perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id
CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL REVIEW
A. Sociolingusitics
According to Hymes (1975), sociolinguistics could be taken to refer to the
use of linguistic data and analysis in other disciplines dealing with social life, and
conversely, to the use of social data and analysis in linguistics. He also states that
sociolinguistics could also be taken to refer to correlation between language and
societies and between particular linguistic and social phenomena. Then,
sociolinguistics merits our attention just insofar as it signals an effort to change the
practice of linguistics and other disciplines because their present practice perpetuates
a fragmented, incomplete understanding of humanity. Sociolinguistics, so conceived,
is an attempt to rethink received categories and assumptions as to the bases of
linguistic work, and as to place of language in human life.
Another definition also stated by Downes (1984: 15), “sociolinguistics is that
branch of linguistics which studies just those properties of language and languages
that require reference to social, including contextual, factors in explanation”.
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In another point, Wardaugh (1986) states that sociolinguistics is the study of
the relationship between the language and society with certain people use an
appropriate language in order to carry out their daily activities.
B. Ethnography of Communication
Ethnography of communication is another approach to discourse that not
purely linguistics. This approach is based on both anthropology and linguistics
(Khader, n.d.). This approach related to both anthropology and linguistics because
these two fields share an interest in ―communication‖. According to Schiffrin (as
quoted in Khader, n.d.) explains that the main function of human language is
communication, since linguistics is the science study of language, it goes that the
study of communication is one of the major goals of linguistics. On the other hand,
the understanding of communication is important for anthropologists because the
way they communicate is part of cultural repertoire for making sense of-and
interacting with- the world. Khader (n.d) also adds that ethnography focuses on a
wide range of communicative behaviors. It seeks to discover the variety of forms and
functions which are available for communication, to establish the way such forms
and functions are part of different ways of life and to analyze patterns of
communication as part of cultural knowledge and behavior. In the same notion,
Bauman and Sherzer (1975) call ethnography of communication as ethnography of
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speaking. They state that it is part of linguistics anthropology, arising out of the
traditional anthropological concern with the interrelationship among language,
culture and society. The ethnography of speaking centers its attention upon an
entirely new order of information, bridging the gap between what is conventionally
found in grammars on the one hand and ethnographies on the other. Its subject matter
is speaking, the use language in the conduct of social life (Bauman & Sherzer, 1975:
95). Ethnography of communication is the approach of sociolinguistics in which the
use of language in general is related to social and cultural values. It concerns with
the situations and uses, the patterns and functions, of speaking as an activity in its
own right. It is also stated that ethnography of communication is the study of the
organization of speaking as an activity in human society, the central concept is the
speech community (http://www.gumonounib.files.wordpress.com/2010/06/the-
ethnography-of-communication-an-introduction-third-edition-by-muriel-saville-
troike.pdf.).
B.1 Speech Community
Hymes and Gumperz (1972: 53) describe speech as a surrogate for all forms
of language, including writing, song, speech-derived whistling, drumming, horn
calling, and the like. Speech community is a necessary, primary term in that it
postulates the basis of description as a social rather than a linguistics entity. One
starts with a social group and considers all the linguistics varieties present in it rather
than starting with any one variety.
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Bloomfield (as quoted in Hymes & Gumperz, 1972: 54) defines speech
community as a community sharing rules for the conduct and interpretation of
speech and rules for the interpretation of at least one linguistics variety. He also
states that those who speaking the same language (or same first language or standard
language) are defined as members of the same speech community. Khader (n.d.)
states that the notion of speech community has always been a central one in
linguistics investigation. Lyons in 1970 (as quoted in Khader, n.d.) describes speech
community as all the people who use a given language or dialect. Thus Crystal in
1992 (as quoted in Khader, n.d.) explains that speech community is a regionally or
socially definable human group, identified by the use of shared spoken language or
language variety. Labov in 1972 (as quoted in Khader, n.d.) also states that speech
community can not be conceived as a group of speakers who use all the same forms;
it is best defined as a group of speakers who share the same norms in regard with
language.
