martin Clayton the emphasis on cyclicality in Indian music has developed over time and it can be historicised. Over time, features that indicated cyclicality were enhanced and those that compromised it were ignored or suppressed (Clayton 2000: 22). Bibliography

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Note: Page numbers in bold type refer to Figures; numbers in bold italic indicate related text on that page. AASU (All Assam Students alaap 220–1, 222 Union) 114 Anderson, Benedict 1 abhinaya (dance/drama Andhra Pradesh see Rishi Valley concept) 195, 197–8 School absent memory 161, 181 aniconic idols 210 actuality films 10, 15 Antonioni, Michelangelo 157 see also topicals any-space-whatever 6, 24, 157, 158, aesthetics 3, 14, 16, 18, 33, 37, 95, 159 132, 135–7, 213, 236, 240 Appadurai, Arjun 48 aural 24 Arabhi Pallavi (dance sequence) 204 austere 31 Asian-American media arts 167 Bazinian 153 Assam 113–15, 118, 149, 151, 160 commercial 142 British control established 111–12 complex 178 see also Delhi; Guwahati critical 20–5, 239 Assam Cinearts Society 119 Grierson’s perceived displeasure Assam Sahitya Sabha 114 with 15 Assam State Electricity Board 150 haptic 24, 96, 142–8, 149, 154 Assamese language 112, 160 Kosambian approach to 216 promotion of 114 orderly 51 Aumont, Jacques 95 photographic 32 aurality see hapticity physically dominated 46–9, 50, 54 Australia 32 prescriptive 229 Australian National University Center rasa 197, 220 for Cross-Cultural Research 23 realist 9, 15, 215 authenticity 19, 101 social 41–4, 81 style and 9 subtle 94 avant-garde film 2, 21, 35, 40, 140, visual 24, 70, 74, 118, 238 147–8, 200 see also documentary aesthetics AFSPA (Armed Forces Special Powers background sound 39, 60, 83, 177–8 Act, 1958) 120, 162 extensive use of Indian music Agamben, Giorgio 24, 130, 133 for 12 Age of Reason, The (MacDougall Baer, Ulrich 171–2 2004) 34, 55, 238 Bamboo Flute, The (Shahani Abhishek Shukla in 56, 57, 64–5, 2000) 24, 179, 211, 214–36, 238 66, 67, 68, 70, 71–4, 75–6, 93 see also Valli Aggarwala, Jyotiprasad 118 Banerji, Anurima 197, 199–200 Ahom kingdom 111–12 Banerji, S. C. 222 AJK Mass Communication Research Bangladesh 111, 114 Center 14, 15 war of liberation (1971) 121

264 Index 265

Barker, Jennifer 207–8 Chatterjee, Partha 3, 45 Barnouw, Eric 12–13, 31 Chaurasia, Pandit Hariprasad 215–16, Barua, Jhanu 119 218, 227 Baruah, Sanjib 109, 112, 113–14, child labour 86, 87, 94 115, 117, 119, 120 illegal 84, 85 Battu (dance sequence) 192–3, 202 children’s institutions see Doon School Baudelaire, C. P. 231 Chronicles; Gandhi’s Children Bazin, André 153, 229 China 113, 114 Beavers, Robert 140 Yunnan Province 112 Bengal 112, 182, 193 Chion, Michel 131, 165–6, 212, 219 see also West Bengal Chitralekha Movietone Bengal Partition (1905) 11 Company 118 Bengali language 112, 114, 118 choreography 137, 164, 177, 189, Beveridge, James 15 196, 226, 227 Bhabha, Homi 3–4 see also free camera choreography Bhatvadekar, Harishchandra S. 10 cine-trance 74, 75 Bhavantarana (Shahani 1991) 24, cinema 21, 25, 39–40, 76, 116, 168, 177–80, 187–211, 215, 219, 225, 173, 241 228, 235, 237, 238 anthropocentric 163, 167, 215, Bholaguri tea estate 118 232 Bhubhaneshwar 192 art 118 Bialis, Laura 170–1 avant-garde 35, 140 biopics 187, 235 camera magnification 201 