Book-55593.Pdf

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Book-55593.Pdf Crimea, Global Rivalry, and the Vengeance of History Crimea, Global Rivalry, and the Vengeance of History Hall Gardner crimea, global rivalry, and the vengeance of history Copyright © Hall Gardner, 2015. All rights reserved. First published in 2015 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN® in the United States— a division of St. Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Where this book is distributed in the UK, Europe and the rest of the world, this is by Palgrave Macmillan, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries. ISBN: 978- 1- 137- 54676- 0 Library of Congress Cataloging- in- Publication Data is available from the Library of Congress. A catalogue record of the book is available from the British Library. Design by Scribe Inc. First edition: September 2015 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Contents Preface vii General Introduction: The Vengeance of History 1 1 Renewed Cold War? World War II? World War I? Or Nothing of the Kind? 17 2 Genesis of the Russia- Ukraine Conflict 29 3 Soviet Collapse and the Russia- Ukraine Conflict 43 4 Origins of the Russian Backlash 59 5 Uneven Polycentrism and the Global Crisis 81 6 A Cross- Historical Method 99 7 Why Major- Power War Is Still Possible, Though Not Inevitable! 127 8 Future Pessimistic Scenarios 149 9 Once, and If, the Dust Settles 169 Notes 199 Selected Bibliography 235 Index 239 Preface Crimea, Global Rivalry, and the Vengeance of History picks up on my previous two Palgrave- Macmillan books, Averting Global War (2007) and NATO Expan- sion and US Strategy in Asia (2013). Averting Global War warned of a potential Georgia- Russia war in addition to the possibility of a Russia- Ukraine conflict. NATO Expansion and US Strategy in Asia had proposed the “internationaliza- tion” of Russian port of Sevastopol, plus the formation of a regional “peace and development community” for the Black Sea and Caucasus regions involving a system of joint NATO-EU- Russian security guarantees, with the deployment of international peacekeepers. These options were proposed as an alternative to a NATO enlargement to Georgia and Ukraine and in order to prevent the eventual partition of the Black Sea region into pro-NAT O and pro- Russian states. These proposals were made precisely in the hope that it might still be possible to avert the burgeoning Russian pan-nationalist threat to retake Crimea in opposition to both NATO and EU enlargement in the midst of Ukrainian bankruptcy and sociopolitical strife. Now, however, the Crimean crisis represents the return of history with a vengeance in that it impacts political-economic and financial relations between Russia, China, the European Union, and much of the world, in addition to interlinking directly and indirectly with a number of regional conflicts through- out the globe, including the “wider Middle East,” South and Central Asia, the eastern Mediterranean, and the Indo- Pacific. While the Crimean crisis represents the latest manifestation, but not the root cause of the decline of US-EU- Russian relations in the post–Cold War period, the annexation indicates the need for the United States and the European Union to begin to work toward a coherent global strategy toward Russia that includes consideration of China, India, Japan, and other ris- ing powers and socio- political movements and that is designed to avert the potential for much wider regional conflicts— if not the real possibility of a major- power war. viii l Preface Proposals for the internationalization of the Crimea and Black Sea region, among other options involving power sharing and joint sovereignty for island and resource disputes in the Indo-Pacific and elsewhere, would represent steps toward peace and reconciliation with both Russia and China and with all other states concerned— that is, once, and if, the dust begins to settle. I would like to thank Sara Doskow and Jeff LaSala for their support for my third Palgrave-Macmillan book project, plus Megan Bailey at Scribe for her assistance in finalizing the text. My AUP assistants, Anna Wiersma and Hannah Victoria, were of great help with the index. Andrei Grachev, William Hartung, Robert M. Hayden, Jan Kavan, and Nick Petro all provided useful information. And I thank my anonymous reviewer for his praise and positive suggestions! And finally, I thank my wife, Isabel, my daughters, Francesca and Celine, and Celine’s husband, Alan, for putting up with another book project, with more soon to follow! Hall Gardner (Paris, June 11, 2015) General Introduction The Vengeance of History n March 1997, I was invited to Warsaw to participate in the Committee on Atlantic Studies conference, “NATO and Peacekeeping,” sponsored by Ithe Polish prime ministry