B,2 Speech Situation
Speech situation is situation associated with or marked by the absecnce of
speech. Such contexts of situation will often be naturally described as ceremonies,
fights, hunts, meals, lovemaking and the like (Hymes & Gumperz, 1972: 56). They
also state that in a sociolinguistics description, it is necessary to deal with activities
which are bounded or integral. From the standpoint of general social description,
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they may be registered as ceremonies, fishing trips and the like but from particular
stand point they may be regarded as political, esthetic, etc., activity. From the
sociolinguistics standpoint, they may be regarded as speech situation. Speech
situation is not purely communicative; it may be composed of both communicative
and other kinds of events. It is not subject to rules of speaking but can be referred to
by rules of speaking as contexts
(http://www.gumonounib.files.wordpress.com/2010/06/the-ethnography-of
communication-an-introduction-third-edition-by-muriel-saville-troike.pdf.).
B.3 Speech Event
According to Hymes and Gumperz (1972: 56), speech event is aspect of
activities which is directly governed by rules or norms for the use of speech. A
speech event takes place within a speech situation and consists of one or more
speech acts. For example, a joke might be a speech act that is part of conversation
(speech event) which takes place at a party (speech situation). It is also possible for a
speech act to be the entire speech event which might be the only event in a speech
situation (http://www.gumonounib.files.wordpress.com/2010/06/the-ethnography-of-
communication-an-introduction-third-edition-by-muriel-saville-troike.pdf.). In
another point, Khader (n.d.) also states that speech event is a basic unit of
conversation which can be bound by change of scene, or by the exits or entrances of
characters, or by the shift in topic, change of concern or focus. He adds that speech
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event can be defined by a unified set of components throughout same purpose of
communication, same topic, same participants and same language variety. Another
definition from Bauman and Sherzer (1975) find that speech event is the central to
ethnography of communication as empirical contexts within which speech activity is
situated and acquires meaning.
B.4 Speech Act
Speech act is the minimal term of the set of speech situation and speech
event. It indicates remarks in speech event. It represents a level distinct from the
sentence and not identifiable with any single portion of other levels of grammar. The
level of speech act mediates immediately between the usual levels of grammar and
the rest of a speech event or situation in that it implicates both linguistics forms and
social norms (Hymes & Gumperz, 1972: 57)
B.5 Components of Speech
Hymes and Gumperz analyze components of speech as various components
which include in a comprehensive ethnographic description of the act of speaking. It
is a descriptive theory which requires some schema of the components of speech acts
(1972: 58).
At first, there are sixteen or seventeen components that should be
distinguished. No rule has been found that requires specification of all
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simultaneously. But ther are always redundancies. According to Miller in 1956 (as
quoted by Hymes & Gumperz, 1972: 59) psycholinguistic work has indicated that
human memory works best with classifications of the magnitude of seven, plus or
minus two. To make the set of components mnemonically convenient at least in
English, Hymes uses the letters of the term SPEAKING. The components can be
grouped together in relation to the eight letters without great difficulty. Clearly, the
use of SPEAKING as a mnemonic code word has nothing to do with the form of an
eventual model and theory and here they are (Hymes & Gumperz, 1972: 59):
1. Message form. The form of the message is fundamental. The most
common, and most serious, defect in most reports of speaking probably is that the
message form and the rules governing it cannot be recaptured. It can be concluded
that message form is the form of the message content (how something is said)
whether in sequence dialogue, song, order of speech or even in rhythmical beats of
music.
2. Message content. One context for distinguishing message form from
message content would be: "He prayed, saying '. . .' " (quoting message form) vs.
"He prayed that he would get well" (reporting content only).
Content can be analyzed as a question of topic, and of change of topic.
Members of a group know what is being talked about and when what is talked about
has changed, and manage maintenance and change. These abilities are parts of their
communicative competence of particular importance to study of the coherence of
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discourse. It can be concluded that message content is the full content of message
which structurally in order or sequence, it contains what is being talked about and
what message is being delivered.