Bloch, Ernst 167 classical 12 Bombay 118, 180 cosmomorphic approach to 24, see also Mumbai 215, 227–35 Bombay Talkies 118 critical 22, 100, 108, 119 Bourdieu, Pierre 42 deeply historical and Brahma 190 meditative 179 Brahmaputra river valley 111 delayed 41 brahmins 209 depicting dance through 201, 202, Brazil 173 204–7, 209–11 Bresson, Robert 186 depth of field 153 Brewster, David 141 devices and techniques 237–8; British colonial rule 49, 111–12 see also close-ups; depth of field; independence from 3, 11, 32, 45, framing; light; mise-en-scène; 113, 135 montage; sound Bruzzi, Stella 9, 19 early 2, 142, 144 Buddhism 169, 170, 190 epic 24, 236 Burch, Noel 12, 96, 144 experimental 139 Burmah-Shell 15 haptic 96, 144, 146, 149 Burmese empire 111 intercultural and diasporic 158 modernist 35, 74, 158 Cachar 111 movement-image 157 Calcutta 118, 135 movement in 164 Carnatic music 221, 224 national 10, 18 Cartoon Film Unit 12 ontological similarity between Chanana, O. 13–14 memory and 162 Chandrapur 150 optical 158 266 Index cinema – continued community formation 38, 53, 54, philosophical approach to 179, 59, 64, 73 180–7 concert dance 200 political 35, 186 Cooch-Behar 111 purist 140 cosmomorphism 24, 215, 227–35 realist 15, 140, 184 counter-insurgent gaze 23–4, 117, representation of childhood 122–6, 128 through 35, 66, 80 disassembling the dominant trope Shahani’s writings on 185 of 109 spatializing 213 interrogating 119–20 structuralist-materialist 139–41 courtwalas 80, 81, 99 third 167 Cowan, Phillip 205–6 time-image 156–8, 161–2 Crary, Jonathan 83 trauma 109, 110, 170–2 creative imperative 101 world 119 creativity 4, 9, 20, 31, 40, 65, 68, see also narration; narratives; 146, 148, 162, 179, 183, 185, observational cinema 191–2, 205–6, 214, 237–8, 240 cinéma vérité 74 childhood 74 cinematic-becoming 146, 148–9 Griersonian tradition negotiates cinematic self-reflexivity 35, 102, questions of 15 140 limited 16 advance over more conventional cricket 47, 91 forms of 239 values observed as characteristic cinematography 15, 22, 31, 118, of 48 125, 143, 198, 204–7, 209, 229 cultural discourses 9, 33, 42, 44, 54, MacDougall’s approach 44 115, 118 Shahani’s approach 179, 180, 221, colonial discourse that 235, 238 permeates 72 stylization through choices of 9 dominant 37, 61, 179 Clayton, Martin 220, 221, 222, 223 insight into 41 close-ups 44, 151, 160, 198, 201, 226 nationalist 180 abstract 191–2, 228 processes of othering rooted in 34 big 66 scientific rationalist thought extreme 147, 177 within 46 fine, textured 154 cultural diversity 117 microscopic 147 ethnographic films celebrate 13 static 155 rich 110 sustained 60 vast 4 tight 70, 143, 178, 191, 225 cultural homogeneity 3, 4 colonialism 4, 7–8, 32, 141, 150, 238 ability to question 69 Daily Check-up (DMC 2005) 109, cultural and epistemic 119–33, 134, 135, 142, 145, 148, constructs 34 150–1, 170, 172–3, 238, 240 space/site tied with 147, 148, 151 Damoh 92 see also British colonial rule; dance see choreography; Odissi dance postcolonialism Dandi March 11 columns of light 141, 142–3, 144–5 Danish Dogme 95 manifesto 135 X-Ray 138, 139, 143 Das, J. 112 communism 162 Datta, Birendranath 111 Index 267 deep reflexivity 23, 35 processes by which they get ground for competing approaches made 8 to childhood 73–7 propagandist 