AN ABBREVIATED ART HISTORY

WESTERN TRADITIONS FROM THE RENAISSANCE TO THE PRESENT

First Edition

By Donna Voronovich

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ISBN: 978-1-5165-2936-0 (pbk) / 978-1-5165-2937-7 (br) TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION VII

THE PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK: A NOTE FROM THE EDITOR VII

Chapter 1: THE RENAISSANCE 1

INTRODUCTION 1

14th CENTURY ITALY 2

FLORENCE: THE “BIRTHPLACE” OF THE RENAISSANCE, C. 1400 3

THE AGE OF HUMANISM 6

HIGH RENAISSANCE 23

THE REFORMATION AND COUNTER-REFORMATION 41

MANNERISM 42

NORTHERN EUROPEAN PAINTING 49

Chapter 2: BAROQUE AND ROCOCO 59

INTRODUCTION 59

ITALIAN BAROQUE ARCHITECTURE 61

ITALIAN BAROQUE SCULPTURE 64

BAROQUE PAINTING IN ITALY 66

BAROQUE BEYOND ITALY 69

SPANISH BAROQUE PAINTING 77

BAROQUE ARCHITECTURE OF FRANCE 80 FRENCH BAROQUE PAINTING 85

ROCOCO AND THE 18th CENTURY 87

ROCOCO PAINTING 87

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO ARCHITECTURE 92

Chapter 3: NEOCLASSICISM AND ROMANTICISM 99

INTRODUCTION 99

THE NEOCLASSICAL STYLE IN FRANCE 101

NEOCLASSICISM IN AMERICA 106

THE ROMANTIC MOVEMENT 112

THE ROMANTIC STYLE IN ARCHITECTURE 113

THE ROMANTIC STYLE IN PAINTING 117

THE ROMANTIC STYLE OF PAINTING IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 127

Chapter 4: 19TH-CENTURY REALISM, PHOTOGRAPHY, AND ARCHITECTURE OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 135

INTRODUCTION 135

FRENCH REALISM IN PAINTING 136

PHOTOGRAPHY 143

ENGLISH REALISM 146

AMERICAN REALIST PAINTING 148

FRENCH REALISM IN THE 1860s 148

ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE 151 Chapter 5: IMPRESSIONISM AND POST-IMPRESSIONISM 161

IMPRESSIONISM 161

IMPRESSIONIST PAINTING 163

IMPRESSIONIST SCULPTURE 175

POST-IMPRESSIONISM 176

Chapter 6: EARLY 20TH CENTURY MODERNISM 189

EXPRESSIONISM 190

CUBISM 198

DE STIJL 205

SUPREMATISM 208

EARLY 20th CENTURY ARCHITECTURE 211

DADA 215

SURREALISM 217

SURREALIST SCULPTURE 223

AMERICAN REGIONALISM AND SOCIAL REALISM 226

Chapter 7: MID-20TH CENTURY MODERNISM 233

INTRODUCTION 233

ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISM 235

POP ART 245

MINIMALISM 253 Chapter 8: LATE 20TH AND EARLY 21ST CENTURY ART 257

DEVELOPMENTS IN ARCHITECTURE 257

ENVIRONMENTAL ART AND LAND ART 264

OTHER ARTISTS 268

WHAT NEXT? 277 INTRODUCTION

THE PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK: A NOTE FROM THE EDITOR

An Abbreviated Art History was conceived as the result of many years of teaching the history of art, architecture, and graphic design to university students. Through that ex- perience, I found that students learn best when given clear and concise information with the opportunity for self-directed in-depth learning based on their interests. A certain degree of freedom encourages students to discover aspects of the subject matter that relate to their own life experience, while still satisfying the required learning objectives of a university course. Therefore, this textbook is intended to serve as an outline and a starting point for the exploration of the subject. It is intentionally brief and limited in content. The language is meant to be straightforward and comprehensible for students at a university level. The text should not under any circumstances be considered as a substitution for any of the very highly regarded textbooks on the subject matter. However, it can function well as an introduction to the study of art history for a general audience, and as a main text in a course supplemented by other resources such as videos, class discussions, papers, and student projects.