Message form and message content are central to the speech act and the focus
of its "syntactic structure‖. Thus they can be dubbed jointly as components of "act
sequence" mnemonically. A). For example, the story’s plot and development will
have a sequence structured by story teller. Possibly there will be a collaborative
interruption during the telling. Finally, the group may applaud the tale and move
onto another subject or activity.
3. Setting Setting refers to the time and place of a speech act and, in general,
to the physical circumstances. Setting or locate that consist of time and place is
concrete substance (Khader, n.d.). For example, in the early morning at the garden
can be a setting for family activity.
4. Scene. Scene refers to the "psychological setting," or the cultural definition
of an occasion as a certain type of scene. Scene is the condition covering the
dialogue. It can be dramatic, informal, serious, festive, etc. Scene is categorized as
abstract substance. It is a recurring institution and a type of social occasion (Khader,
n.d.). Hymes and Gumperz give an example within a play on the same stage with the
same stage set the dramatic time may shift: "ten years later." In daily life the same
persons in the same setting may redefine their interaction as a changed type of scene,
say, from formal to informal, serious to festive, or the like. Speech acts frequently
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are used to define scenes, and also frequently judged as appropriate or inappropriate
in relation to scenes. Settings and scenes themselves, of course, may be judged as
appropriate and inappropriate, happy or unhappy, in relation to each other, from the
level of complaint about the weather to that of dramatic irony (1972: 60). For
example, the story told by father means a lot to his son. It implicates serious
conversation.
Setting and scene may be linked as components of situation (mnemonically,
5. Speaker or sender
6. Addressor
7. Hearer, or receiver, or audience
8. Addresse
These four components are discussed in introducing the subject of
components of speech. The various components may be grouped together as
participants (mnemonically. P). Participant is whom the act is addressed to and who
it is uttered by. In various situations, participant are allocated communication roles
by the culture (Khader, n.d.). For example, at the family gathering, father tells a story
to the young female relatives, but male, although not addressed, may also hear the
narrative.
9. Purposes—outcomes. It is the purpose of the event from a cultural point of
view. For example, in the bargaining events, the overall outcome is to be the orderly
exchange of something of value from one person to the other
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(http://www.gumonounib.files.wordpress.com/2010/06/the-ethnography-of-
communication-an-introduction-third-edition-by-muriel-saville-troike.pdf.).
10. Purposes—goals. It is the purpose of individual participant. The
strategies of participants are an essential determinant of the form of speech events,
indeed, to their being performed at all. For example, in the bargaining events, the
goal of the seller is to maximize the price while the buyer is to minimize it
(http://www.gumonounib.files.wordpress.com/2010/06/the-ethnography-of-
communication-an-introduction-third-edition-by-muriel-saville-troike.pdf.).
With respect both to outcomes and goals, they must be distinguished from the
purely situational or personal. The interactions of a particular speech event may
determine its particular quality and whether or not the expected outcome is reached.
The actual motives, or some portion of them, of participants may be quite varied.
Communication itself must be differentiated from interaction as a whole in terms of
purposiveness. The two aspects of purpose can be grouped together by exploiting an
English homonymy, ends in view (goals) and ends as outcomes (mnemonically, E)
(Hymes & Gumperz, 1972: 62).
11. Key. Key is introduced to provide for the tone, manner, or spirit in which
an act is done. Acts otherwise the same as regards setting, participants, message
form, and the like may differ in key, as, e.g., between mock; serious or perfunctory:
painstaking (Hymes & Gumperz, 1972: 62). It can be concluded that key is the way
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something is being uttered. It is participant’s way of thinking and behaving towards
situation. (Mnemonocally, K)
12. Channels. It is the way a message travels from one person to another. By
choice of channel is understood choice of oral, written, telegraphic, semaphore, or
other medium of transmission of speech. With regard to channels, one must further
distinguish modes of use. The oral channel, e.g., may be used to sing, hum, whistle,
or chant features of speech as well as to sneak them (Hymes & Gumperz, 1972: 63).
It can be concluded that channel is the way how message travels from one person to
another.
13. Forms of speech. It means the languages and their subdivisions, dialects,
codes, varieties and registers we use to deliver messages.