1 mapping transactions range of issues confronted by 17 between institutions and reflexive 4, 20, 23, 239, 241 individuals 99–103 short 11 Dehradun 32, 36, 58 subjective voice linked to Deleuze, Gilles 24, 110, 156–8, 161 personal 5 Delhi 108, 131, 215 television 10 Jahangirpuri Colony 78, 79 tie between reality and 18–20, Khoj International Artists’ 21 Residency Programme 119 documentary aesthetics 2, 6, 8, 9, see also Prayas Children’s Home 13, 15, 238, 239 depth of field 31, 128, 152, 153, 154 leftist 21 Deren, Maya 201 meanings constructed Dev, Kapil 47–8 through 242 Dheere Sameera (Odissi dance Shahani’s approach 179, 180, 185, piece) 195 192, 214 Dil Se (Ratnam 1998) 117 Documentary Studies 1, 7 distance 53, 79, 85, 98, 102, 126, Doon School Chronicles (MacDougall 128, 129, 130, 139, 152, 209 2000) 33–45, 51–6, 63, 66, 71, camera maintains 198, 201 76, 78, 100 closeness and 68, 166 morning assembly 37, 59 cultural 116 physically dominated heightened sense of 127 aesthetic 46–7, 48, 49, 54 mic 166 psychic 95 education 11, 32, 72, 241 vertical and horizontal 159 informal 81 see also close-ups institutionalized 57 DMC (Desire Machine Collective) 2, media distribution 21 4, 6, 20, 21, 23–4, 107–33, 238, narrow, pedantic or 239 prescriptive 235 see also Daily Check-up; Passage; prestigious programmes 14 Residue science 46 documentaries self 5 critical 1, 20 see also Gandhi’s Children emergence of 6–7 educational films 12, 23 ethnographic 13 educational institutions 35, 112 Griersonian influence on 15 children’s experiences in 4 institutionalized 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, prestigious 36 15–16, 239–40 see also Doon School Chronicles instructional 12 Eisenstein, Sergei 140, 164, 184 interventions made by 2, 22, 25 Battleship Potemkin (1925) 132 limited scholarship on 16 October (1928) 132 oppositional 9, 10, 14–15, 15–16, Elsaesser, Thomas 99, 213 123 Emergency period (India 1975–7) 17 poetic 7, 24 English Public Schools 44 political 16–17, 21 episodic film 194, 214–15, 233, 234, positioned in the world 8 235 268 Index epistemologies 1, 2, 7, 20, 21, 32, Gadihoke, Sabeena 5 52, 236, 237, 239, 240 Galt, R. 162, 163 colonial 100, 158, 179 Gandhi, Mahatma (M. K.) 11, 118 competing 133, 180 Gandhi’s Children (MacDougall complex 184, 238 2008) 23, 29–30, 33, 34, 35, constructions in line with 42 77–103, 237 creative 238 see also Prayas Children’s Home critical observation of 76 Ganesha 224 cultural 4, 180, 181, 183, 185; see Gangar, Amrit 13–14 also cultural discourses Ganges 232 multilayered 184 Garg, B. D. 13 essayistic film 17, 32, 34 Gell, Alfred 210 ethnographic films 2, 7–8, 10, 29, Gellner, Ernest 1 30, 32–6, 101 Germany 118 documentaries 13 see also Guggenheim Museum film festivals 21, 23 (Berlin) see also UCLA Ghatak, Ritwik 181, 182 experimental film 10, 96, 172 Meghey Dhaka Tara (1960) 193 Gidal, Peter 139, 140 FAB (Film Advisory Board) 11, 12 Godard, Jean-Luc 157, 186 FD (Films Division) 11–14 Gohain, Hiren 113 feminists 145, 147, 167 Gotipuas 197 fiction film 10, 135, 171, 178 Government of India Act (1972) 120 depiction of children 36 Gramscian analysis 116 film festivals 10, 178 Granada Centre 98 avant-garde 21 Grierson, John 15–16 ethnographic 21, 23 Grimshaw, Anna 38, 41–2, 74 Fine, Ellen S. 161 Guggenheim Museum