and the Ministry of Defense. As I did not see any Russian representatives present, and as at least two Ukrainians had been invited as observers, my suspicion was that the conference was already symbolic of the beginning of the end of efforts to sustain positive relations with Moscow. As I was preparing my discussion on NATO- Russian- European peacekeeping deployments in ex- Yugoslavia, a dark- haired, pale- faced man in a black suit came out of a back door with my first book, Surviving the Millennium, in his hands. He opened the book and pointed to a page in the last chapter in which I had outlined a number of pessimistic scenarios for the future including one in which “secessionist movements in a bankrupt Ukraine could demand Rus- sian (and/or Polish intervention).” It was a statement that had been preceded by the sentence, “Russian pan- nationalists may claim to protect the Russian ‘diaspora’ while concurrently seeking to secure access to the Crimea.”1 With piercing eyes, the man asked whether I was “trying to be provocative” and then abruptly pivoted 180 degrees and disappeared into the maze of offices. It was Kafkaesque. As depicted in that book, which was written during a period of triumphal optimism just five years after the demolition of the Berlin wall, that pessimis- tic scenario may actually have been too extreme, but only because the book had assumed that Kiev might attempt to retain its former Soviet nuclear arse- nal as a “Gaullist” deterrent. (The book had argued against Kiev retaining its nuclear weapons, an option that had been supported by the neorealist John Mearsheimer, among others, at that time.) Written before NATO had begun its new eastward expansion as pushed by the US Congress since 1992, the book clearly pointed to the possibility that a crisis in a bankrupt Ukraine could lead 2 l Crimea, Global Rivalry, and the Vengeance of History Russia to seize Crimea and that such a conflict might draw in not only Russia but potentially also Poland, if not other states as well. Surviving the Millennium consequently argued against enlarging NATO in such a way that could eventually provoke a backlash by Moscow while concurrently overextending American and NATO defense capabilities in both political and economic terms. As an enlarged NATO, which had ini- tially been created as a collective defense and not a cooperative security, organization, would most likely be a more politically divided NATO, it could then become even less effective as a potential fighting force if Russia or another state did eventually pose a significant threat. In order to reduce the possibility of a Russian backlash— coupled with a weakening of NATO resolve due to an excess of additional members—the book proposed an alter- native strategy. That proposal was for NATO to build up the Partnership for Peace initia- tive and extend security assurances to all eastern European states, in coordina- tion with the then Western European Union and Russia, with NATO-Russian peacekeeping deployments in Bosnia as a stepping stone to an enlarged and neutral system of cooperative- collective security for the entire Euro- Atlantic region. This proposal was further developed in my next book, Dangerous Cross- roads (1997). Several months after its publication, Surviving the Millennium was criticized by Francis Fukuyama in his April 1995 Foreign Affairs book review.2 It was clear that the individual who proclaimed that the “end of history” was at hand and that liberal democracy (with all its mind- numbing imperfections) represented the apogee of social governance had misread the text. The book was not divided into two “disjointed” halves, as he asserted, and the title referred to surviving the dangers that Homo geopoliticus would soon face just after, and not before, the turn of the new millennium. But more important, he had misread the stra- tegic rationale for my proposal to deploy international peacekeepers under a general UN or Organization for Security and Co- operation in Europe (OSCE) mandate in eastern Germany and throughout eastern Europe in cooperation with NATO’s Partnership for Peace (PfP). The strategic concept was not only to obtain Russian confidence and “allay Russian fears,” as he put it (which was nonetheless crucial), but it was also to help build up, unify, and stabilize eastern Europe and all the region between Germany and Russia. Rather than intervening into eastern European hotspots after conflict began, as was the case for Bosnia at the time, the idea was to forge a militarily integrated system of regional defense under a general UN or OSCE mandate, backed by NATO, the Western European Union and Russia, so as to build a separate and neutral Euro-Atlantic command structure that could, in effect, coun- terbalance both European/German and Russian pressures and influence.