Channels and forms of speech can be joined together as means or agencies of
speaking as instrumentalities (mnemonically, I).
14. Norms of interaction. All rules governing speaking, of course, have a
normative character. It includes the specific behaviors and proprieties that attach to
speaking that one must not interrupt, for example, or that one may freely do so, that
normal voice should not be used except when scheduled in a church service (whisper
otherwise, that turns in speaking are to be allocated in a certain way. Norms of
interaction obviously implicate analysis of social structure, and social relationships
generally, in a community (Hymes & Gumperz, 1972:64).
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15. Norms of interpretation. Norms of interpretation implicate the belief
system of a community. What the society believes and what does not. The example
is from Watson and Craves in 1966 (as quoted in Hymes & Gumperz, 1972: 64), it is
clear that Arabic and American students differ on a series of interactional norms:
Arabs confront each other more directly (face to face) when conversing, sit closer to
each other, are more likely to touch each other, look each other more squarely in the
eye", and converse more loudly. These two kinds of norms may be grouped together
(mnemonically, N).
16. Genres. It is the kind of speech act or event and or the type of text. By
genres are meant categories such as poem, myth, tale, proverb, riddle, curse, prayer,
oration, lecture, commercial, form letter, editorial, etc. The notion of genre implies
the possibility of identifying formal characteristics traditionally recognized. (Mne-
monically, G).
As has been shown above, the sixteen components can be grouped together
under the letters of the code word SPEAKING: settings, participants, ends, act
sequences, keys, instrumentalities, norms, genres.
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C. Slang Word
C.1 Definition of Slang
Kenwood (1969) points out slang as a set of vocabulary used frequently by
general public, it is not considered as falling within the definition of good or formal
usage, neither does it appear very often in the normal dictionary since it is more
spoken rather than written language. He adds that slang enjoys a temporary
popularity and quickly fades from use but through extended use in time and space,
some items become accepted as standard usage and elevated from the extra level to
the primary level. According to Compton’s encyclopedia in 1994 as quoted in
(Suksriroj, 2009) slang is very significant as it is the most common constituent as the
use of wordplay. There are many approaches to create new terms of slang: changing
the definitions of daily used words, halving or shortening some syllables to remain
merely a syllable, making abbreviations and acronyms, combining words in one’s
own way and coining new words. Some slang expressions occur due to technical
terms. Frequently, slang originates in society’s subgroups. It is known as an insider
language (specialized words used in a particular subgroup). This language implies
association and understanding that a group of people share together. However, a
large number of slang has been generalized to public.
In the same notion, Gonzales (1994) describes slang as an area of lexis in a
permanent state of flux consisting of vivid and colorful words and phrases which
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characterize various social and professional groups, especially when these terms are
used for in-group communication. Slang provides and reinforces social identity but it
is also used in society at large to achieve an air of informality and relaxation.
Because of its nature and the multiplicity of its aims, slang is a meeting point for
people working in different fields, lexicologists, sociolinguists, psychologists, and
even for the lay public. Another definition is from Myers (n.d) that slang is a quick
way to express yourself and great way to express ideas, places and things that have
not yet given a word that may completely symbolize something. In another point,
Eble in 1996 (as quoted in Mattielo, n.d.) regards slang as an ever changing set
colloquial words and phrases that speakers use to establish or reinforce social
identity or cohesiveness within a group or with trend or fashion in society at large.
In brief, slang word is highly informal words and expressions that are not
considered standard in the speaker's dialect or language. Slang words and
expressions can spread outside their original arena, and some may even lose their
slang status and become accepted as a standard language. It also becomes a medium
to show identity.
C.2 Origin of Slang
According to Myers (n,d.), 17th century was the time for the beginning of
slang. It was presented in popular plays. The first appearance of the slang was was in
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a play by Richard Brome’s. By the 1700’s slang began to expand. It influenced the
cultural differences in English-speaking population. Almost all the slang words
during this time were anatomical and well known all through Britain and America
due to British colonist. The development of slang also influenced by certain events
happened in 18th century such as, Westward expansion, The Civil War and
abolitionist movement. In the early 1920’s slang gained the interest of popular
writers. It was during the Post World-War 1 era that society gained new attitudes
about slang. There was now a demand for entertainment, mass media and slangy
fiction. He adds that slang in all over the world is used verbally and there are many
variations of the same ideas and thoughts when using slang. He thinks that slang
should be should only be spoken and not written. There is no way to effectively
create a set definition for most slang words because there are at least hundreds
variations of the same word of meaning.