ART AND HISTORY OF ART DEFINED

The word art has many definitions. Even dictionary definitions vary widely, although they do contain some common ideas. For the purpose of this book, the definition will be left up to the reader. Prior to studying art history, most people have a definition of art naturally based on their own experience. After studying art history, however, an individual’s definition of art will likely expand. Similarly, the term History of Art or Art History has certain connotations. It is commonly defined as the study of art of a certain time period, cultural tradition(s), and/or stylistic category. Due to the difficulty of defining the wordart , however, the VII VIII | AN ABBREVIATED ART HISTORY

study of art can also vary widely, as can the definition of culture and style. Therefore, flexibility and an open mind will serve the student well, and it will provide opportu- nity to glean personal insights and connections to the artwork that will enhance the learning experience.

CATEGORIES OF ART

Picture (Painting, Drawing, Photograph, Print) – A two-dimensional work of art that is usually meant to be viewed from one position.

Sculpture – A three-dimensional work of art that is carved, modeled, cast, or assembled. Sculpture is usually meant to be viewed from multiple positions.

Architecture – A three-dimensional work of art (buildings, structures, monuments) whose function is to provide shelter and accommodate human activity. Architecture is viewed and experienced from multiple exterior and interior positions.

Temporal Art – Artwork that exists for a certain period of time, such as performance art, land art, and installation.

WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF ART?

Art is a product of human culture. It exists to please, inform, teach, stimulate, provoke, inspire, awe, and record human beings and the human experience. These ideas are explained in further detail in each of the following:

Artistic Impulse – The desire to express oneself is a natural human trait that everyone is born with. It can be observed in very young children and persists throughout adulthood. The choice of whether to act on that impulse is the first factor that determines who becomes an artist. Talent, training, economic factors, and other variables come into play, but we all have the potential to develop our artistic impulse.

Art as Historical Record – Art serves as historical record for humanity. It commemo- rates, celebrates, mourns, and documents important and ordinary human experiences. Just as the word “history” contains within it the word “story,” art history is also a story of the development of art throughout the ages. Therefore, it is rich with legends, myths, assumptions, and personal impressions of artists and art historians. INTRODUCTION | IX

Art as a Teaching Tool – Art can demonstrate, instruct, and educate. Art can illustrate stories, lessons, traditions, laws, and other ideas, thereby presenting an alternative to written language. Especially in religious traditions, art has played a crucial role in communicating teachings to the faithful.

Art as an Expression of Beauty – Art and beauty have long been associated. Most traditional definitions of art contain the word beauty at least once. Indeed, one of the most valued functions of art throughout history has been to provide objects of beauty to contemplate, to serve as ideals to strive for, or simply as respite from the drudgery of daily life. Individuals as well as private and public institutions of all kinds use art to decorate and delight, and to demonstrate an appreciation of beauty. However, beauty in art has been challenged, especially since the 20th century. Many contemporary artists, critics, and scholars dismiss beauty as an artistic consideration, and, in fact, seem to intentionally avoid it. It is a subject of much debate.

Art as a Social Statement (Celebration, Commentary, Protest, etc.) – As a product of human culture, art represents society. The successes and failures, joys and sorrows, and benefits and hardships of living in community present many opportunities for commen- tary, and artists have answered that call.

WHY DO WE VALUE ART AND HOW DO WE ASSESS VALUE?

We value art because we create it. It represents something about us that we, as humans, deem as important and worthy of expression. Individual artworks are valued for different reasons, but most fall into one or more of the following categories:

Material Value – The monetary or economic value of a work of art, based on the mate- rials it is made of. Intrinsic Value – The degree to which a work of art represents an important aspect or idea of humanity. It could be based on fact or myth but there is a shared appreciation of it. Religious Value – Representative of a specific religion. Cultural Value/Nationalistic Value – Representative of a particular culture or nation. Artworks of this kind usually incorporate symbols associated with political, ethnic, geographic or military aspects. Psychological Value – Representative of a viewpoint, opinion, set of morals, beliefs, or values. These works of art intend to affect the viewer’s state of mind, and can provoke positive as well as negative emotions. X | AN ABBREVIATED ART HISTORY

WHY DO WE STUDY ART? WHAT CAN WE LEARN?

We study art because we value it. We can learn about ourselves through the study of art created by people who are often separated from us by many years and great distance. The details of human experience change over time and place, but the core of the expe- rience remains constant. Since the beginning, humans have pondered the meaning of life and tried to maximize pleasure while avoiding misery. Art documents the journey from birth to death and allows opportunity to contemplate all the aspects of human life.

HOW DO WE STUDY ART? WHAT ARE THE FACTORS WE CONSIDER?

