Phenology – Species Variability

Crop Growth and Phenology – Species Variability

K. Raja Reddy Mississippi State University Mississippi State, MS Crop Growth and Development and Environment Species Variability

 Effects of multiple environmental factors on crop growth and phenology across many important crop species.  Can we use environmental productivity index concept across the species to quantify the responses and to develop functional relationships? Crop Growth and Development and Environment Major Crops – Global Statistics - 2008 Crop Area, Production, Productivity, Million ha Million Mt. Mt. ha-1 Wheat 224 690 3.0 Maize/Corn 161 823 5.1 Rice 159 685 4.3 Soybeans 97 231 2.4 Barley 57 158 2.8 Sorghum 45 65 1.5 Millets 37 36 0.96 Seedcotton 31 66 2.1 Rapeseed 30 58 1.9 Beans, dry 28 20 0.73 Environmental and Cultural Factors Influencing Crop Phenology

 Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide (indirect)  Solar Radiation (indirect)  Photoperiod (direct on flowering, no effect on modern cotton cultivars)  Temperature (direct)  Water (indirect)  Wind (indirect)  Nutrients (N, P and K) (direct & indirect)  Growth Regulators (PIX) (indirect) Rice – Some Crop Statistics

• Provides the dietary needs of 1.6 billion with another 400 million rely on rice for one-quarter or one-half of their diet. • 2004 stats are: Area = 151 Million ha, production = 606 Million Mt, and average yield = 4.02 t ha-1. • 53% Irrigated flooded-paddy • 27% Rainfed lowland • 12% Rainfed upland • 8% Deep-water Rice Production Statistics

200 200 Year 2004 Area 175 Production 175

150 150

125 125

100 100

75 75

50 50 MMt Rice production, Rice production area, Mha area, Rice production

25 25

0 0 USA India Brazil China Japan Vietnam Thailand Myanmar Indonesia Philippines Bangladesh Rice production area, % 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 Year 2004, Area = 151.3 Mha, = Production 605.8 MMt USA Production Area

Japan Rice Production Statistics

Brazil

Philippines

Myanmar

Thailand

Vietnam

Bangladesh

Indonesia

India

China 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Rice production, % Rice Production Statistics

8 World 2004 average = 3.97 t ha-1 USA, r2 = 0.90, 70 kg yr-1 7 Japan, r2 = 0.51, 32 kg yr-1 China, r2 = 96, 102 kg yr-1 6 -1 5 Indonesia, r2 = 93, 77 kg yr1

2 1 4 World, r = 0.98, 53 kg yr

2 -1 3 India, r = 0.92, 42 kg yr Rice yield, t ha yield, Rice Thailand, r2 = 0.82, 21 kg yr-1 2

0 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Year Phenology – Species Variability – Rice Phenology and Temperature – cv IR 30 12 A) 10 REPRODUCTIVE

8 -1

d leaf VEGETATIVE 4

Phyllochron Interval 2 B) 85

65 Days to 50 % 60

Panicle Appearance 20 25 30 35 40 TEMPERATURE, °C Phenology - Species Variability Temperature - Rice 700

IR 36 600

500

400 Carreon

300

200 Sowing to Panicle Emergence, d Panicle Emergence, Sowing to 100

0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Temperature, C

S.K. Leong and C.K.Ong. 1983. J. Expt. Bot. 34: 1551-1561. Phenology – Species Variability – Rice Phenology and Temperature –Photoperiod Corn or Maize, Zea mays L.

Corn is the 3rd most important food crops globally in terms of energy and protein (FAO, 2004).

Area: 147 Million ha Total production: 721 Million Mt Average yield: 4.93 t ha-1 Corn or Maize, Zea mays L. 350 350 Year 2004, Area = 147 Mha, production = 721 MMt World average = 4.93 t ha-1 Area 300 Production 300

250 250

200 200

150 150

100 100 Maize production, MMt Maize production, Maize production area, area, Mha Maize production 50 50

0 0 USA India Brazil China France Nigeria Mexico Romania Argentina Indonesia South Africa Corn or Maize, Zea mays L.

50 50 Year 2004, Area = 147.02 Mha, Production = 721.4 MMt 45 45 40 40 Area 35 Production 35 30 30 25 25 20 20

15 15 % Corn production, Corn production area, area, % Corn production 10 10 5 5

0 0 USA India Brazil China France Mexico Nigeria Romania Argentina Indonesia South Africa Corn or Maize, Zea mays L.