Kenwood (1969) finds that slang originates from the tendency of any large
mass of people to form small, distinctive social groups. These may be groups that
work or play together or others who may be group together for any particular
reasons. In each of these smaller groupings new and unique concepts will be formed
and these will require a response on the part of language, mostly in the form of slang
expressions. These social groupings are substantial enough in some significance and
they are active members of the principal culture in other facets of life, both of these
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factors being necessary for the transmission of a group’s slang formations to the
dominant culture.
There are some essential reasons why people utter slang (Partridge, 1979):
1. In sheer high spirits, by the young in heart and the ones who are young in
age; or just to be doing it for the fun of it.
2. As an exercise either in wit and ingenuity or in humor.
3. To be different, to novel.
4. To be charming (either positively or-as in the wise to avoid insipidity-
negativity).
5. To be unmistakable arresting, even startling.
6. To escape from clichés, or to be brief or concise.
7. To enrich the language.
8. To lead an air of solidity, thickness, to the abstract: of earthiness to the
idealistic; of immediacy and appositeness to the remote.
9. To soften the tragedy, to lighten or to prettify the predictability or death oor
madness, or to mask the ugliness or the pity to profound turpitude and/ or
thus to enable the speaker or the auditor or both to endure, to carry on.
10. To speak or write down to an inferior, or to amuse inferior public; or merely
to be on an informal level with either ones audience or ones subject matter.
11. For ease of social intercourse.
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12. To induce either friendliness or intimacy of a deep and durable kind.
13. To show that ones belong to certain school, trade or profession, artistic or
intellectual set, or social class; in brief, to be in the swim or establish contact.
14. Hence, to show or prove that someone is not in the swim.
15. To be secret-not understood by those around.During the Middle Ages, there
C.3 Types of Slang
Slang has expanded into many areas of lives in this globalization era. Slang
can be found not only in the spoken area but also in written products. Mass of
communication becomes essential part in spreading the slang expression. SMS and
internet are the example of the medium. Here below are the explanations about slang
expressions in written products.
C.3.1 Internet slang
The Internet has created an entire subculture of users, who have developed an
extensive library of slang. The abundance of Internet slang is a prime example of
how the Internet has affected our culture. Voichici (n.d.) describes that some words,
like email, that originally started as slang have become so prevalent that they are
now considered proper words, and with a generation of people growing up with
Internet slang in their everyday vocabulary, it is not difficult to imagine a time soon
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when many of the words currently consider slang are accepted as proper English. It
is hard to show emotion when typing. Sometimes the written words can be taken the
wrong way because the reader cannot hear the ―voice‖. That is where Internet slang
comes into play. Without Internet slang, chatting on the Net would be pretty boring.
Internet is everywhere nowadays, from the modern media to the modern workplace.
Every day, a new word seems to enter the lexicon. One thing that is commonly
confusing to people new to the Internet is the language used by others who are more
experienced in that aspect of communication. She adds that most Internet slang
begins from acronyms used in online messaging. Acronyms are letters that stand for
several words, almost always the initial letters of the words. This makes it pretty
easy to guess what they are, from the context, in most cases. Abbreviations are
probably the most used kind of Internet slang. Here the example abbreviation of
internet slang provided by Voichici (n.d.):
224 – ―today, tomorrow, forever‖
2B – ―to be‖
2L8 – ―too late‖
4 – ―for‖
4ever – ―forever‖
10q – ―thank you‖
10x – ―thanks‖
AFAIK – ―as far as I know"
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ASL – ―age, sex, location‖; used to request general info about a fellow user. It is
used as an introductory phrase, usually when that info is expected up-front.
