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The Roles of Keyboard Instruments in the Orchestral

Ginger Larson

Prof. Rudy Perrault

Instrumental Ensemble Literature

December 19, 2011

2

The Roles of Keyboard Instruments in the Orchestral Symphony

Throughout the evolution of the symphony the core of instruments changed and grew

based on the development of the individual instruments and the general use by the

writing at the time. Outside of this core group composers would add instruments, sometimes just

an extra for a desired effect in a specific movement and other times large groups would be used

to increase the sound and range of the itself. The different instrument families grew

into certain roles in the orchestra, though composers eventually worked to expand those roles

themselves. The keyboard instruments have played a wide variety of roles in the orchestra from

the beginning and development to the current modern-day orchestral repertoire. As the keyboard

instruments themselves evolved and developed, their roles in the orchestra changed as well.

While there is a large amount of repertoire for keyboard instruments, the concerto’s

sole purpose is to highlight the instrument over the orchestra. Instead, focusing on the general

symphonic repertoire will give a better picture of the specific instrument’s role within the

orchestra rather than as a guest soloist.

The keyboard instruments that have been used with orchestra are the , organ

and . Each instrument is vastly different from the other, but they are all related as keyboard

mediums. Within the orchestra they take on different roles than their solo function, some cases

have them interchangeable with one another for the same purpose. In the solo keyboard

repertoire prior to the mid-17 th century no distinction was made between any of the keyboard

instruments. At the time, the harpsichord, and organ were the instruments available

and the choice of which instrument to use was ultimately left to the performer. 1 There were

1 John Caldwell, et al., "Keyboard ," In Grove Music Online . Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/14945pg1 (accessed December 18, 2011). 3

certain practice that became common, for example organs were often used for liturgical works with long sustained notes or pedal notes and dance music was usually played on the harpsichord.

Due to the quiet nature of the clavichord it was generally only used at home for practice or a small gathering of friends. As the ’s compositional style developed, so did the specific writings for each instrument. Pieces were being published that were written for a specific instrument 2 and would often be impossible or at least extremely difficult to perform on

another medium. The invention of the piano added another medium to take into consideration,

but the repertoire didn’t develop its own style until the late 18 th century. 3

The organ is the oldest of the keyboard instruments, though it did not use a keyboard for

operation until the 13 th and 14 th centuries. 4 The first organ, known as a Hydraulis, was built in

the 3 rd century BC in Alexandra by and engineer named Ktesibios and used water to stabilize the

wind pressure to create sound. 5 In the 4 th century the water system was replaced by bellows, creating the pneumatic organ and increasing the volume of the instrument. 6 The pipes of medieval organs were much like that of the recorder, creating sound with a series of tongues or sliders that were pushed and pulled by the player to create the sound. This instrument required two people to sit at the same manual to play because each note required a different combination

2 John Caldwell, et al., "Keyboard music," In Grove Music Online . Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/14945pg1 (accessed December 18, 2011). 3 John Caldwell, et al., "Keyboard music," In Grove Music Online . Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/14945pg1 (accessed December 18, 2011). 4 "Organ," In The Oxford Dictionary of Music , 2nd ed. rev., edited by Michael Kennedy. Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/opr/t237/e7521 (accessed December 18, 2011). 5 "Organ," In The Oxford Dictionary of Music , 2nd ed. rev., edited by Michael Kennedy. Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/opr/t237/e7521 (accessed December 18, 2011). 6 "Organ," In The Oxford Dictionary of Music , 2nd ed. rev., edited by Michael Kennedy. Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/opr/t237/e7521 (accessed December 18, 2011). 4

of pipes to get the desired sound. The different pipes would create a variety of and pitches, creating the unisons, octaves and octave plus a fifth higher. 7

As the organs continued to develop they also grew in size until the 13 th and 14 th century.

The system of sliders to activate the pipes was replaced by a keyboard, which needed less room

while also adding the benefit of being more flexible and sensitive. 8 From the 13 th to the 16 th century the , or organetto, were popular because of their mobility. These instruments consisted of two rows of pipes reaching up to two octaves, operated by one player using their right hand for the keyboard and the left to operate the bellows. Because the player could only use on hand, it was for singular melodies and was often used only for solo dance tunes. 9

The church organs continued to grow in size since being portable was not a necessity for their function. Additional keyboards were added to activate different pipes and create different sounds and tones. 10 In 1361, a church in Halberstad, contained an organ with three

manuals (keyboards) plus a and twenty bellows. This organ required ten people

to operate it, with such force coming from the wind pressure that the player would have to use

the force of their arm just to hold down the . 11

A third type of organ fell between the size range of the portative and church organs, known as the . This organ had two to three sets of bellows which could be operated by the player and still allow them to use both hands on the manual. It was not as portable as the