10 France, r2 = 0.88, 138 kg yr-1 USA, r2 = 0.84, 114 kg yr-1

-1 8

2 -1 6 Argentina, r = 0.87, 99 kg yr China, r2 = 0.96, 100 kg yr-1 World, r2 = 0.95, 62 kg yr-1

Maize yield, t ha t yield, Maize 4

Brazil, r2 = 0.83, 47 kg yr-1

2 India, r2 = 0.79, 24 kg yr-1 Nigeria, r2 = 0.29, 10 kg yr-1

0 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 Year Phenology – Species Variability

Phenology – Leaf Appearance Rates (Phyllochrons); Maize or Corn. • Notice the base temperature which is much different than that of cotton. • The rate of development is also linear across a wide range of temperatures. Phenology – Species Variability

Phenology and Silking to Maturity: Maize or Corn • Notice the base temperature which is much different than that of cotton, but similar to maize leaf appearance rates. • The rate of development is also linear across a wide range of temperatures (10 to 30°C). Corn Growth – UV-B Radiation – Species Variability

1.0

0.8

0.6

UV-B Indices UV-B 0.4 Stem extension leaf area expansion Leaf development 0.2 Biomass

0.0 0 5 10 15 -2 -1 UV-B radiation, kJ m d Phenology – Species Variability Sorghum, Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench

Sorghum is the 4th most important food crops globally in terms of energy and protein (FAO, 2004). 2004 stats are: Area: 43.1 Million ha Total production: 57.8 Million Mt Average yield: 1.3 t ha-1

United States = 2.64 Mha, 4.4 t ha-1, 11 MMt India = 9.4 Mha, 0.8 t ha-1, 7.53 MMt Nigeria = 7.1 Mha, 1.13 t ha-1, 8.03 MMt China = 0.57 Mha, 4.1 t ha-1, 2.34 MMt Mexico = 1.91 Mha, 3.35 t ha-1, 6.4 MMt Sudan = 6.0 Mha, 4.33 t ha-1, 2.6 MMt Sorghum – Cultivar Differences

Phenology – Panicle Initiation. • Notice the base temperature which is almost similar to corn. • The rate of development can be described by a bilinear model. Sorghum – Phenology – Cultivar Differences

Phenology – Leaf development. • Notice the base temperature which is almost similar to corn. • The rate of development can be described by a bilinear models. Also, notice the genotypic variability. Sorghum – Vegetative Growth and Development

A  -1 B 700 mol CO2 mol ) -1 160  30 -1 350 mol CO2 mol 24 120 18 80 12 40 Plant height (cm) Plant 6 Nodes (no. plant

0 0 C D 20 4.0

15 3.0

10 2.0

5 1.0 Stem diameter (cm) Internode length (cm) 0 0.0 32/22 36/26 40/30 44/34 32/22 36/26 40/30 44/34 Air temperature (°C) (daytime maximum/nighttime minimum) Sorghum – Vegetative and Reproductive Growth and Development

 -1 A 700 mol CO2 mol B 80  -1 30 350 mol CO2 mol ) ) -1 -1 60 24 18 40 (g plant 12 (g plant Total dry weight dry Total 20 weightSeed dry 6

0 0 C D 0.4 20 ) -1 0.3 15

0.2 10 Seedsize (mg seed Harvest index 0.1 5

0.0 0 32/22 36/26 40/30 44/34 32/22 36/26 40/30 44/34 Air temperature (°C) (daytime maximum/nighttime minimum) Sorghum – Reproductive Growth and Development

-1 7 00  mol CO mol -1 A 2 A 32/22°C 7 00  mol CO mol 2000  -1 30 2 ) 3 50 mol CO 2 mol -1

-1 3 50  mol CO 2 mol 1500 20

1000 ) (no. anther -1

Pollen production 500 10

0 B 0 100 B 36/26°C 30 75

(%) 20 50 Pollen viability 25 10

0 C 0 100 s (mg weightseed eed Individual C 40/30°C 30 75

(%) 50 20

25 10

In-vitro pollen germination 0 32/22 36/26 40/30 44/34 0 0 10 20 30 40 Air temperature (°C) (daytime max imum/nighttime minimum) Time after tagging (d) Wheat – Some Crop Statistics

• Provides 20% of the energy and 25% of the protein requirements of over 6 billion population. • 2004 stats are: Area = 217 Million ha Production = 633 Million Mt Average yield = 2.84 t ha-1. Wheat production area, Mha 100 20 40 60 80 0 N.a.N.

China Year 2004, Area = 215.8 Mha, Production = 627.1 MMt = 627.1 Production Mha, =215.8 Area 2004, Year

India Wheat

USA

Russian Fed. – Production Trends France

Germany

Canada

Australia

Turkey Production Area Ukraine

Pakistan 0 20 40 60 80 100

Wheat production, MMt Wheat production area, % 10 15 20 0 5 N.a.N. Year 2004 Year

China

India Wheat USA Year 2004, Area = 215.8 Mha, Production = 627.1 MMt =627.1 Production Mha, =215.8 Area 2004, Year Russian Fed.