B4N / BFN – ―bye for now‖
BRB – ―be right back‖
BTW – ―by the way‖
CU – ―see you‖
CYA – ―see ya‖
Gr8 – ―great”
IM – ―instant message‖, can be used as a noun (―Send an IM‖)
IMO – ―in my opinion‖
IMHO – ―in my humble opinion‖, or ―in my honest opinion‖
L8 – ―late‖
L8R / L8ER – ―later‖; as in ―see you later‖, often used together with „CU, as in
„CUL8R. It is commonly used in chat rooms and other text based communications as
a way of saying good bye.
LOL – ―laughing out loud‖
NE1 – ―anyone‖
NP – ―no problem‖
OMG – exclamation, ―oh my God!‖
plz or pls – ―please‖
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u – ―you‖
ur – ―you‟re‖ or ―your‖
W/ or W/O – ―with‖ or ―without‖
Y – ―yes‖, ―why‖ "Emoticons" (smileys) are another popular form of internet slang. Emoticons
are a form of ASCII art in which a short sequence of typed characters are used to
resemble a facial expression and convey an emotion. The most basic emoticon is :),
where the colon represents the eyes and the parenthesis the mouth, forming a rough
approximation of a "happy face." Other examples of emoticons or "smileys" are "sad
face" :( and "shocked" 8-O. A great many variants of emoticons exist, such as 8D,
=), =D, =>), >=D,:p, |=[, >8), >XD, and so forth. (Voichici, n.d.).
C.3.2 SMS slang
Writing SMS (the abbreviation refers to short message service) centres on
slang realization in a form of short messages sent via mobile. Acording to Crystal in
2008 (as quoted in Burdova, 2009) sees texting as just another variety of language,
which has arisen as a result of a particular technology. It takes it place alongside the
other mediums of electronic communication which have resulted from the internet
revolution. As the abbreviation of SMS prompts, the more needs to be written the
shorter language has to be used. Thus, the user usually treats as much letter-saving
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quality as possible. The example of SMS slang is much more similar with internet
slang because it contains mostly acronyms, abbreviations and emoticons
. C.3.3Brooklynism
Collecting Brooklynisms is an ongoing project for Michaelle Pearson and Jim
Lampos (2005). These are slang words or expressions that have originated in, or are
associated with the great and colorful borough of Brooklyn, NY. For no particular
reason. They originally tried to avoid terms that are strictly ethnic, such as
Sicilianisms or Yiddishisms, unless they are generally used among different groups
within Brooklyn but lately they tossed that rule out the window too. They invite all
Brooklyn natives and scholars to contribute words, phrases and corrections.
For example:
Chips: You break it, you bought it. Example: "Hey man, can I borrow your
bike?" "Sure, but chips" (Denis Hamill recalled the use of "chips" in his NY
Daily News column of March 5, 2002: "Chips on the ball," Ivanicich would
call, which meant that if any of us "roofed" his Spaldeen, everyone would
have to chip in to pay for a new ball).
Johnny Pump: Fire hydrant.
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"Not For Nuttin' But.....": A phrase often used before telling someone the
truth. As in, "not for nuttin' but, that guy you hang out with is a real duh-ta-
duh."
Duh-ta-duh: An idiot or oaf.
Skully Cap: A bottle cap filled with melted wax, usually from crayons. Used
in playing skelsie, or skully.
Skelsie/Skully: A children's street game. Also called "skelly", this game is
mentioned in the Notorious B.I.G. masterpiece "Things Done Changed".
Skel: A junkie, street-person, or lowlife. (Two retired NYPD officers wrote
us to say that "skel" was commonly used by cops on the Brooklyn beat in the
early 1960's. The term had entered general usage by the 80's.)
Boss: What your local deli or bodega guy calls you when he doesn't know
your name. It's a term of good will. He might even call you "Big Boss",
which is even better. You don't want to be called "Pal" or "Buddy", since they
usually have sarcastic overtones. If he calls you "Chief", you're really in
trouble.
Weasel Deal: A deal that's not quite on the up and up...like getting that cheap
stereo that "fell off the truck" or getting a "discount" on your cable hookup.