Recommended publications
  • Cahiers Du Monde Russe, 56\/4
    Cahiers du monde russe Russie - Empire russe - Union soviétique et États indépendants 56/4 | 2015 Médiateurs d'empire en Asie centrale (1820-1928) Repression of Kazakh Intellectuals as a Sign of Weakness of Russian Imperial Rule The paradoxical impact of Governor A.N. Troinitskii on the Kazakh national movement* La répression des intellectuels kazakhs ou la faiblesse de l’administration directe russe : l’impact paradoxal du gouverneur A.N. Trojnickij sur le mouvement national kazakh Tomohiko Uyama Electronic version URL: http://journals.openedition.org/monderusse/8216 DOI: 10.4000/monderusse.8216 ISSN: 1777-5388 Publisher Éditions de l’EHESS Printed version Date of publication: 1 October 2015 Number of pages: 681-703 ISBN: 978-2-7132-2507-9 ISSN: 1252-6576 Electronic reference Tomohiko Uyama, « Repression of Kazakh Intellectuals as a Sign of Weakness of Russian Imperial Rule », Cahiers du monde russe [Online], 56/4 | 2015, Online since 01 October 2018, Connection on 24 April 2019. URL : http://journals.openedition.org/monderusse/8216 ; DOI : 10.4000/monderusse.8216 This text was automatically generated on 24 April 2019. © École des hautes études en sciences sociales Repression of Kazakh Intellectuals as a Sign of Weakness of Russian Imperial ... 1 Repression of Kazakh Intellectuals as a Sign of Weakness of Russian Imperial Rule The paradoxical impact of Governor A.N. Troinitskii on the Kazakh national movement* La répression des intellectuels kazakhs ou la faiblesse de l’administration directe russe : l’impact paradoxal du gouverneur A.N. Trojnickij sur le mouvement national kazakh Tomohiko Uyama 1 Although bureaucracy as an ideal type in Max Weber’s concept is a form of impersonal rule, the personality of individual bureaucrats often influences the actual handling of administrative matters.
    [Show full text]
  • NON-REGULAR TROOPS in the ERA of DECLINE: a COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS of RUSSIAN COSSACKS and AUSTRIAN GRENZERS of the 1860S
    NON-REGULAR TROOPS IN THE ERA OF DECLINE: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF RUSSIAN COSSACKS AND AUSTRIAN GRENZERS OF THE 1860s Artyom Yu. PERETYATKO∗ Teymur E. ZULFUGARZADE∗∗ Abstract. Austrian historian A. Kappeler suggests that a detailed comparison of Russian Cossack troops and the Austrian Militärgrenze (Military Frontier) will be extremely revealing. The paper shows that such comparison was ventured as early as in 1860 by a Russian general, N. I. Krasnov. He demonstrated that non-regular troops in a European state of the nineteenth century were doomed to extinction for economic reasons. Based on archival materials on Cossacks and Grenzers in the Russian State Military Historical Archive, State Archive of the Rostov Region and the Manuscripts Department at the National Library of Russia, we show that forecasts made by N. I. Krasnov were substantiated. The result of the paper is the conclusion that in the 1860s, non-regular troops of the classical type were doomed. Keywords: Grenzers, Cossacks, military reforms, settled troops, N. I. Krasnov. Introduction A Russian historian who endeavours to analyse the “similarity” of the Cossack troops which once existed in their country and the Austrian Militärgrenze immediately finds themselves in a difficult situation. This similarity was mentioned in Russian translations of German articles as early as the middle of the nineteenth century,1 and in the late twentieth century it came into the sight of Russian scholars in Cossack studies.2 However, Russian-language works, as a rule, stopped at an acknowledgement of some abstract commonality. The reason behind this situation is the fact that the history of the Militärgrenze has so far remained a kind of terra incognita for Russian readers: a sphere of historiographical myths and specific half-truths.