folk music 220 Berlin 108, 150 Foot, A. E. 39 New York 23, 107–8, 150 Foot House (Doon School) 57, 58, Gujarat riots (2003) 16 65, 66, 71 Gunning, Tom 141–2 new boys (footies) 59–64 Guwahati 108, 150 foreignness 57, 65, 68–9, 71 Guwahati Cinema Club 119 Foucault, Michel 48–9, 51, 88 framing 59, 133, 201, 204, 219, 230, habitus 42 238 Hagener, Malte 99, 213 double 139 Hamsadhwani (raga) 224, 226 persistent 200 hapticity ritual and 228 aesthetics 24, 96, 142–8, 149, 154 Frampton, Hollis 139 aurality 24, 144, 146, 147, 212 free camera choreography 24, 180, visuality 24, 94–9, 143, 144, 146, 198 147 Bhavantarana 202, 203, 204–11, Hershman, Lynn 170–1 215, 225, 228, 235, 238 Higson, Andrew 18, 22 French nouvelle vague 119 Hildebrand, Adolf 95 FRI (Forest Research Institute) 49–50, Himalayan foothills 110 55, 100 Hindi films 54, 90, 116–17, 118 funding 1, 2, 10, 34, 185 patriotic 100 Index 269

Hindus 160 independence 15, 44, 46, 114, 158, Hindutva fascistic ideology 17 178, 179, 188, 196 Hindustani music 221, 230 energy and vigour infused by 181 Hockings, P. 31 see also British colonial rule Hollywood 144, 161, 171 India-Pakistan Partition (1947) 17, Holocaust 110, 172 121, 180, 181, 182–3 French literature surrounding 161 Indian Highways (new media homesickness 60, 63, 84 exhibition) 121 homewalas 80, 81, 99 Indradyumna (Odishan king) 209 Hussein, M. F. 13 industrialization/industrialism 3, 4, hyperreality 135 13, 49 institutional authoritarianism 53 iconic idols 210 instructional films 11, 12 identity 1, 35, 114, 208 intersubjectivity 7, 37, 241 being precedes 186 growing recognition of 8 common 81, 101 reflexivity and 20–5 cultural 45 inward-looking process 22 national 5, 52, 101 Irigaray, Luce 145–6 perception of 60 Italian neorealism 38, 119 rationalized 23 Italy 32 sense of 74, 112 stable markers of 63 Jagannath 188, 190–1, 209–10 streamlined and simplified 5 Jain religion 190 identity formation 5 Jamia Milia Islamia University identity politics 5, 180, 183 see AJK ideological postures 23, 181, 182 Jayadeva (Sanskrit poet) 195 ideologies 1, 2, 8, 21, 36, 125, Jayamanne, Laleen 24, 236 238 dominant 100, 102, 186, 187 Kabir, Ananya Jahanara 121–2 fascistic 17 kaleidoscope 139–42, 146 normative nationalist 100 Kanwar, Amar 17, 18, 121, 122 reactionary 16 Kapur, Geeta 9, 16–18, 179 shaping of 135 Karam in Jaipur (MacDougall state 9 2003) 47, 64, 68 IFI (Information Films of India) 11, Kashmir conflict 121 12, 13 Kathmandu 64 IMA (Indian Military Kaul, Mani 13 Academy) 49–50, 55, 100 Kenya 32 images and sounds 1, 139, 146, 152, Khasi peoples 107, 108 153, 192, 216 Khayal Gatha (Shahani 1989) 178 sense of environment 43–4 Konark 192 still 39–40 Korea 119 video notebook uses 123 Kosambi, D. D. 24, 181–3, 216 Imphal 121 Kothari, Sunil 188, 190–1 IMR (institutional[ized] modes of Kracauer, Siegfried 214–15, 233–5 representation) 12, 25 Krishna 190–1, 192, 195, 200–1, breaking from 21 204, 210, 214, 215, 218, 226–7 Shahani’s aesthetics radically Krishnamurti, J. 32, 33, 76 removed from 185 Krishnaswamy, S. 12–13 270 Index