7 "Organ," In The Oxford Dictionary of Music , 2nd ed. rev., edited by Michael Kennedy. Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/opr/t237/e7521 (accessed December 18, 2011). 8 "Organ," In The Oxford Dictionary of Music , 2nd ed. rev., edited by Michael Kennedy. Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/opr/t237/e7521 (accessed December 18, 2011). 9 "Organ," In The Oxford Dictionary of Music , 2nd ed. rev., edited by Michael Kennedy. Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/opr/t237/e7521 (accessed December 18, 2011). 10 "Organ," In The Oxford Dictionary of Music , 2nd ed. rev., edited by Michael Kennedy. Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/opr/t237/e7521 (accessed December 18, 2011). 11 "Organ," In The Oxford Dictionary of Music , 2nd ed. rev., edited by Michael Kennedy. Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/opr/t237/e7521 (accessed December 18, 2011). 5

portative organ, but it was easily moved from place to place and was often used in churches and chamber music. 12

By the end of the middle Ages many improvements had been made to the organ to make it more responsive and require less people for its operation. Stops were added to the organ, which worked similar to the sliders in controlling the air flow to the pipes, allowing the changes to be dictated by the player and not need extra people to move the sliders. Contrasting stops were added along with reed pipes to change the tone and imitate other instruments. Different manuals could be joined together by couplers to combine sets of pipes without needing to play each individual manual. 13 From this point, the organ’s set up and function was continually refined to make a wider variety of sounds as well as making it easier to play. In 1867, Paris began using electricity for the key , making it far less difficult to activate the keys and not have to fight against the wind pressure. 14

The organ itself is an instrument that elicits many different responses. Some refer to it as the King of all instruments for its age, size and versatility while others consider it a bore and avoid it at all costs. Symphonic composers reflect this variety in their use of the organ within the orchestra. In the beginning stages of the early and into the Classical period, the organ was considered a possibility as a continuo instrument. However, it was not often used with the symphony itself but rather in liturgical continuos. 15 Most likely this was due to the location of the organs that were strong enough to use with an ensemble were located inside churches and they could not move from place to place.

12 "Organ," In The Oxford Dictionary of Music , 2nd ed. rev., edited by Michael Kennedy. Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/opr/t237/e7521 (accessed December 18, 2011). 13 "Organ," In The Oxford Dictionary of Music , 2nd ed. rev., edited by Michael Kennedy. Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/opr/t237/e7521 (accessed December 18, 2011). 14 "Organ," In The Oxford Dictionary of Music , 2nd ed. rev., edited by Michael Kennedy. Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/opr/t237/e7521 (accessed December 18, 2011). 15 "Organ," In The Oxford Dictionary of Music , 2nd ed. rev., edited by Michael Kennedy. Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/opr/t237/e7521 (accessed December 18, 2011). 6

Gustav Mahler used organ in his Symphony No. 2 and Symphony No. 8. While the second symphony only uses the organ at the end of the fifth movement in the final chorale, the eighth symphony employs it throughout the entire work. In both of these works, the organ does not have a prominent position but rather is considered the same as any other element in the orchestra. In comparing the analysis of the by Michael Steinberg in his symphonic guides there is no mention of the organ at all other than being included in the list of instrumentation. 16 The is also not mentioned in the list of performers at the premiere,

which is usually reserved for soloists or certain instruments that are featured within a piece. 17 It is clear not only by looking at the score, but by these accounts of the analysis of the work and the listing of the performers that the organ is not considered a feature of these symphonies.

Camille Saint-Saëns composed his third symphony to use organ, and has such received the nickname “Organ Symphony.” 18 However, this nickname can be misleading, as it implies

that the organ is a feature of the symphony. Like Mahler, Saint-Saëns includes the organ within

the ranks of the symphonic instruments, but was not intending to set it apart within this work.

Rather, the organ provides and support throughout and showcases the

first movement theme in the finale with the entire orchestra. 19 Saint-Saëns also includes four-

hand piano in this symphony and, like the organ, is considered another member of the orchestra.