"Why can't you ever buy anything in a store? It's always some weasel deal
with you."
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Stoop: The front stairs of your building, where you sit and gossip about the
neighbors.
Stoop Ball : Street game played by throwing a ball against the stoop and
catching it on the fly or on the bounce. Each ball that hit the step and was
caught was worth 10 points. A "pointer" was a ball that hit the edge of the
step and came back as a hard line drive that could "take your eye out".
Catching a pointer on the fly was worth 100 points. Usually the ending score
was 1000 points, but it could be anything agreed upon.
C.4. Classification of slang within non-standard varieties
C.4.1 Specific vs. general slang
Slang, as a social variety, is associated with a particular group (e.g. student
slang, military slang, drug slang), as a regional variety with an area or district
(American slang, Cockney slang). The nature of slang is characterized by extent
and it is all-encompassing. In consequence, it allows further sub-distinction
between specific and general slang terminology (Burdova, 2009). Specific slang
is language used by members of a particular group to show their respect for that
group and solidarity with other group members. It is also used in order to
underline speakers´ identity, social status, age, education, special interests as well
as their geographical belonging. Therefore, it is mainly spoken by people of
similar age (teenagers: chick ´a girl´, cool ´OK´), similar occupation (military:
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flak ´an aviator´); or by people sharing similar lifestyle (homosexuals, drug
addicts: smack ´heroine´) or the same living conditions (criminals: axe ´a knife´).
In the same notion Mattiello (2005) describes specific slang as language that
speakers use to show their belonging to a group and establish solidarity or
intimacy with the other group members. General slang, according to Mattielo
(2005) is language used by speakers to deliberately break with the standard
language and to change the level of discourse in the direction of informality.
Some words can be both specific and general according to context, e.g. the word
grass is in specific drug slang ´marijuana´ whereas in general slang it stands for
´green vegetables´.
C.4.2 Slang vs. dialect
Like slang, several similar language varieties can be distinguished within
language register depending on their social, regional and temporal factors as well
as their function and purpose of their usage. Therefore, non-standard English
comprises varieties of language such as dialect, colloquial language, vernacular,
etc., (Burdova, 2009. Wolfram and Estes in 1998 (as quoted in Burdova, 2009)
define dialect as a variety of language referring to a given group of speakers. It
may be said that classification of dialect is quite similar to slang classification
and three categories are given, based on Vogel in 2007 (as quoted in Burdova,
2009):
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•Geographical (region in which the dialect is spoken, e.g. Australian,
Southern England, African American).
•Temporal (dialect used at different periods or by members of different age,
sex groups, e.g. Old English, Middle English).
•Social (dialect spoken by members of different social class, e.g. upper
class,middle class).
Dialect is geographically restricted, unlike slang, that may vary from region
to region. Slang does not strictly associate with one place or social group, but its
use and understanding is more general (Mattiello, 2005).
C.4.3 Slang vs. vernacular language
Slang is characterized by common linguistic features as vernacular.
Comparison of their properties shows that both slang and vernacular are
languages realized mainly in a spoken form (Burdova, 2009). Though there are
certain similarities within slang and vernacular, there is still a little difference.
Vernacular indicates indigenous language referring to inhabitants of a certain
locality or region. Mattielo (2005) explains vernacular as the native speech of a
particular country or district frequently includes variation of sounds or
mispronunciation of words which are typical of a limited area, while slang, as a
hybrid language, often cooperates with foreign lexical background as it can be
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given in the example of word smack meaning ´heroine´derived form Yiddish
schmeck.
C.4.4 Slang vs. swearing
Swearing and slang are often confused because they are both informal modes of
language that are considered quite vulgar (Zhou, 2005). According to Andersson and
Trudgill in 1990 (as quoted in Zhou, 2005) swearing always alludes to a cultural
taboo, slang terms do not have this restriction. In another point Hughes in 1998 (as
quoted in Zhou, 2005) defines swear words are usually not to be interpreted literally;
they can be perceived as long-distance metaphors. A swear word is derived from
taking a term that describes something unpleasant and assigning it to something else,
thereby transferring the negative quality of the literal thing over to the other thing,
person or situation, that is the word shit. Swear words can be used to express strong
emotions and attitudes as well as to rouse a variety of emotions, such as the absurd,
the amusing, the shocking, the casual, the violent and the impossible. People often
swear to attract attention; they want to prove that they are cool, tough and assertive.