Kubelka, Peter 139 masculinity 17, 34, 54, 100 Kuru Yadhunandana (Odissi dance physically dominated aesthetic piece) 195, 202 of 46–9 mass communication 20, 184 Larkana 180 see also AJK Lebow, A. 5 Mawphlang sacred forest 107–8 light 95, 96, 133, 135, 136, 146, 189, Maya Darpan (Shahani 1972) 178 223, 227, 228 Mazid 2007 118 blazing 123, 125, 126, 129, 132 Meghalaya 107 crimson 138, 177, 178, 188, 191, 230 Merleau-Ponty, M. 6, 207 golden 137, 138, 177, 178 Mexico 173 pure 147 Mimura, Glen M. 167 single-point 201 Minh-ha, Trinh T. 7–8 split image of 140, 141, 142 Ministry of Information and surveillance 125, 126, 129, 132, Broadcasting Film Unit see FD 134, 238 mise-en-scène 20, 178, 191, 201, unidirectional flow of 151 202, 210–11, 224, 226, 232 white 123, 124, 125, 139 elements within/of 205, 208, 228 see also columns of light unrestrained 184 Lim, Bliss 167–8 used as mode for articulating liminality 61–3, 166 cosmomorphism 229 Lind, Maria 19 Mitchell, Timothy 51 London (Serpentine Gallery) 121 Mizoram 112 Lumière Brothers 10, 185 modernism 74 political 35, 147, 157 MacDougall, David 2, 4, 6, 20, 21, realism and 151–60 23, 29–77, 239, 240 modernity 2, 3 see also Age of Reason; Doon School critical take against 141 Chronicles; Gandhi’s Children; intellectual premises of 45 Karam in Jaipur; New Boys; Photo questioning the universalisms Wallahs; With Morning Hearts of 163–8 MacDougall, Judith 32 values tied to 4 Mahadeviyakka (medieval Kannada modernization 13, 45, 52, 54 poetess) 188 Doon School’s emphasis on 55 Mahaprabhu, Chaitanya 190 nation-building and 3, 34, 44, 100 Maharis 197 state-led 14 Malaysia 119 Mohapatra, Guru Kelucharan 24, Mammata Bhatta 232 177, 178, 187, 188, 191, 194, Manchester 98 195, 196–8, 201, 202, 204, 205, Mangalacharana 188, 189, 190, 191, 209–11, 218, 230, 235 192 montage 9, 20, 22, 153, 154, 158, Manhattan 107–8 179, 181, 188, 190, 196, 210, 211, Manipur 111, 113, 120, 121 226, 229 Manorama, Thangjam 121 bold approach to 235 Marcus, George 132 cosmomorphic approach to 238 Marks, John 162 fast-paced 156 Marks, Laura 96, 97, 146, 158, 161 rhythmic potentials achieved Maru Bihag (raga) 230 through 140 Marxist thought 24, 102, 140, 181 Soviet 119, 132, 140, 164, 184 Index 271

subtle 65 event-centered 240 thinly-tied 177–8 grand 7, 167 tonal 110, 164 human de-emphasized as principal unrestrained 184 source and drive for 215 Mulvey, Laura 40–1, 147 illusionist 147 Mumbai 17, 218 inherently unstable 162 Hanging Gardens 10 institutionalized 144 Lumière Cinématographe life 128, 210 Exhibition (1896) 10 linear 41, 151 Murch, Walter 212–13 local 119 music 12, 31, 43, 118, 182, 189, 191, long-drawn, sustained and 212 incomplete or inconclusive 240 aesthetic practice of 213–14 mythic/mythological 187, 223 classical 179, 200, 220, 221, 222, pan-Indian 115 232–3, 235 pathetic 193 rhythmic 193, 199, 202, 224 personal 89–94, 96 schools of 24, 215 possibilities of 239 sound and 213–21, 224, 233 predetermined 185 musical instruments 215, 232 primal 142 dance movements depicting 193–4 principal 234 temple sculptures of women rape 121 playing 192 reassessing 181 see also Bamboo Flute reconstructing 181 Muslims 16, 93 repressed and/or hybrid 158 Mussoorie 32, 36 resolved 132 Myer, Clive 22 shaping 34, 57, 67, 146 shift in 72 Naficy, Hamid 132 subjects partake in 171 Nagaland 112 subnational 115 Nairn, Tom 1 subtle 141, 146, 224 nakabandi 122 universal 168 Narmada Dam Project 17 visualizing 198 narration 91, 223 Narwekar, Sanjit 11, 13, 14 epic 236 nation-building 13, 45–6, 54, 55, 115 