Charles-Marie Widor came from a family of and organ builders in France and

was a prolific organist and himself.20 He is noted for his ten organ symphonies, written

16 Michael Steinberg, The Symphony: A Listener’s Guide (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 285-292. 17 Michael Steinberg, The Symphony: A Listener’s Guide (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 285-292. 18 Edward Downes, Guide to Symphonic Music (New York: Walker and Company, 1976), 785-787. 19 Edward Downes, Guide to Symphonic Music (New York: Walker and Company, 1976), 785-787. 20 Felix Raugal and Andrew Thomson, "Widor, Charles-Marie," In Grove Music Online . Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/30261 (accessed November 16, 2011). 7

for solo organ, which were to showcase the abilities of the Cavaillé-Coll organ. 21 He composed three symphonies for orchestra, the Third Symphony including organ with orchestra. While this symphony is very similar to Saint-Saëns third symphony, Widor focused on the differences between the organ itself and the orchestra as an instrument unto itself. 22 This piece was commissioned by Sir Daniel Barton, an English consul general, for a new organ that was built in the Victoria Hall in Geneva. 23 The organ begins as a part of the symphony, playing underneath

the orchestra, but eventually breaks out on its own and continues the rest of the symphony as a

back and forth conversation with the orchestra. 24

The harpsichord was the next instrument to follow the organ in the keyboard family. The

earliest mention of a harpsichord comes from 1397 by a jurist in Padua who wrote about a claim

by Hermann Poll of inventing a ‘clavicembalum.’ 25 The harpsichord was used actively throughout the 18 th century as a solo , part of a chamber group, part of an orchestral group and in opera. After the invention of the piano, the harpsichord still retained its position in the opera and orchestral work. 26 By 1810 the use of harpsichord had dwindled, though a revival took place in 1880 that still continues on today. 27

The harpsichord is a unique keyboard instrument in the manner of how the sound is produced. A piece of wood called a jack is attached to the back of each key lever and is raised

21 Felix Raugal and Andrew Thomson, "Widor, Charles-Marie," In Grove Music Online . Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/30261 (accessed November 16, 2011). 22 Felix Raugal and Andrew Thomson, "Widor, Charles-Marie," In Grove Music Online . Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/30261 (accessed November 16, 2011). 23 Felix Raugal and Andrew Thomson, "Widor, Charles-Marie," In Grove Music Online . Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/30261 (accessed November 16, 2011). 24 Joe Riley, Liner notes to Guilmant/ Widor/Franck – Organ Works , Ian Tracey, BBC Philharmonic and Yan Pascal Tortelier, Chandos CHAN 9785, CD, 2000. 25 Edwin M. Ripin, et al., "Harpsichord," In Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/12420 (accessed December 18, 2011). 26 Edwin M. Ripin, et al., "Harpsichord," In Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/12420 (accessed December 18, 2011). 27 Edwin M. Ripin, et al., "Harpsichord," In Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/12420 (accessed December 18, 2011). 8

when each key is depressed. A plectrum made of quill, leather or plastic is attached to the jack and plucks the string as it is raised above the string. The jack is stopped at a certain height by a jackrail, which is a padded bar set over to the top and determines the depth of the keys for the instrument. 28 Because the string is plucked and the depth of the key is standard, no dynamic

variation can occur within the instrument itself. Many different alterations were made to the

harpsichord to try and remedy this problem. Some were created with multiple jacks that could be

engaged or disengaged from striking the strings.29

Two sets of strings were fairly standard in the setup of a harpsichord which would have jacks between the two strings and would pluck both strings when a key was pressed. Some continued adding string sets, which would not fit in the standard case so the strings would be layered above or below depending on the size added. When more than two sets of string were used, the pitches would be altered. A third set would be an octave higher, fourth set an octave below and a fifth would be two octaves below. 30 The jacks would end up striking the strings in different locations depending on which set of jacks was used or which string sets were engaged which would result in changing the tone. This was taken to extremes and a set of jacks were set very close to the edge of the strings to create a “ stop” with a penetrating sound. 31

A machine stop was added to the English harpsichords in the late 18 th century that would

control multiple sets of strings and would override the hand stops with a pedal. 32 This would

allow a gradual dynamic change between the string sets rather than the sudden shift that occurred

28 Edwin M. Ripin, et al., "Harpsichord," In Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/12420 (accessed December 18, 2011). 29 Edwin M. Ripin, et al., "Harpsichord," In Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/12420 (accessed December 18, 2011). 30 Edwin M. Ripin, et al., "Harpsichord," In Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/12420 (accessed December 18, 2011). 31 Edwin M. Ripin, and John Koster, "Lute stop," In Grove Music Online . Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/17217 (accessed December 18, 2011). 32 Peter Williams, et al., "Swell," In Grove Music Online . Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/27209 (accessed December 18, 2011). 9

with the regular stops. Another development was the use of swells, the lid swell and Venetian swell. The lid swell was activated by a pedal that would raise a hinged section of the harpsichord lid to increase the sound. 33 The Venetian swell had a section of the soundboard covered by a lid inside the harpsichord that would open in a similar fashion to Venetian blinds. 34 Unfortunately