    [Show full text]
  • European Researcher. 2010
    Propaganda in the World and Local Conflicts, 2020, 7(2) Propaganda in the World and Local Conflicts Has been issued since 2014. E-ISSN 2500-3712 2020. 7(2). Issued 2 times a year EDITORIAL BOARD Trut Vladimir – Southern Federal University, Rostov-on-Don, Russian Federation (Editor in Chief) Degtyarev Sergey – Sumy State University, Sumy, Ukraine (Deputy Editor-in- Chief) Eliseev Aleksei – Minsk branch Plekhanov Russian University of Economics, Minsk, Belarus Gogitidze Mamuka – Shota Rustaveli National University, Tbilisi, Georgia Johnson Matthew – School of Liberal Arts and Sciences, Taylor's University, Malaysia Fedorov Alexander – Rostov State University of Economics, Russian Federation Katorin Yurii – Admiral Makarov State University of Maritime and Inland Shipping, Saint-Petersburg, Russian Federation Kaftandjiev Christo – Sofia University “St. Kliment Ohridski”, Sofia, Bulgaria Mitiukov Nicholas – International Network Center for Fundamental and Applied Research, Washington, USA Riabov Oleg – Saint Petersburg State University, Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation Smigel Michal – Matej Bel University, Banská Bystrica, Slovakia Journal is indexed by: CrossRef (UK), OAJI (USA), MIAR (Spain) All manuscripts are peer reviewed by experts in the respective field. Authors of the manuscripts bear responsibility for their content, credibility and reliability. Editorial board doesn’t expect the manuscripts’ authors to always agree with its opinion. Postal Address: 1367/4, Stara Vajnorska str., Release date 17.12.2020 Bratislava – Nove Mesto, Slovakia, 831 04 Format 21 29,7. the WorldPropaganda and Local Conflicts in Website: http://ejournal47.com/ Typeface Georgia. E-mail: [email protected] Founder and Editor: Academic Publishing Order № Prop 12 201 House Researcher s.r.o. 2020 № 0 © Propaganda in the World and Local Conflicts, 2020 Is.
    [Show full text]
  • Is Islamofascism Even a Thing? the Case of the Indonesian Islamic
    Is Islamofascism even a thing? Th e case of the Indonesian Islamic Defenders’ Front (FPI) Stephen Miller Abstract—Although a term with roots going back to 1933, “Islamofascism” did not gain wide-spread use until the beginning of the 21st century. In the West the term has often been associated with conservative and far right-wing politics, giving it Islamophobic overtones. However, in Indonesia and other Muslim majority coun- tries at times it can emerge in public discussion and debates as a rhetorical weapon of liberal intellectuals when discussing conserva- tive and far right-wing “Islamist” organizations—although in Indo- nesia the more common term is “religious fascist.” Th is paper exam- ines theories of fascism built up in “Fascist Studies” (the so-called “New Consensus”), as well as those of non-Stalinist Marxists and longue durée approaches to the history of fascism and the far right to see what light they might shed on the character of the Indonesian Islamic Defenders’ Front (Front Pembela Islam, FPI). It concludes that while “Islamofascism” might be an interesting and productive stepping-off point, and while there are some parallels that can be drawn between FPI politics and ideology and those of fascism and far right politics as identifi ed in this literature, the term “Islamofas- cist” is nevertheless problematic. Th is is both because of its Islamo- phobic overtones and because the politics and ideology of the FPI are still coalescing as the organization emerges on the national stage. Keywords: Fascism, Islamic Defenders’ Front (FPI), Indonesia, ideology, Islamofascist Asian Review 30(2), 2017, pp.
    [Show full text]
  • “Islamofascism”? Introduction
    Die Welt des Islams 52 (2012) 225-241 “Islamofascism”? Introduction Stefan Wild (guest editor) University of Bonn 1. Origin and Development of a Term e term “Islamofascism” has gained ground in the last few years and has even made it into respectable dictionaries. e usefulness of the term is, however, severely contested. is special issue of Die Welt des Islams collects a number of essays on “Islamofascism” and on its under- lying political assumptions. Scholars of different backgrounds have attempted to set this term in its European, US American, and Middle Eastern contexts and to evaluate its analytical value. ere were two disconcerting reactions when I initially confided to people that I was busy collecting essays on the topic of “Islamofascism”. e first and least expected one was a cordial congratulation that I had finally seen the light and brought myself to call a spade a spade and Islam a fascist religion. It seemed difficult to make the quotation marks and the question mark in the title “Islamofascism”? audible. e second reaction was an impatient groan preceding the anguished question whether it was really necessary to flog a dead horse and to devote more than 300 pages to an evidently politically biased and polemical term. e third reaction was friendly, and as this was the majority reaction I took heart and was encouraged to go ahead. e result is this thematic issue. When “Islam” is discussed in current scholarly discourse, it has become fashionable to insist that neither glorification of Muslims and Islam nor Islamophobia are in order. ere is an element of laudable political correctness in this.
