Siege Warfare in King Stephen’s reign (1135-54) Siege Warfare in King Stephen’s reign (1135-54): An Introduction Richard Hulme The first page of the Peterborough element of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, written c. 1150, which details the events of the Civil War. Civil of the events the 1150,c. details which written Anglo-Saxon of the Chronicle, page Peterborough element of the The first THE CASTLE STUDIES GROUP JOURNALTHE NO CASTLE 29: 2015-16 STUDIES GROUP JOURNAL NO 33: 2019-20 186 Siege Warfare in King Stephen’s reign (1135-54) Siege Warfare in King Stephen’s reign (1135-54): An Introduction Twelfth-century chroniclers’ views of castle strength focussed on the integration of defences into landscape features providing obstacles, steep slopes and water defences, rather than specific details of castle design. Strong, well garrisoned castles were very difficult to overcome, so long sieges were rare, though sometimes blockades by siege castle were attempted. More commonly, underhand methods, surprise attacks and assaults, particularly on less powerful castles, were the usual forms of ‘siege’. Control of castles gave control of localities, conferring power and status. Power included imposing extra castle-work obligations on ordinary people, who anyway were the main victims of widespread and prolonged warfare primarily conducted by plundering and burning raids. Unsurprisingly, they – the ordinary people – viewed castles as centres of oppression. Summary of Conflict 1135-54 allerton, Yorkshire). Matilda and Robert of After Henry I’s only legitimate son, Wil- Gloucester landed in England, at Arundel, liam, died in 1120, he planned for his daugh- Sussex, in late 1139. Robert immediately ter Matilda to succeed him, and obtained departed, but Matilda was besieged by oaths supporting her from his nobles, includ- Stephen, though he allowed her to proceed ing his nephew Stephen. Matilda’s first following advice from his brother, Henry, husband had been German Emperor Henry bishop of Winchester. Civil war was now V, her second was Geoffrey Plantagenet, unleashed. In February 1141, Stephen, Count of Anjou, a marriage arranged to besieging Lincoln castle, was defeated and bring peace to Normandy’s southern border. captured by Robert’s relieving army. The There were qualms about a female ruler and church authorities regarded this as God’s suspicions about her husband. When Henry judgement, and, led by Henry, bishop of died, in Normandy on 1 December 1135, Winchester, accepted Matilda as Domina Stephen rushed to London and was crowned Anglorum. But Matilda did not manage to king on 22 December 1135. Geoffrey of establish control, which she attributed to Anjou invaded Normandy, though, as with Bishop Henry’s plotting. She besieged his subsequent attacks in the following few castles within Winchester, but a counter years, with limited success. Meanwhile, in siege resulted in Angevin defeat and Robert 1136, Stephen dealt with a Scots incursion of Gloucester’s capture in September 1141. and outbreaks of revolt, notably a three- A prisoner exchange in late 1141, releasing month siege of Exeter castle, Devon. His Stephen and Robert, broadly restored the 1137 campaign in Normandy collapsed due situation in England, but, in Normandy, to factionalism in his army, including an Geoffrey of Anjou had used Stephen’s attempted ambush of Robert, earl of incarceration to gain possession of important Gloucester, illegitimate son of Henry I. In castles, mostly by negotiation. Throughout 1138, Robert declared for his half-sister, 1142, Stephen made gains, eventually Matilda, leading to widespread uprisings in besieging Matilda within Oxford castle. The England. Stephen dealt with most of these, defenders surrendered after three months, while the northern barons defeated invading but Matilda had dramatically escaped, on Scots at the battle of the Standard (North- foot over the frozen watercourses of the THE CASTLE STUDIES GROUP JOURNALTHE NO CASTLE 29: 2015-16 STUDIES GROUP JOURNAL NO 33: 2019-20 187 Siege Warfare in King Stephen’s reign (1135-54) Thames. In 1143, Robert defeated Stephen declared him Duke of Normandy. Stephen’s at Wilton, Wiltshire. While Robert consoli- only known military activity in 1150 was dated Angevin control over south-west attacking Worcester but Eustace joined King England, Stephen became embroiled with Louis VII of France in invading Normandy Geoffrey de Mandeville, earl of Essex, and besieging Arques. The arrival of Duke resulting in war throughout the fenlands Henry’s relieving army made continuation of until Geoffrey was mortally wounded the siege untenable and Louis retreated. attacking Burwell castle, Cambridgeshire, Armed manoeuvres in 1151 on the Norman in 1144. In 1145 Robert began constructing border