informative 12, 13 collapse of 168 verbocentric 12 modernization and 3, 34, 44, 100 voiceover 12 propagandist documentaries and 1 narratives 31, 32, 59–61, 64, 68, 76, understanding of 52, 53, 100 100, 102, 103, 116–17, 140, 146, National Education and Information 150, 179, 197, 214, 219 Films Ltd 12 advancing 228 National Film Board of Canada 15 anti-mainstream 141 National Security Act (1980) 120 bifurcated structures 163 nationalism 23, 44, 45, 112, 114, celebratory 168 115, 117, 148, 150, 180 cultural 3 anti-colonial charge 3 deeply affective and perceptual 148 dominant 100 delicate 30, 80 jingoistic 69 disjunctive, disintegrated and normative 77, 100, 116 fragmentary 172 see also subnationalism 272 Index nationhood 25, 33, 35, 100 phenomenology 6, 24, 96, 179–80, modern 3, 4 206, 241 postcolonial 168 feminist 145 nayikas 192 Shahani ties cosmomorphism to the Neelmadhava 209, 210 rise of 229 Nehru, Jawaharlal 11, 13, 44 Photo Wallahs (MacDougall Nepal 56, 57, 64, 68, 69 1992) 32, 36, 40 New Boys, The (MacDougall 2003) 34, PMR (primitive mode of 55, 56, 57, 58, 59–65, 73, 76, 238 representation) 144 newsreels 11 postcolonialism 7, 109, 147, 158, NGOs (non-governmental 168 organizations) 10, 34, 78, 80 filmic representations 167 Nichols, Bill 7, 101 power plant operations 9, 24, 149– nonsynchronism 167–8 55, 156, 158, 159, 160–1, 163, Nowell-Smith, G. 12 165–70, 171, 172 Nritta (dance element) 192 Prabhat Studios 118 Prasad, Sir Jagdish 44 observational films/cinema 23, 29, Prayas Children’s Home for Boys 23, 30–55, 67–8, 72, 103 98, 101 central tenet of 37 approach to rehabilitation 78 emphases of 95, 102–3 aural atmosphere 99 Odissi dance 24, 177–80, 187–8, authoritarian approach 87 189, 190–4, 195, 196–211 inmates’ experiences 80–1, 82, see also Kothari; Mohapatra; Panigrahi; 83–4, 85, 86–9, 91, 93–4, 100 Patnaik missionary agenda 83–9 optical visuality 95, 96 psychoanalytic theory 35, 102 Orissa 196–7 Puarnas 195 otherness 51–4, 71, 116 punishment 128 see also foreignness bullying and 53, 54 Ozu, Yasujirō 157 Punjab 180 Puri temple 191, 209 Pakistan see India-Pakistan Partition Puriya Dhanashri (raga) 230–1 Panigrahi, Sanjukta 189, 209 Paromita Vohra 10, 15 queer artists 167 partition see Bengal Partition; India- Quit Movement 11 Pakistan Partition Pashyati Dheeshi Dheeshi (dance Raban, William 139 sequence) 203, 204 ragas 199, 220, 221–6, 230–2 Passage (DMC 2006) 109, 110, 133–49, Rai, Himansu 118 150, 151, 154, 165, 238 Rajadhyaksha, Ashish 12 Pathy, P. V. 13 Rajagopal, A. 10, 15 Patnaik, D. N. 188, 190, 196–7 Rajagopalachari, Shri 46 patriotic films 100 Ramayana (Sanskrit epic poem) 196 Patwardhan, Anand 10, 14, 17, 18 Rani, Devika 118 Payne, Robert 123 rape 121–2 performance images 128, 129, 130 rasas 196–7, 198, 220, 223 juxtaposed with news footage 121, Rathwa tribal peoples 218 126, 127, 132–3 priest in trance 217 sound of 131 Ratnam, Mani 117 Index 273