CULTURE AND TIME PERIOD

The artworks covered in this book were all created by human beings living in a certain place at a certain time in history. As such, it is important to identify culture and time pe- riod, as they contribute further understanding to the artworks themselves. Conversely, the artworks usually represent something about those cultures and time periods and thereby help us to understand human history.

CONTENT AND FORM

Every work of art has content and form. Together, they help to identify style, meaning, and cultural/historical significance. Content refers to the objects and ideas represented in a work of art. It can be represented in many ways, and in many styles. Content can be clear and direct or mysterious, confusing, hidden, or even apparently absent. The artist’s intention to communicate content will affect the characteristics of it. Form refers to the visual elements (formal elements), such as:

Line – An actual line or implied direction of movement

Shape – A two dimensional area defined by a border

Color – Hue, value, and saturation perceived by the eye INTRODUCTION | XI

Light – Refers to the value of color, the degree of light or dark represented, and also the sense of weight in a work of art

Texture – Tactile or implied tactile quality of a surface

Space – Actual or implied two-dimensional or three-dimensional area represented in the art

Mass – The sense of solid three-dimensional matter represented

Volume – The sense of void or empty three dimensional space represented

Composition – The arrangement of elements in a work of art

Each of these formal elements may be broken down into further detail but the con- cepts are best understood by applying them in visual analysis of the artworks. Formal analysis is very helpful in order to understand the artist’s intentions, and in order to gain further insight into the work of art.

STYLE

Realistic/Naturalistic/Idealized – Styles that aim to represent “the real world” appear- ance of things.

Hyper-realistic/Illusionistic – Styles that exaggerate one or more aspects of accurate representation.

Abstract – Styles that intentionally distort, simplify, or otherwise alter the life-like rep- resentation of objects in order to emphasize an aspect other than true representation. Abstract artists usually begin with inspiration from reality, then deviate from it to create the desired effect.

Non-representational – Styles intended to evoke emotion or other non-tangible ideas or experiences.

HISTORICAL/CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE

As mentioned above, the historical and cultural context of a work of art helps the viewer understand the artist’s intentions and the meaning of the work at the time it was cre- ated. In the case of very well-known works of art, they become cultural icons of their respective periods. However, it is also useful to consider these works of art as a means of comparing and contrasting our own time period with those of the past. Although the XII | AN ABBREVIATED ART HISTORY

details of everyday life may differ greatly, larger concerns may prove to be quite similar. Through the study of art, we may be delighted to find how many themes we share in common, and perhaps, gain new-found appreciation for history.

REFERENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE

The history of art is rich with repetitive themes. Great works from the past serve as inspiration to contemporary artists as ideas become rediscovered, modified, and pre- sented anew to current society. In certain fields, such as graphic design, appropriation of images from even the very recent past is encouraged as a means of linking similar ideas to communicate in a clear and effective manner. Sometimes, referencing images from the past signifies nostalgia for the past; a desire to go back to what is perceived as a time when life was less complicated and less stressful. At other times, it can indicate the opposite; a rejection of the past or a comparison with the past in order to emphasize how things have changed for the better. Either way, reference to artwork of earlier times can be a powerful tool and an important barometer of culture as it relates to human history. CHAPTERCHAPTER #1 The RenaissanceTitle

INTRODUCTION

he Renaissance is a term that refers to a period in history as well as to a style of art that developed in Europe beginning T around 1350 AD (CE) and lasting until about 1650 AD (CE). The word “renaissance” (French) means rebirth; in this case, the rebirth of ideas from the ancient classical cultures of Greece and Rome. But the Renaissance was not merely a time of replicating old ideas; it was a time of great cultural flowering, great intellectual and technological achievements, a renewal in faith of the abilities and power of mankind, and a time of great optimism and anticipation for the future. The Renaissance followed the Middle Ages, also known as the Medieval Period; a time of great uncertainty, political instability, fam- ine, plagues, and warfare. The Middle Ages began with the fall of the Roman Empire, c. 400 AD. This period is also sometimes referred to as “The Dark Ages” due to the lack of cultural advancement (relative to that of the preceding Roman Empire or of the successive Renaissance). It took approximately one thousand years for the territories of the former empire to be redefined into the lands that would eventually become the countries we identify with that area of the world today. During the Middle Ages, Christianity spread quickly throughout the lands of the former Roman Empire. This new religion became one of the most influential factors in shaping the Western world and

1 2 | AN ABBREVIATED ART HISTORY

is at the very foundation of the Renaissance. In spite of the perceived lack of cultural development during the Middle Ages, Christianity prompted some of the greatest achievements in art, architecture, and engineering in the history of mankind. By the end of the 13th century, the political situation in Europe had also stabilized so that conditions were ripe for a full-fledged cultural flowering; hence the Renaissance. The Renaissance was a fusion of Christian and classical ideas that formed the basis of a new European culture.