    [Show full text]
  • Nazi Party from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia
    Create account Log in Article Talk Read View source View history Nazi Party From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about the German Nazi Party that existed from 1920–1945. For the ideology, see Nazism. For other Nazi Parties, see Nazi Navigation Party (disambiguation). Main page The National Socialist German Workers' Party (German: Contents National Socialist German Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (help·info), abbreviated NSDAP), commonly known Featured content Workers' Party in English as the Nazi Party, was a political party in Germany between 1920 and 1945. Its Current events Nationalsozialistische Deutsche predecessor, the German Workers' Party (DAP), existed from 1919 to 1920. The term Nazi is Random article Arbeiterpartei German and stems from Nationalsozialist,[6] due to the pronunciation of Latin -tion- as -tsion- in Donate to Wikipedia German (rather than -shon- as it is in English), with German Z being pronounced as 'ts'. Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Leader Karl Harrer Contact page 1919–1920 Anton Drexler 1920–1921 Toolbox Adolf Hitler What links here 1921–1945 Related changes Martin Bormann 1945 Upload file Special pages Founded 1920 Permanent link Dissolved 1945 Page information Preceded by German Workers' Party (DAP) Data item Succeeded by None (banned) Cite this page Ideologies continued with neo-Nazism Print/export Headquarters Munich, Germany[1] Newspaper Völkischer Beobachter Create a book Youth wing Hitler Youth Download as PDF Paramilitary Sturmabteilung
    [Show full text]
  • European Researcher. 2010
    Propaganda in the World and Local Conflicts, 2018, 5(2) Propaganda in the World and Local Conflicts Has been issued since 2014. E-ISSN 2500-3712 2018. 5(2). Issued 2 times a year EDITORIAL BOARD Trut Vladimir – Southern Federal University, Rostov-on-Don, Russian Federation (Editor in Chief) Degtyarev Sergey – Sumy State University, Sumy, Ukraine (Deputy Editor-in- Chief) Eliseev Aleksei – Minsk branch Plekhanov Russian University of Economics, Minsk, Belarus Gogitidze Mamuka – Shota Rustaveli National University, Tbilisi, Georgia Johnson Matthew – School of Liberal Arts and Sciences, Taylor's University, Malaysia Fedorov Alexander – Rostov State University of Economics, Russian Federation Katorin Yurii – Admiral Makarov State University of Maritime and Inland Shipping, Saint-Petersburg, Russian Federation Kaftandjiev Christo – Sofia University “St. Kliment Ohridski”, Sofia, Bulgaria Mitiukov Nicholas – International Network Center for Fundamental and Applied Research, Sochi, Russian Federation Smigel Michal – Matej Bel University, Banská Bystrica, Slovakia Journal is indexed by: CrossRef (UK), OAJI (USA), MIAR (Spain) All manuscripts are peer reviewed by experts in the respective field. Authors of the manuscripts bear responsibility for their content, credibility and reliability. Editorial board doesn’t expect the manuscripts’ authors to always agree with its opinion. Postal Address: 1367/4, Stara Vajnorska str., Release date 17.12.2018. Bratislava – Nove Mesto, Slovakia, 831 04 Format 21 29,7. the WorldPropaganda and Local Conflicts in Website: http://ejournal47.com/ Typeface Georgia. E-mail: [email protected] Founder and Editor: Academic Publishing Order № Prop 8 201 House Researcher s.r.o. 2018 № 0 © Propaganda in the World and Local Conflicts, 2018 Is. 2 37 1 Propaganda in the World and Local Conflicts, 2018, 5(2) C O N T E N T S Articles and Statements “Look, the British and the French”: a Little about the Don Literary Propaganda during the Crimean War A.Y.