both of these options would mute the harpsichord when they were closed and the sound change

mostly happened with the immediate opening of the swell. These changes occurred

simultaneously as the popularity of the piano increased, though it was not a reaction to the piano

itself but rather the musical demands happening at the time. 35

Within symphonic repertoire, the harpsichord took on the role of continuo in Baroque and early Classical compositions. 36 A continuo part could be played by a variety of instruments, not

just the harpsichord or a keyboard instrument. It was a fundamental part of 17 th and 18 th century compositions and was written with figured . 37 The part would include a bass line and the

played would improvise a chord accompaniment over the top, usually indicated by notated

intervals. The continuo’s sole purpose was as an accompaniment to a soloist, small group or

large orchestra. Orchestral scores would have col basso in the score to indicate the use of

continuo in orchestral tutti sections. 38 As the orchestration of the instruments developed, the need for the continuo to provide this support lessened and it gradually disappeared from the orchestra repertoire. While there has a been a revival of performance and composition for the

33 Peter Williams, et al., "Swell," In Grove Music Online . Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/27209 (accessed December 18, 2011). 34 Peter Williams, et al., "Swell," In Grove Music Online . Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/27209 (accessed December 18, 2011). 35 Peter Williams, et al., "Swell," In Grove Music Online . Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/27209 (accessed December 18, 2011). 36 Peter Williams and David Ledbetter, "Continuo," In Grove Music Online . Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/06353 (accessed December 20, 2011). 37 Peter Williams and David Ledbetter, "Continuo," In Grove Music Online . Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/06353 (accessed December 20, 2011). 38 Peter Williams and David Ledbetter, "Continuo," In Grove Music Online . Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/06353 (accessed December 20, 2011). 10

harpsichord, as well as new developments in construction, the efforts have focused on the harpsichord as a solo instrument and it has not yet crossed paths with the orchestra again.

The final large development in keyboard instruments and the most well-known and popular keyboard instrument today, is the piano. The piano is a result of the combination of two types of instruments, the action of a dulcimer with the keyboard setup of the harpsichord. 39 The

first piano was made by Bartolomeo Cristofori around 1678-1700, which he called

“gravicembalo col piano e forte” or “harpsichord with loudness and softness.” 40 Two strings were used for each note played by a hammer that would strike the string rather than the quill plucking from the harpsichord allowing the player to control the amount of force used on the string and therefore the dynamics used. 41 Gottfried Silbermann tried his hand at making in

1726, which he presented to Bach. After many revisions and improvements he arrived at a model that won his approval in 1747. 42 All the pianos had been made in the same shape as the

harpsichord until Frederici of Gera made one like a clavichord, followed closely by Johannes

Zumpe in , which is a box shape with the strings running perpendicular to the keyboard. 43

The key action underwent much development by various workers to create the complex action

we have in the modern piano today which now allows for quick re-articulations of a pitch. The

touch of the keys was made lighter by Andreas Stein in Austria, allowing it to be played quicker

39 "Piano," In The Oxford Dictionary of Music , 2nd ed. rev., edited by Michael Kennedy. Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/opr/t237/e7899 (accessed December 19, 2011). 40 "Piano," In The Oxford Dictionary of Music , 2nd ed. rev., edited by Michael Kennedy. Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/opr/t237/e7899 (accessed December 19, 2011). 41 "Piano," In The Oxford Dictionary of Music , 2nd ed. rev., edited by Michael Kennedy. Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/opr/t237/e7899 (accessed December 19, 2011). 42 "Piano," In The Oxford Dictionary of Music , 2nd ed. rev., edited by Michael Kennedy. Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/opr/t237/e7899 (accessed December 19, 2011). 43 "Piano," In The Oxford Dictionary of Music , 2nd ed. rev., edited by Michael Kennedy. Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/opr/t237/e7899 (accessed December 19, 2011). 11

and easier. 44 The 1800s brought the upright piano from John Isaac Hawkins in Philadelphia,

setting the sound board behind the strings and everything vertical to the keyboard as well as

thicker wire in the strings and thickening the tone. 45 The soundboard of a piano has the same function as the body of a , to resonate with the strings and create a fuller tone.

Overstringing or criss-crossing groups of strings over the top of each other, allows reduced tension on the different string sizes. On the modern piano the lowest notes only have one string, the middle register has two and the highest register has 3 strings, creating a more even balance between the registers. 46

When the piano was first invented, it seemed it would take the place of the harpsichord.