Ravetz, Amanda 38, 42 politics of 108, 133, 172 Ray, Satyajit 13, 182 postcolonial filmic 167 Pather Panchali (1955) 168, 234 primitive mode of 144 realism 110, 132, 184, 210, 215 problematizing 148, 167, 183 emphasis on 15 realist 110, 132, 210 modernism and 151–60 reduced to communication 184 understanding of 16 visual 32, 210 see also Italian neorealism see also IMR reality 6, 15, 31, 102, 179, 230 Residue (DMC 2012) 24, 110, 149, cinematography as practice for 150–73, 237 capturing 205 rhythm construction of 8, 20 dance, music and 178, 192, 193, didactic representation of 234 195, 199, 202, 209, 216, 221–4, episode film’s ties to 233 228, 229, 231 innovative strategies for filmed sequences 136, 138, 140, representing 171 144, 164, 209 Kracauer on 234 Riegl, Alois 95–6 narrative film’s illusion of 140 Rishi Valley School 32, 33, 76 pure and unmediated record of 239 rituals 13, 37, 160, 191, 228–9 scientific prerogative to everyday 43 represent 7 Rosen, Philip 18 testament of 18 Rossellini, Roberto 157 tie between documentary Paisan (1946) 234 and 18–20, 21 Rouch, Jean 74–5 unmediated depiction of 9 Rowell, Lewis 222 see also hyperreality Roy, Srirupa 44–5 Reassemblage (Minh-ha 1982) 7–8 Royal Anthropological Institute 98 Red Balloon, The (Lamorisse 1956) 234 Saikia, Bhabhendranath 119 reflexivity 34, 40, 41 sama (Odissi dance position) 199 intersubjectivity and 20–5 Sanskrit 111, 220 see also cinematic self-reflexivity; Sardinia 32 deep reflexivity Sartre, Jean-Paul 186 rehabilitation 78, 80–103 Sastry, S. N. S. 14 Renov, Michael 8, 19 Savara tribe 190, 209 representation 7, 101, 102, 119, Schechner, Richard 197, 220, 223 122–5, 140, 171, 180, 223, 238 Schoonover, K. 162, 163 absolutist and singular 183 Second World War 11 aniconic 210, 211 Senegal 7 anthropocentric 211, 230 sensory experience 29, 38, 95, childhood 35, 66, 80 97, 172, 184, 205, 207, 230, critical cinematic 100 235, 241 dialogic, of dance 191 affects approximating 99 didactic 234 culturally patterned 42–3 direct 156–7 first 213 faith in 183 image and sound used to iconic 210 evoke 153 media 108, 109, 117, 120, 145, very particular 218 148, 239 sexual crimes 121–2 274 Index

Shahani, Kumar 2, 4, 6, 20, 21, 25, soundscapes 83, 130–1 177–236, 237, 239 broader aural 43 see also Bamboo Flute; Bhavantarana; disjunctive and tactile 110 Khayal Gatha; Maya Darpan; everyday 107 Tarang persistently forming 107 Sharmilla, Irom Chanu 120 soundtracks 163, 166, 169, 219, 227, Sheridan, A. 193 230 Shiva 190, 201 acousmatic 131, 144 shringara 193 complex 165 Shukla, Abhishek see Age of Reason images and 166 sloka 191, 196 machinic 136 Snow, Michael 139 Soviet montage cinema 119, 132, 164 Sobchack, Vivian 241 space 51, 83, 93, 146, 152, 154–60, Sonwalkar, Prasun 116 168, 170, 189, 198 sound 15, 31, 38, 96, 98, 141, 147, aspirational 52 159, 234, 236, 238 background 201 acousmatic 131, 138, 139, 144, black 123 165, 166, 192 camera moves freely through 208, aesthetics of 214 228 affective use of 99 collective 82 ambient 166, 218, 223, 224 colonial 139, 147, 151 atmospheric 165, 218, 224 common 63 diegetic 165, 227 communal 98 digital surround 213 continuous movement within 229 emotional 164 dance movement as co-extensive emplacing 218, 235 of 201 iconic 227 dark 134 intangible 170, 232 delineation of 228–9 machinic 131, 136, 139, 166 enclosed 124, 125 music and 213–21, 224, 233 inner and outer 228–9 overlapping 82, 107, 131 institutional 42 production of 222, 232 learning 43 randomly rising 82 living 145 recorded 107, 144, 226 marginal 162 repetitive 131 narrative 179 rhythmic 178 nationalization of 109, 113 sensitive use of 99 organization of 95, 228–9 synchronous 14, 39, 131, 165, overall atmosphere in 97 192, 226, 231 pastoral 190 tactile 99, 146, 212, 213, 226 perception of 95 ticking 124, 125, 131 previously unexplored 31 see also background sound; images public 241 and sounds; also under following recreational 43 entries preﬁ xed ‘sound’ role of 163 sound composition 152, 231, 232, segmentation of 87 233 shared 59, 63, 72, 76 sound design 131, 226 shifting relations and lines minimal 165 within 205 sound installation 107–8 social 62, 98 Index 275