14th CENTURY ITALY

By the beginning of the 14th century, there were indications of a major shift in western European art and culture based upon and inspired by the legacy of ancient Rome (and Greece). This period of the 14th–16th centuries came to be called the Renaissance; “rebirth.” It was a rebirth of philosophy, art, architecture, literature, and other cultural indicators of the classical world. Especially in Italy (as the physical legacy of ancient Rome), the classical influence of the Roman Empire had never disap- peared completely. The Gothic style of art and architecture that became so popular in France, England, and northern Europe was never fully embraced in Italy due to the lasting memory of classicism. In honoring that memory of the glory of ancient Rome, Italy became the logical “birthplace” of the Renaissance. In addition to the artistic and cultural implications, the Renaissance became a political tool as well for leaders who wanted to increase their power and authority by associating themselves with the glory of the ancient Roman Empire. No king of the Middle Ages had achieved a level of power com- parable to that of the Roman emperors, though the desire certainly existed. During this time, the land that the modern country of Italy occupies was comprised of various political entities. CHAPTER 1: The Renaissance | 3

The northern and western territories belonged primarily to independent city-states, sometimes at war with one another and at other times united. The pope, based in Rome, controlled most of central-eastern Italy from Rome to Venice. Spain exerted control over Sicily and parts of southern Italy. The most important cities of this time were Rome (seat of the pope and administrative center of the Christian church in the West), Venice (Europe’s contact for maritime trade with the East), and Florence (wool and other textile trade with northern Europe and extension of trade from Venice).

FLORENCE: THE “BIRTHPLACE” OF THE RENAISSANCE, C. 1400

Founded in the first century BCE as a colony for Roman sol- diers, the city of Florence (Firenze), Italy grew in influence during the Middle Ages. It was situated in the hills of Tuscany (home of the ancient Etruscans) in the geographical center of the Italian peninsula along the Arno River. Though small, it was fiercely independent. By the 12th century, it was the capital of Tuscany, eventually coming to dominate commercial and banking businesses in Italy. The Florentines began minting “florin” in the 13th century, which became the first widely rec- ognized currency of Europe since the fall of the Roman Empire. By the turn of the 15th century, Florence was an independent city-state of about 100,000 inhabitants. Due to its geographic location as well as other factors, it would become the center of the Renaissance movement. Florence as an Intellectual Center. The University of Florence became a center for academic research and the study of classical Greek and Roman texts. As interest in the history of the classical world grew, scholars from across Europe came to Florence, thereby establishing the city as an intellectual center. The high value placed on education prompted an interest in 4 | AN ABBREVIATED ART HISTORY

FIGURE 1.1 Map of 15th C. Italy. CHAPTER 1: The Renaissance | 5

making education available to more of the population, which in turn resulted in a better educated citizenry that could appreciate and support developments of the Renaissance. Florence as a Financial Center. Due to its geographic location, Florence was a center of trade in Western Europe. The wealth of the city grew rapidly and gave rise to the establish- ment of the city as a financial center for FIGURE 1.2 Photo of Florence. Europe. The Medici family of Florence dominated the banking business in Italy for many years. They and other wealthy families took an interest in the art of the Renaissance and provided financial support by establishing studios where master artists could train apprentices while creating works of art for religious, public, and private buildings. These families also promoted philanthropy as an expected duty of wealthy citizens. Their financial support made the creation of the most significant works of Renaissance art and architecture possible. A wealthy merchant class, civic groups, and craft guilds were also pa- trons of art and architecture. In addition to religious works, a diverse patronage during the Renaissance allowed for art and architecture to be produced for secular (non-religious) purposes, thereby introducing new subject matter and many new possibilities for work. Florence as an Artistic Center. Artists were drawn to Florence to study and train with those who were leading the way in a new style of expression. Due to the growth of the city as well as the concentration of wealth, there was a pressing need for painters, sculptors, and architects. The education of an artist now included some study of classical texts and history as well, thereby ele- vating the status and value of an artistic education. Artists were expected to be FIGURE 1.3 Arno River and Ponte Vecchio. 6 | AN ABBREVIATED ART HISTORY

very familiar with all aspects of the Christian faith in order to be able to create work for churches, monasteries, schools, and other religious buildings. Most artists were still trained by serv- ing as apprentices to master artists. Once the apprentice had learned all he could from the master, he opened his own “shop” and began engaging patrons on his own. Often, the studios in which apprentices trained consisted of painters, sculptors, and architects. This resulted in a broader exposure to all of these art forms and led to the expectation that an artist would be, at least, proficient in each of these forms of artistic expression.