However, because the nature of the instruments was so different and the piano was still new in its development, they co-existed into the 1800s. 47 The piano did not continue in the harpsichord’s

steps in regards to symphonic repertoire for a number of reasons. One being that the purpose of

the harpsichord, the continuo, in the repertoire was dwindling out and no longer needed. The

harpsichord still had the ability to be heard within the orchestra because of its , whereas

the piano had a less piercing tone. Because of this the piano was no incorporated into symphonic

repertoire until the Romantic period, when the piano had undergone enough changes to be

considered a possibility.

44 "Piano," In The Oxford Dictionary of Music , 2nd ed. rev., edited by Michael Kennedy. Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/opr/t237/e7899 (accessed December 19, 2011). 45 "Piano," In The Oxford Dictionary of Music , 2nd ed. rev., edited by Michael Kennedy. Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/opr/t237/e7899 (accessed December 19, 2011). 46 "Piano," In The Oxford Dictionary of Music , 2nd ed. rev., edited by Michael Kennedy. Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/opr/t237/e7899 (accessed December 19, 2011). 47 John Caldwell, et al., "Keyboard music," In Grove Music Online . Oxford Music Online , http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/14945pg1 (accessed December 18, 2011). 12

Dmitri Shostakovich, himself a , incorporated keyboard instruments into many of his orchestral works. In his orchestral symphonies, he used piano in No. 1, No. 5 and No. 7. 48 In his first symphony, the piano is featured prominently though it is not the only instrument to be featured within the symphony. Due to Shostakovich’s focus on using the smallest amount of instruments to achieve his desired effect, his symphonies tend to feature more individual instruments. 49 The piano’s role in Symphony No. 5 is small, only playing three times throughout the work, though the focus is on its percussive nature rather than lyricism. Similarly in the seventh symphony, the piano plays a simple and repetitive line in the first movement and reappears for the scherzo. 50 It may appear at first that the piano is a featured instrument in these

symphonies, though in comparison with the rest of the instrumentation and use of instruments

throughout his symphonies the piano is just another member of the orchestra.

Oliver Messiaen used the piano as a solo instrument in his Turangalila Symphonie,

indicated that way in the score itself. The piano has an intense role with numerous cadenzas

throughout, some leading the respective movement to a close and one dramatically opening

Turangalila 2 .51 The piece can almost be compared to a piano concerto, and had even been

suggested as a possibility by Messiaen himself.

Composers are still experimenting with keyboard instruments in orchestral settings,

continuing from new developments in the instruments as well as new ideas of composition.

48 Michael Round, “The Piano and the Symphony,” Piano 14:5 (September-October, 2006). http://gateway.proquest.com.libpdb.d.umn.edu:2048/openurl?url_ver=Z39.88- 2004&res_dat=xri:iimp:&rft_dat=xri:iimp:article:citation:iimp00522731 (accessed November 16, 2011). 49 Michael Round, “The Piano and the Symphony,” Piano 14:5 (September-October, 2006). http://gateway.proquest.com.libpdb.d.umn.edu:2048/openurl?url_ver=Z39.88- 2004&res_dat=xri:iimp:&rft_dat=xri:iimp:article:citation:iimp00522731 (accessed November 16, 2011). 50 Michael Round, “The Piano and the Symphony,” Piano 14:5 (September-October, 2006). http://gateway.proquest.com.libpdb.d.umn.edu:2048/openurl?url_ver=Z39.88- 2004&res_dat=xri:iimp:&rft_dat=xri:iimp:article:citation:iimp00522731 (accessed November 16, 2011). 51 Isabelle Battioni, Liner notes to Turaganlila Symphony, Trans. Wil Gowans, Francois Weigel, Polish National Radio Symphony Orchestra and Antoni Wit, Naxos 8.554478-79, CD, 1998. 13

While keyboards are often thought of as solo instruments, they can and do play supportive roles within a large ensemble. In fact, most composers discussed here treated the instruments as another member of the symphony rather than as a featured instrument. The piano tends to be an instrument used more as a feature than support, though this may be more due to the nature of the instrument itself rather than the composer’s desired used. The harpsichord was only used as a continuo instrument, though its sound could easily penetrate the early developing orchestra. The wind power of the organ allows it to hold its own within an orchestra and be heard in a supportive role. With the modern size and range of the orchestra, the piano struggles to be heard with full ensemble, begging it to be used in sparser textures or solo. If the composers did not have to worry about projection of sound within the group itself, maybe the keyboard instruments would serve a different purpose. If that were to be the case that would likely change the style of writing for all orchestral instruments.

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Bibliography

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