sounds in 212, 232, 235 national 200 temporalized 232 sound in 213 understanding of 98 zoom popularized and see also any-space-whatever; time conventionalized by 137 and space terrorists 115, 121, 122, 170 spectatorship confirmed 129, 130 embodied 96 suspected 123, 126, 127, 128, 129, interactive 40 130 Srivastava, Sanjay 36, 42, 52 see also National Security Act; TADA Steyerl, Hito 19 Thailand 110, 119, 162 still images 39–40, 41, 55 Thielemann, Selina 220 structuralist-materialists 139–41 things-in-themselves 229 subjectivity 9, 19, 69, 71, 75, 167, time and space 38, 156, 163, 232–3 184, 229, 238, 240 flow of energy across 200 broader move towards 101 framing of 133 emphasis on 8, 95 rational and linear understandings evoked 4, 5, 74 of 167 explored 4, 38 viewer’s perception of 140 expressed 4, 101, 239 time-image concept 110, 156–8, growing appreciation for/ 161–2 recognition of 7, 8 topicals 10–11 identity and 5 trauma films 109, 110, 170–2 social and cultural dynamics that tribhangi (Odissi dance position) 199 shape 6 Tripura 113 urban, middle-class 5 Turner, Victor 62 see also intersubjectivity subnationalism 109, 113–19 UCLA (University of California Los Sukhdev, S. 13, 14 Angeles) Ethnographic Film surveillance 122, 124, 172, 238 Programme 31 constant 88 UFA Studios 118 visual and aural impressions of 123 Uganda 32 surveillance apparatus 128, 129, 148 United Nations Human Rights complicity between news Committee 120 and 125–6, 132, 133, 134 Upadhyaya, Alok 204–5, 206 understanding of 130 Upanishads 197–8

TADA (Terrorist and Disruptive Valli, Alarmel 225 Activities Act, 1987) 120 values 4, 42, 77, 89, 91, 125, Tagore, Rabindranath 59 212 Tai-Ahoms 111–12 bourgeois 102 Tajiri, Rea 170–1 colonial 55 Tamil poetry 227 cultural 1, 63 Tarang (Shahani 1984) 178 foundational 36 Taylor, Lucien 102 political 48–9 Teitlebaum, Matthew 153 universalist 3 telephoto lens 128 Vatsyayan, Kapila 192, 199 television 10, 20, 21, 116, 119, 184, 210 Vaughan, Dai 66–7 commercial 102 Vedas 195, 196 growth of 14 verbocentric discourse 12, 16, 30 276 Index verisimilitude 102, 128, 140, 202 Walker, Janet 170–1, 172 Vertov, Dziga 140, 186 Weerasethakul, Apichatpong 110 The Man with the Movie Camera Blissfully Yours (2002) 163 (1929) 40 Primitive Project (2012) 162 video 14, 40, 108, 122–6, 170, Syndromes and a Century 240 (2006) 163 digital 16 Tropical Maladies (2004) 162, 163 zooming in 136, 137 Uncle Boonmee... (2011) 162 Vikalp: Films for Freedom 16–17 West Bengal see Calcutta Virdi, Jyotika 101 Western music 233 Vishnu 190, 191 Willemen, Paul 5, 18 Vishwakarma 160 Winston, Brian 15 visuality see hapticity With Morning Hearts (MacDougall Vitali, V. 5, 18 2001) 47, 63 voiceovers 12, 29, 31, 68, 71 Wollen, Peter 147–8 authoritative 128 brief 190 Yandabo Treaty (1826) 111 informative/interpretive 219 Young, Colin 30, 34