THE AGE OF HUMANISM

The Renaissance is also referred to as The Age of Humanism, as it embodied the following ideas: • “Man is the measure of all things”: A philosophical outlook descended from the ancient Greeks that emphasized the intrinsic value, dignity, and rationality of human beings, and their ability to judge beauty and righteousness. • Revision of the medieval understanding of humankind as completely powerless compared to the omnipotent Christian God by embracing the full potential of human intellect and physical ability. • The re-emergence of classical Greek and Roman ideas that emphasized the power of mankind in affecting one’s own life helped to reinforce a new optimism in the ability of individuals and society to create positive change.

All three of these ideas acknowledge the significance of mankind in the world. Humanists sought to reconcile reli- gion (Christianity) with human intellect and natural beauty. There emerged a new belief that everything was possible for humankind when working together with God. Humanism rekindled the desire for excellence in human achievement. Major libraries of Greek and Roman texts were assembled. The study of Roman ruins became very popular for artists, CHAPTER 1: The Renaissance | 7

architects, and philosophers. The study of human form and proportion as linked with nature and as central to the under- standing of ideal beauty and harmony in design inspired all artists of the Renaissance. The Age of Humanism gave rise to a new sense of human potential and self-confidence fueled by the legacy of the ancient world. Artists began signing their works—seeking fame for them- selves and distinguishing their personal styles of expression. As the general population became more educated, literacy improved, allowing for a greater level of sophistication. The renewed interest in the texts of ancient Greece and Rome was different than that which had occurred in the late Middle Ages. Scholars desired (dared) to re-examine the writings without a religious (Gothic) interpretation. The rise of Humanism also extended the High Gothic interest in nature and natural sci- ence. It sought to further explore the connection of humanity to the rest of the natural world.

VITRUVIAN MAN, LEONARDO DA VINCI, 1503. INK ON PAPER.

Renaissance theory is based on a fusion of classi- cal and Christian ideas, symbols, and beliefs. The Renaissance sought to reconcile the perceived con- flicts between ancient Greek philosophy that “man is the measure of all things” and the Christian idea of an all-powerful God. One very powerful graphic repre- sentation of reconciliation is the drawing Vitruvian Man of 1503 by Leonardo da Vinci. This drawing illustrates the design principles used by Renaissance artists and architects. It was named in honor of Marcus Vitruvius, the ancient Roman author, architect, and theorist who had writ- ten the Ten Books of Architecture, first century CE, in which he described the origin of ancient design principles being based on the human body. Da Vinci shows the human form accurately proportioned and FIGURE 1.4 Leonardo da Vinci, Vitruvian Man, idealized in its perfection. With outstretched arms 1503. 8 | AN ABBREVIATED ART HISTORY

and legs, the proportions of the human body suggest the forms of a circle and a square, considered to be ideal forms from the classical traditions. Furthermore, since man was created in God’s image, according to the Old Testament book of Genesis, the physical form of man is perfect in its design and proportions. All proportions derived from the human body are therefore perfect, and there exists a harmony of parts to whole. According to the predominant Christian philosophy of the Renaissance period, mankind is placed at the center of the earthy world, but God is the center of the larger, divine, and infinite sphere of all and eternal existence. God is the ultimate creator, power, authority, and being. It followed that in order to live one’s best life, one should strive to develop all God-given talents, physical abilities, and intellect to their maximum and apply them to the betterment of one’s own life and that of the community at large.

BERNARDO ROSSELLINO (1409–1464)

Bernardo Rossellino, an influential early Italian Renaissance architect and sculptor, was trained in Florence where he established his artistic reputation. Belonging to the group of artists and architects who embraced the return of classicism, Rossellino’s contributions were significant. Early Renaissance art exhibits careful attention to proportion, realism, human expression, and clarity in order to best communicate with the viewer. Rossellino excelled in portraying these characteristics. He established a new style of tomb monument that would serve as the model for such monuments during the Renaissance era. A blend of the finest principles from Renaissance architecture and sculpture, the Tomb of Leonardo Bruni exemplifies the spirit of the Renaissance. CHAPTER 1: The Renaissance | 9

TOMB OF LEONARDO BRUNI, 1444. MARBLE; CHURCH OF SANTA CROCE, FLORENCE.