    [Show full text]
  • 1 Introduction: Why Fascism Is a 'Key Concept' What Then Is Fascism
    Introduction: Why Fascism is a ‘Key Concept’ What then is fascism? Some sixteen centuries ago, St Augustine of Hippo wrote in Book XI of his Confessions: ‘What then is time? If no one asks me, I know what it is. If I wish to explain it to him who asks, I do not know.’ A similar problem is posed by fascism. Most people who have been educated in the West instinctively ‘know what fascism is’ until they have to explain it to someone else, at which point the attempted definition tends to get increasingly convoluted and incoherent (an assertion that could be tested as a seminar exercise!). The rationale for theis addition of this title to Polity’s ‘Key Concepts in Political Theory’ series is that not only is it impossible to simply to state ‘what fascism is’, but, a century after the word came into being to refer to a new Italian political movement and programme, its definition as a term of political and historical analysis is still bewilderingly varied and hotly debated. Hence the need for this ‘beginner’s guide’, conceived for those studying at any level in the historical or political sciences who have reached the point where they have been recommended (or, even better, spontaneously feel the need for) a synoptic account of fascist studies, a relatively compact and accessible definition of fascism, as well asand a brief overview of its main features, history, and developmentevolution, when this definition is applied to actual policies, movements and events. Study guides in the humanities run the risk of being frustratingly abstract and opaque, reminiscent of an instruction manual for a flat- pack table tennis table which only makes sense only once the table has been assembled, leaving some mysterious nuts, bolts and washers left over (I speak from experience).
    [Show full text]
  • Neuerscheinungsdienst 2014 ND 21
    Neuerscheinungsdienst Jahrgang: 2014 ND 21 Stand: 21. Mai 2014 Deutsche Nationalbibliothek (Leipzig, Frankfurt am Main) 2014 ISSN 1611-0153 urn:nbn:de:101-ND21_2014-6 2 Hinweise Der Neuerscheinungsdienst ist das Ergebnis der Ko- blikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; de- operation zwischen der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek und taillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet über der MVB Marketing- und Verlagsservice des Buchhandels http://dnb.dnb.de abrufbar. GmbH. Ziel dieser Kooperation ist zum einen die Hebung Bibliographic information published by the Deut- des Qualitätsstandards des Verzeichnisses lieferbarer sche Nationalbibliothek Bücher (VLB) und zum anderen die Verbesserung der The Deutsche Naitonalbibliothek lists this publication in Aktualität und Vollständigkeit der Deutschen Nationalbi- the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic bliografie. In der Titelaufnahme wird der entsprechende data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de. Link zu den Verlagsangaben direkt geschaltet; ebenso Information bibliographique de la Deutsche Natio- alle anderen möglichen Links. nalbibliothek Die Verleger melden ihre Titel in einem einzigen Vor- La Deutsche Nationalbibliothek a répertoiré cette publi- gang für das VLB und den Neuerscheinungsdienst der cation dans la Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; les données Deutschen Nationalbibliothek. Dieser zeigt somit alle bibliographiques détaillées peuvent être consultées sur Neumeldungen von Titeln an, die auch in das VLB ein- Internet à l’adresse http://dnb.dnb.de gehen. Die VLB-Redaktion leitet die Meldungen an die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek weiter. Die Titel werden oh- Die Verleger übersenden gemäß den gesetzlichen Vor- ne weitere Änderungen im Neuerscheinungsdienst der schriften zur Pflichtablieferung zwei Pflichtexemplare je Deutschen Nationalbibliothek angezeigt. Die Titelanzei- nach Zuständigkeit an die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek gen selbst sind, wie auf der Sachgruppenübersicht an- nach Frankfurt am Main oder nach Leipzig.
    [Show full text]
  • Preface 1 Western Europe Between Soviet Threat And
    Notes PREFACE Nuclear Strategies and Belief-Systems in Britain, France and the FRG (London: Macmillan, forthcoming 1988). 2 Germany and the Politics of Nuclear Weapons (New York: Columbia University Press, 1975). 1 WESTERN EUROPE BETWEEN SOVIET THREAT AND AMERICAN GURANTEE NATO document MC 48 (FINAL) of 22 November 1954: 'The most effective pattern of NATO military strength for the next few years', § 6 (see Preface on sources). 2 For the switch from a mainly political and ideological to a military threat perception in 1950, see Robert Jervis: 'The impact of the Korean War on the Cold War', Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 24, No. 4 (December 1980), pp. 563-92; and for the European perspective, see Beatrice Heuser: 'NSC 68 and the Soviet threat', Review of International Studies, Vol. 17, No. 4 (1991), pp. 17-40. 3 Beatrice Heuser: Western Containment Policies in the Cold War: The Yugoslav Case, 1948-1953 (London and New York: Routledge, 1989), pp. 125-34, and Appendix C. 4 North Atlantic Treaty, Washington, DC, 4 April 1949, in NATO Office ofInformation: NATO Handbook (Brussels: 1989), p. 14. 5 With the exception of the Neth(:rlands, see Jan Willem Honig: Defense Policy in the North Atlantic Alliance: The Case of the Netherlands (New York: Praeger, 1993), passim. 6 See Beatrice Heuser: Nuclear Strategies and Belief-Systems: Britain, France and the FRG (London: Macmillan, forthcoming 1998). 7 See for example Carl-Christoph Schweitzer (ed.): The Changing Western Analysis of the Soviet Threat (London: Pinter, 1990). 8 NATO MC 14 of 20 March 1950, § 7. 9 NSC 68, Section VIII.