This is called the covert prestige behind using these words (Zhou,
2005).Unfortunately, swear words can be very rude and offensive, and thus its usage
is frowned upon in many circumstances. On the other hand, swear words have the
qualities of being expressive and all encompassing and are deemed valuable when
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there is not a more appropriate word at one’s disposal to describe something (Zhou,
2005).
D. Movie Review
D.1 2 Broke Girls
Set in the Williamsburg neighborhood of the New York
City borough of Brooklyn, the series chronicles the lives of two waitresses in their
mid twenties—Max (Kat Dennings), who comes from a poor working-class family,
and Caroline (Beth Behrs), who was born rich but is now disgraced and penniless
due to her father, Martin Channing, getting caught operating a Bernard Madoff-
esque Ponzischeme, working together at a Brooklyn restaurant. The two become
friends and build toward their dream of one day opening a cupcake shop. Among
those working with them at the restaurant are their boss, Han Lee (Matthew Moy);
Oleg (Jonathan Kite), an upbeat but perverted Ukrainian cook; and Earl (Garrett
Morris), a 75-year-old African-American cashier. Also featured starting late in the
first season is their neighbor and part time boss Sophie (Jennifer Coolidge), a Polish
immigrant who runs the housecleaning company Sophie's Choice. During most of
the first season Max is also a part-time nanny for the twin babies of Peach Landis
(Brooke Lyons), who during the season adopts Caroline's horse Chestnut. At the end
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of each episode a tally shows how much they have made toward their goal of
$250,000 needed to open their business.
D.2 2 Broke Girls season 1 episode 17: And The Kosher Cupcakes
Caroline panicked, she thinks she got influenza. She tells Max in order to buy
her some antibiotics but Max stays calm and says that everything is going to be
alright. At noon, there is a super sexy Polish lady named Sophie comes to the
restaurant. Every man adores her but she has a meeting with her new date. Oleg, the
pervert chef of the restaurant who fell in love with Sophie for so long is jealous. He
tries to seduce Sophie one more time but it doesn’t succeed.
Caroline feels terrible about her influenza. She asks Max to accompany her to
a clinic, Jewish clinic. Caroline feels comfortable with Jewish people because she
used to be with them, her ex-kindhearted-neighborhood was Jewish. But the doctor
and his wife do not like Caroline, they love Max instead because when doctor’s wife
sees Max, she is like looking in the mirror. Max has physical appearance like
Jewish’s. The short black hair, bit puppy eyes, big boobs unlike Caroline who is
white, skinny and blonde. The doctor’s wife needs someone to make kosher
cupcakes for Bar Mitzvah celebration. Fortunately, Max and Caroline have cupcakes
business but not kosher. Max plans to deceive the Jewish that their cupcakes is a
kosher eventhough Caroline prevent her to do so.
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It is a Bar Mitzvah celebration. Everybody believe that what they eat is
kosher cupcakes. The doctor’s wife introduces her son, Shmuley and her son’s
friend, David. The boys act sweetly at the first. But then they turn to be evil when
their mom’ gone. They mock, insult and humiliate Max and Caroline by uttering
something bad. Not so long, the doctor’s wife comes back to the kitchen. She
introduces her mom (Shmuley’s grandma) to Max only. When the grandma touches
Max, she feels that Max has a fever. Max is treated like a baby girl in a bedroom.
Caroline is so upset and mad because she is the one who actually get sick. Max is
treated so well, then she tells everything that the cupcakes is not kosher. The doctor’s
wife is mad at Max and Caroline because they have lied. Finally Max and Caroline
get back home without taking any money. But Max is so happy because she can feel
the love and care from a two women that she never feels before.
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