ended with Louis recognising Henry as a castle at Faringdon, Berkshire, to secure duke of Normandy in return for Louis communications to Wallingford, the eastern retaining the Norman Vexin. Stephen failed Angevin stronghold. Stephen attacked vig- in another attempt to take Worcester castle but, orously with superior force and the castle under increasing pressure, Angevin supporters commanders surrendered (perhaps treacher- in England appealed to Duke Henry for help. ously). This setback was followed in 1146 Henry was delayed in 1152 after his marriage by defections to Stephen, including one of to Eleanor of Aquitaine (ex-wife of Louis VII) Robert of Gloucester’s sons and Ranulf, earl stirred Louis to form another coalition, of Chester. Robert’s death in 1147 marked including Eustace, against him. victory for King Stephen; Matilda left The coalition invaded Normandy and took England in 1148. Neufmarché, probably through treachery. But Stephen’s position had weaknesses. Henry devastated the Vexin and the lands Geoffrey of Anjou had captured Rouen in of Normans aiding his enemies and, by his 1144 and taken Arques, the key to northern speed of movement, repeatedly blocked Normandy, in 1145. His control of Nor- Louis’ forces. Meanwhile, in England, mandy meant English magnates with Stephen began a campaign to isolate and Norman interests wanted a negotiated settle- blockade Wallingford. Henry arrived in ment, to regain their Norman possessions, England in January 1153, captured Malm- and were unwilling to fight the Angevins in esbury, Wiltshire, and moved into the England. Somewhat inevitably, Stephen’s Midlands, gaining castles (e.g. Warwick alliance with Ranulf of Chester fell apart by and Tutbury, Staffordshire) and allies late 1146, leading to conflict with him from among the magnates. Around July he 1147. There was also general war weariness, arrived at Wallingford for a critical con- and a laudable outlet for militancy: the frontation, which ended, after pressure Second Crusade, in which some Anglo- from the magnates, with an agreement Normans participated. recognising Henry as Stephen’s heir. In 1149, Matilda’s son, Henry, aged 16, Eustace’s sudden death removed a compli- travelled to England and concluded an cation, but both Henry and Stephen contin- alliance with King David of Scots and ued campaigning, though not directly Ranulf of Chester. Stephen parried their against each other, until the end of the year, intended advance on York. Returning to the when their agreement was confirmed. south-west, Henry was pursued by There was desultory action in 1154 as they Stephen’s son and heir, Eustace. Wiltshire re-established authority. In December was severely ravaged, inducing Henry to Henry was crowned king of England, fol- return to Normandy, where Geoffrey lowing Stephen’s death some weeks earlier. THE CASTLE STUDIES GROUP JOURNALTHE NO CASTLE 29: 2015-16 STUDIES GROUP JOURNAL NO 33: 2019-20 188 Siege Warfare in King Stephen’s reign (1135-54) Castles and Conflict castle building in Stephen’s reign, came to Castles were central to the conflicts of be interpreted as ‘castle-phobia’…. (Coulson Stephen’s reign. Significant actions and 118-20). Assessing instances of atrocity, turning points in the wars resulted from robbery, kidnapping and food shortages sieges, and the few battles usually arose caused by the activities of castle-men can from sieges. Over 105 attacks on, and cast light on ideas about castles: that seizures of, fortified places in England have symbols of lordship could also be seen as been quoted. (Creighton and Wright 2016 symbols of oppression. 47; Liddiard 2005 72 fig. 15, suggests around Robert Liddiard 2005, summarising revi- 120 sieges 1121-60, overwhelmingly in sionist scholarship (now mainstream for Stephen’s reign, from data produced by King over two decades), suggested great towers 1983). I record higher figures (below). or keeps, once considered the core military Castles were also significant contributors to strongpoint (as well as residence) within the prevailing impression of anarchic and Norman castles, had alarming ‘military oppressive conditions. The Anglo-Saxon deficiencies’ (‘reduced defensibility of Chronicle reported that men said ‘Christ and square towers’, poor designs that prolifer- His saints slept’ while the people ‘suffered ated vulnerable corners, blind spots, cham- 19 years for our sins’: in Stephen’s time ‘it bers reducing the thickness of walls making was all strife and evil and robbery’ (ASC them susceptible to bombardment etc.); 263). Powerful men held their castles deficiencies which he claimed actually com- against him, ‘and filled the land with castles. promised castle defences, as at Torrington They greatly oppressed the wretched in 1139, where flaming torches were thrown men…with