France – Production Trends Germany

Canada

Australia

Turkey

Ukraine Production Area

Pakistan

Argentina

Kazakhstan 0 5 10 15 20

Wheat production, % Wheat – Production Trends

8 Germany, r2 = 0.94, 111 kg yr-1 France, r2 = 0.93, 114 kg yr-1 -1

2 -1 4 China, r = 0.97, 87 kg yr USA, r2 = 0.81, 26 kg yr-1 Wheat yield, t ha t yield, Wheat World, r2 = 0.97, 42 kg yr-1 India, r2 = 0.97, 50 kg yr-1 2 Australia, r2 = 0.40, 18 kg yr-1

0 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 Year Wheat and Phenology Temperature Effects on Flowering to maturity Soybean Production Statistics

Soybean the most important protein and oilseed crop globally (FAO, 2004).

Area: 91.4 Million ha Total production: 204.4 Million Mt Average yield: 2.23 t ha-1 Soybean production area, Mha 100 20 40 60 80 0 Year 2004, Area = 91.44 Mha, Production = 204.3 MMt

USA Soybean ProductionSoybean Statistics Brazil

Argentina

China

India

Paraguay

Canada

Bolivia Production Area Indonesia

Italy 0 20 40 60 80 100

Soybean production, MMt Soybean production area, % 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 0 5 Year 2004

USA Soybean ProductionSoybean Statistics

Brazil

Argentina

China

India

Paraguay

Canada Production Area Bolivia

Indonesia

Italy 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Soybean production, % Soybean Production Statistics

4 Italy, r2 = 0.81, 47 kg yr-1 -1

3 USA, r2 = 0.81, 26 kg yr-1

Brazil, r2 = 0.95, 36 kg yr-1 World, r2 = 0.95, 26 kg yr-1 2 China, r2 = 0.92, 26 kg yr-1 Soybean yield, t ha t yield, Soybean

2 -1 1 India, r = 0.58, 14 kg yr

0 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 Year Temperature and CO2 Effects on Soybean Developmental Rates

CO2, ppm Temp. °C Plastochron interval, d Final node leaf-1 number, no. plant-1 300 26/19 4.2 10.3 31/24 3.3 11.5 36/29 3.2 12.0 600 26/19 3.9 11.2 31/24 2.7 11.4 36/29 2.6 12.1 Crop Growth and Development - Environment Response to temperature - Soybean biomass and seed yield 40 4-week old cotton Biomassseedlings CO = 700 ppm 35 2 Seed yield 30 25 20 15 10 5 Biomass / seed yield (g/plant) 0 28/18 32/22 36/26 40/30 44/34 48/38 Day/night temperature, °C Temperature and Soybean Developmental Rates

Seed Germination

12 Y = 25.93 - 1.241x + 0.01827x2; r² = 0.93 A Sowing to Flowering 10 AG 5332 Progeny 5333 Temperature, °F 59 68 77 86 95 8 90 0.04 Daily rate, y = -0.0971 + 0.009271x - 0.00001686x2; r2 = 0.88 -1 80 6

Time to germination, d Time to germination, 0.03 70 Rate of development to R1 4 60 2 0.02 Y = -0.1967 + 0.02227x - 0.0003082x ; r² = 93 B 0.25 50 -1

40 0.20 Days to flower or R1 0.01 Sowing to flowering, d to flowering, Sowing 30

0.15 1/d rate, developmental Daily Days to R1, y = 253 - 15.97x + 0.2887x2; r2 = 0.92 20 0.00 0.10 1520253035 Temperature, °C

Rate of germination, 1/d of germination, Rate 0.05

0.00 15 20 25 30 35 40 Temperature, °C Temperature and Soybean Developmental Rates

Sowing to Flowering cv. Johnston 35 Y = for X > 13 h, -82.3 + 7.59x; R2 = 0.71 30

Time from R0 to R1, days R1, to R0 from Time 15

Acock et al. 1994. Biotronics. 23: 93-104 10 12.0 12.5 13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5 15.0 15.5 16.0 Mean daylength, h Temperature and Soybean Developmental Rates Flowering to seed maturity (R1 to R8)

100 Y = 182 - 7.91x + 0.144x2; R2 = 0.84 (A) Y = 139 - 5.25x + 0.093x2; R2 = 0.99

70 AG 5332 PR 5333 Flowering to maturity (R1- R8), d R8), (R1- to maturity Flowering 60 Y = -0.0025 + 0.0012x - 0.000021x2; R2 = 0.84 (B) Y = 0.0005 + 0.0011x - 0.000019x2; R2 = 0.99 -1 0.016

0.014

0.012 Developmental rate, 1/d rate, Developmental

0.010 15 20 25 30 35 Temperature, °C Temperature and Soybean Growth Rates

25 A

10 Plant height, cm AG 5332 5 Progeny 5333

0 B -1 6

2 Mainstem leaves, no. plant

0 15 20 25 30 35 40 Temperature, °C Rangeland grass – Big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii)

• C4 photosynthetic pathway

• Clump forming perennial grass

• Grows 3 to 6 feet tall but occasionally up to 9 feet.