Leonardo Bruni was an important resident of Florence. He served the city as chancellor, secretary to the church, and historian. He published two books in which he praised the city’s government and its citizenry as a center of liberty and justice to which other cities should aspire. Upon Bruni’s death, he was granted a place of burial in the Church of Santa Croce, an honor reserved only for the most respected laypersons. The city commissioned the sculptor Bernardo Rossellino to create a monumental wall tomb of the finest marble. The design became a prototype for Renaissance tombs of this type, influencing such artists as Michelangelo, Donatello, and others. The tomb shows Bruni lying in effigy holding a book as a symbol of his work as a writer. There are many symbols of both classical and Christian traditions ev- ident in this work of sculpture, thereby making it an excellent example of the Renaissance tradition. The figure is sculpted in the classical tradition: accurate in proportion, realistic in pose, and dressed in classical draped garments. The white marble references classical tradition, as does the use of classically proportioned architectural elements such as the Corinthian pilasters and arch. The image of Virgin and Child placed in the lunette reference the role of the Virgin Mary as inter- cessor for humanity, an idea that became especially popular during the late Middle Ages. This work celebrates the life of an individual who used his talents and intellect for the betterment of his city, an example of the Renaissance idea of a “Humanist.” The Marzocco (lion symbol of Florence) at the very top of the tomb was reserved for only the most honored citizens. The contributions made by Leonardo Bruni during his lifetime combined with the honorary burial he was given served as inspiration to many Florentines. FIGURE 1.5 Bernardo Rossellino, Tomb of Leonardo Bruni, 1444. Church of Santa Croce, Florence. 10 | AN ABBREVIATED ART HISTORY

THE COMPETITION FOR THE FLORENCE BAPTISTERY DOORS, 1401–02.

LORENZO GHIBERTI, SACRIFICE OF ISAAC, GILDED BRONZE PANEL.

FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI, SACRIFICE OF ISAAC, GILDED BRONZE PANEL.

In 1401, a competition was held for the design of new doors for the baptistery of the Cathedral of Santa Marie dei Fiore in Florence. The contestants were asked to submit bronze panels depicting “The Sacrifice of Isaac” from the Old Testament, Genesis 22. Lorenzo Ghiberti emerged as the winner and was granted the commission for the pair of bronze doors. Because the Sacrament of Baptism is the first sacrament that Christians receive, the doors were named the “Gates of Paradise.” This competition attracted much attention in the city of Florence, and those who participated were selected because they had already demonstrated great talent as metalsmiths. Among the contestants was Filippo Brunelleschi, whose entry rivaled Ghiberti’s. Both men were masters of their craft and also captured the Renaissance spirit in their submissions for the com- petition. Lorenzo Ghiberti’s entry was deemed more graceful

FIGURE 1.6 Lorenzo Ghiberti, FIGURE 1.7 Filippo Brunelleschi, Sacrifice of Isaac, 1401. Sacrifice of Isaac, 1401. CHAPTER 1: The Renaissance | 11

in style and more restrained compared to Brunelleschi’s, which appears more energized and dramatic. Both exhibit classical characteristics in the idealized figures, use of drapery, accurate proportion, and sense of depth in the scene. Both entries com- municate the drama of the event and emotions of the figures. This attempt to create a realistic portrayal is a characteristic of Renaissance art that distinguishes it from the Gothic and Byzantine styles that came before. The artists of the Renaissance sought to create images that would “come to life” in an effort to assert the power of art to communicate with the viewer.

FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI (1377–1446)

DOME OF THE CATHEDRAL OF SANTA MARIA DEI FIORE, “IL DUOMO,” 1410–1436. FLORENCE.