    [Show full text]
  • 664 Copyright © 2019 by Academic Publishing House Researcher S.R.O
    European Journal of Contemporary Education, 2019, 8(3) Copyright © 2019 by Academic Publishing House Researcher s.r.o. All rights reserved. Published in the Slovak Republic European Journal of Contemporary Education E-ISSN 2305-6746 2019, 8(3): 664-676 DOI: 10.13187/ejced.2019.3.664 www.ejournal1.com WARNING! Article copyright. Copying, reproduction, distribution, republication (in whole or in part), or otherwise commercial use of the violation of the author(s) rights will be pursued on the basis of international legislation. Using the hyperlinks to the article is not considered a violation of copyright. «66 % of Literacy among the Male Population of School Age Brings it Closer to Common Education» vs «in the Largest Villages, it was Difficult to Meet a Literate Person»: the Main Statistical indicators of Primary Education among Don Cossacks in the XIX century. Part 2 Artyom Y. Peretyatko a , b , *, Teymur E. Zulfugarzade c a International Network Center for Fundamental and Applied Research, Washington, USA b Volgograd State University, Volgograd, Russian Federation c Russian Economic University named after G.V. Plekhanov, Russian Federation Abstract The question about the degree of development of primary education in the Don in the XIX century remains controversial among historians. Archival documents and testimonies of contemporaries allow us to cover this question in completely different ways (both quotes in the title are taken from them). The article attempts to summarize statistical information about the development of primary education in the Don Cossack environment from 1799 to 1899. A number of myths prevalent in historiography (for example, about the significant role of zemstvos in the creation of new educational institutions in villages or about the crisis of Don education in 1880−1890) are debunked.
    [Show full text]
  • Historiographical Perspectives of the Third Reich: Nazi Policies Towards the Arab World and European Muslims
    University of Texas Rio Grande Valley ScholarWorks @ UTRGV History Faculty Publications and Presentations College of Liberal Arts Fall 2017 Historiographical Perspectives of the Third Reich: Nazi Policies towards the Arab World and European Muslims Jesus Montemayor The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.utrgv.edu/hist_fac Part of the Arabic Studies Commons, European Languages and Societies Commons, and the History Commons Recommended Citation Montemayor, J. (2017). Historiographical Perspectives of the Third Reich: Nazi Policies towards the Arab World and European Muslims. NETSOL: New Trends in Social and Liberal Sciences, 2, 16–30. https://doi.org/10.24819/netsol2017.07 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the College of Liberal Arts at ScholarWorks @ UTRGV. It has been accepted for inclusion in History Faculty Publications and Presentations by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks @ UTRGV. For more information, please contact [email protected], [email protected]. An Interdisciplinary Journal http://www.netsoljournal.net/ Volume 2, Issue 2, pp.16-30, Fall 2017 https://doi.org/10.24819/netsol2017.07 Historiographical Perspectives of the Third Reich: Nazi Policies towards the Arab World and European Muslims Jesus Montemayor University of Texas Rio Grande Valley Abstract This historiographical essay examines major works on the interaction of Nazi Germany and the Arab World in general and the European Muslims in particular. The essay argues that despite the claims of revisionist studies that emerged after 9/11 terrorists attacks, the Nazi influence among the Arab and European Muslims was not deep enough to produce sufficient Muslim and Arab support for the Nazi cause.
    [Show full text]