Filippo Brunelleschi was trained first as a metalsmith, follow- ing in the tradition of his family. He was greatly respected for his abilities and achieved success in Florence. However, when he lost the prestigious competition to design the bronze doors for the new baptistery of the cathedral to his chief rival Lorenzo Ghiberti, he left Florence disheartened and traveled to Rome to contemplate his future. While there, he studied and sketched ancient Roman buildings and became interested in architecture. He returned to Florence with an idea for the design of a dome for the newly expanded cathedral, a problem that had plagued the city for many years. He was inspired by the design of the ancient Roman Pantheon and applied similar principles of construction. By the time the dome was successfully completed in 1436, Brunelleschi had become a hero who helped to establish the Renaissance style of architecture. Although his design for the dome was not really Renaissance, but rather based on medieval systems of construction, he applied his intellect and imagination to solve a difficult problem. Hence he demon- strated a spirit of Humanism for the betterment of his city. 12 | AN ABBREVIATED ART HISTORY

FIGURE 1.8A Santa Maria dei Fiore. FIGURE 1.8B Dome of Santa Maria dei Fiore, 1410-1436.

Brunelleschi went on to design many of the most important early Renaissance buildings in Florence.

HOSPITAL OF THE INNOCENTS (FOUNDLING HOSPITAL), 1419, FLORENCE. CONSIDERED TO BE THE FIRST RENAISSANCE BUILDING

This orphanage was Brunelleschi’s first commission for a new building. It was financed by the Medici family and the Silk Guild of Florence and staffed by nuns, thereby making it a collabora- tive project between the private, public, and religious sectors, the first of its kind. While in Rome, Brunelleschi studied and sketched the buildings and ruins from the time of the Roman Empire. He was drawn to the simplicity and clarity of the architectural forms, the way that structural elements were visible and pronounced. The architecture of the late Middle Ages of- ten obscured the structure in favor of surface decoration. Brunelleschi sought to reintroduce those qualities of classical architecture that allowed the viewer to appreciate the struc- ture and elegance of Renaissance characteristics. The use of the circle and square in the design, use of classical systems CHAPTER 1: The Renaissance | 13

FIGURE 1.9A Hospital of the Innocents loggia. FIGURE 1.9B Hospital of the Innocents detail of Della Robbia figures on facade. of proportion, and the lack of excessive ornamentation or decoration all allow for a clear understanding of the archi- tecture. The swaddled children carved in relief, by sculptor Andrea della Robbia, provide the only ornament aside from the architectural features such as columns, moldings, and pediments. The figures serve as ornament to the building but also as an indication of the building’s function: a place for the care of children. Brunelleschi used a system of proportions that was based on the ideas of classical Greek and Roman architecture. There is a harmony of parts to whole, such that each dimension corresponds to all other dimensions. Brunelleschi brought more attention to the geometry by using a darker stone on the arches and columns in contrast to the light plaster surface of the walls.

LINEAR PERSPECTIVE

Filippo Brunelleschi is credited with the invention of linear perspective drawing, a method of graphically portraying three-dimensional space on a two-dimensional surface. It would become a critical tool for artists and architects in the design and execution of their works. Prior to Brunelleschi’s 14 | AN ABBREVIATED ART HISTORY

development of a method for accurately portraying a three- dimensional view, artists could only approximate perspective visually. Brunelleschi conceived the idea of a “picture plane,” which established a reference point from which to project lines (orthogonal) into space that create a grid for the scene to be constructed within. As the lines recede, they merge to a “vanishing point,” thereby mimicking the way in which the human eye perceives depth. Once the three-dimensional grid is created, objects can be located within it at the correct position relative to the viewer and to other objects. The size of the objects can also be determined by use of the grid.

PIERO DELLA FRANCESCA (c. 1420–1492)

Piero della Francesca mastered the technique of perspective drawing and employed it very skillfully in his paintings. By including architectural frameworks that contain the human figures in his scenes, he emphasized the power of constructed perspective to effectively represent three-dimensional spaces. Piero della Francesca was born in Sansepolcro, in the Republic of Florence. Not much is known about his life, though his agile use of perspective in his paintings became recognized as a significant contribution to the Italian Renaissance. The son of a craftsman, he was afforded the benefit of a good education and was likely apprenticed to a master artist at a young age. He went to Florence in 1439 to assist with a commission, and there would have been exposed to the work of many early Renaissance masters.

THE FLAGELLATION, 1460. TEMPERA ON PANEL; 22 7/8 × 32 IN. DUCAL PALACE, URBINO.

The Flagellation illustrates the interrogation and subsequent whipping of Jesus Christ when he was arrested and brought before Pontius Pilate, the Roman ruler who would condemn CHAPTER 1: The Renaissance | 15

him to death. The artist uses classical architecture to frame the scene, in accordance with Renaissance tradition. Within the composition, the viewer is able to identify figures in the background (an interior space where the main action is taking place) and in the foreground (an exterior space). The floor tiles and ceiling coffers further aid the viewer in understanding the construction of the perspective while adding the interest of color and pattern. Many artists and architects of the Renaissance became fascinated with the use of linear perspective and explored its potential for representing real spaces as well as for inventing space. It became an invaluable tool for artists from that time FIGURE 1.10 Piero della Francesca, The Flagellation, 1460. onward and is still in use today.

MASACCIO (1401-1428)

One of the most influential of the early Renaissance artists, Tommaso di Giovanni di Simone Cassai, known as Masaccio remains a mystery in many ways. He was born in the province of Arezzo to a middle-class family with no apparent artistic lineage. Essentially nothing is known of his early training as an artist, including the sources of his influence. However, by the time he was twenty-one, he had been admitted to a guild of artists in Florence. Masaccio died prematurely at the age of twenty-seven, but he had already achieved status among his peers as the most powerful and innovative painter of his generation. Known for his disheveled appearance, Masaccio devoted himself completely to his work and created some of the most powerful images of the Renaissance period, thus earning the respect of patrons and fellow artists. 16 | AN ABBREVIATED ART HISTORY

THE HOLY TRINITY, 1425, FRESCO. CHURCH OF SANTA MARIA NOVELLA, FLORENCE.

This fresco depicts the Holy Trinity: God the Father, God the Son/Jesus, and God the Holy Spirit, as well as the Virgin Mary, St. John, the patrons who commissioned the work, and a rath- er ominous skeleton. The figures are arranged in an interior space defined by classical architectural elements that serve to divide the space into separate zones. Everything about this picture was carefully thought out and planned by the artist to create an opportunity for deep prayer and contemplation by the viewer. It is a work to be experienced, not merely looked at. The artist used color, perspective, architectural elements, scale, and viewpoint to represent the hierarchy of the figures in terms of their divinity, relation to each other, relation to the viewer, and the overall message of Christianity in the culture of the Renaissance. A common tool used by artists in composing a scene is the repetitive use of color distributed throughout the picture plane. Masaccio employs this method very clearly using red and blue, colors associated with divinity and mortality. The pyramidal organization of the figures, the symmetrical relationships between them and their relative distance from the viewer have great significance as well. As mortal humans, we are meant to “relate” to the two figures outside the archway, which represent our present state, and to the skeleton below, which represents the inevitable future. However, this type of reference, called a “memento mori,” which was common in Christian art from the Middle Ages, is not meant solely to instill fear, but rather as a reminder of the Christian promise of eternal life after death. FIGURE 1.11 Masaccio, The Holy Trinity, 1425. CHAPTER 1: The Renaissance | 17

THE EXPULSION FROM EDEN, 1420-1429, FRESCO. BRANCACCI CHAPEL, SANTA MARIA DEL CARMINE, FLORENCE.

This fresco, part of a larger fresco cycle that Masaccio com- pleted for the Brancacci Chapel, is remarkable for several rea- sons. Certainly as an example of Renaissance realism, Masaccio captured the emotion of the scene. However, it was also the first image of full-scale nude figures to be publicly displayed since the time of ancient Rome. Masaccio and other artists of the Renaissance strived to express biblical and historical events as accurately as possible; hence the nudity of Adam and Eve was correct. However, many members of the clergy objected to any nudity whatsoever, deeming it inappropriate for a sacred place of worship. Shortly after it was completed, the bishop demanded that the figures be “covered” for mod- esty’s sake. The fresco has since been restored to its original appearance. The Expulsion from Eden shows the moment in time when Adam and Eve are banished from the Garden of Eden for disobeying God. The despair and shame are clearly depicted in the faces and bodies of the figures. Dark beams of light follow the pair as they are forced out by the angel Gabriel. Masaccio demonstrates the technique of chiaroscuro (sharp contrasts of light and dark shading). The angel holds a sword and points his finger accusingly as Adam and Eve pass through the Gates of Eden, never to return. The careful and detailed rendering of the nudes is especially effective here due to the shame and sorrow of their nakedness. The bodies in their exposed state convey the helpless and hopeless state of mind; left completely vulnerable in an unknown world; afraid, remorseful, and desperate, and without a choice but to comply with an inevitable fate.

FIGURE 1.12 Masaccio, The Expulsion from Eden, 1420s.