• Lower stems are a purplish or bluish color

• Leaves are 1/2 inch wide and up to 20 inches long.

• Arrangement of the flowers in three dense elongate clusters is the reason for the common name of turkey-foot grass.

• Grows best in moist well drained soil in full sun and is a major component of the tallgrass prairie. Rangeland grass – Big Bluestem, A. girardii Reproductive Response – Panicle initiation

0.016 y = 0.0056 + 0.0002781X; R2 = 0.99 for T = <26°C 360 µL L-1 -1 y = 0.0207 - 0.00030009X; R2 = 0.97 for T = >26°C

-1 700 µL L 0.014

0.012 77 85 88 0.010 96 99 Panicle initiation rate, 1/d Panicle initiation rate,

0.008 15 20 25 30 35 40 Temperature, °C Rangeland grass grass Rangeland Growth and DevelopmentalGrowth and Responses

-1 Leaf addition rate (no. d ) -1 Stem elongation rate (cm d ) 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 y =-2.118+0.396x+-0.009x 760 y =-3.672+0.523x+-0.011x 360 52 53 540 35 30 25 20 15   L L L L -1 -1 – Big Bluestem, Temperature ( y = -0.057+0.013x+-0.001x 720 y =-0.130+0.027x+-0.001x 360 2 2 ; R ; R   L L L L 2 2 =0.92 =0.96 -1 -1 o C) 2 2 ; R ; R 2 2 =0.92 =0.94 [CO T *** [CO [CO T *** [CO 2 2 2 2 ] x T ] * x T ] * ] x T ] * A. girardii NS Rangeland grass grass Rangeland Number (plant-1) 10 15 20 25 30 10 15 20 25 10 12 14 0 5 0 5 0 2 4 6 8 0 1 2 3 4 Growth and DevelopmentalGrowth and Responses Tillers with panicleswith Tillers Panicles Tillers Nodes with paniclesNodeswith 720 360 760 360 52 53 540 35 30 25 20 15 720 mL L 720 mL L 360 760 360     LL LL LL LL   -1 -1 -1 -1 LL LL ; y -5.4296+0.673x-0.014x ; = y -4.331+0.576x-0.011x ; = -1 -1 ; y 12.957-0.871x+0.027x ; = y 30.004-2.425x-0.059x ; = -1 -1 ; y -29.201+2.974x-0.058x ; = y -34.595+3.425x-0.065x ; = ; y -75.556+6.902x-0.129x ; = y -87.732+8.004x-0.149x ; = Temperature, Temperature, °C 2 2 2 2 R ; ; R ; ; R ; ; R ; 2 2 2 2 ; R ; R ; 2 2 2 2 0.96 = = 0.98 = ; R ; R ; = 0.92 = = 0.90 = 2 2 [CO *** T [CO [CO *** T [CO [CO *** T [CO = 0.96 = 0.98 = 2 2 = 0.93 = 0.94 = [CO ** T [CO 2 2 2 2 2 2 ] xT ] * ] xT ] ** ] ] xT ] ] 2 2 ] xT ] ] ** ] NS NS NS NS NS – Big Bluestem,

Dry weight (g plant-1) 10 15 10 15 20 10 15 20 25 0 5 0 1 2 3 0 5 0 5 Stem Root Leaf Panicle 760 360 52 53 540 35 30 25 20 15 760 360   LL LL   -1 -1 LL LL 760 360 760 360 ; y = -7.881-0.677x; R y -7.881-0.677x; ; = R y -3.752-0.427x; ; = -1 -1   Temperature ( Temperature ; y -4.538+0.514-0.009x ; = y -7.227+0.754x-0.014x ; =   LL LL LL LL -1 -1 -1 -1 ; y -3.143+1.452x-0.032x ; = y -26.37+2.886x-0.053x ; = ; y -25.561+3.759x-0.082x ; = R y -22.788+3.158x-0.065x2; ; = 2 2 = 0.87 = 0.97 = o C) A. girardii 2 ; R ; 2 ; R ; 2 = 0.94 = 2 = 0.97 = [CO - T [CO [CO *** T [CO [CO *** T [CO [CO *** T [CO 2 2 ; R ; R ; 2 ; R ; 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 ] xT- ] - ] xT ] ] xT ] ] xT** ] *** ] 2 2 = 0.92 = 0.91 = 2 2 = 0.95 = = 0.91 = NS NS NS NS Rangeland grass – Big Bluestem, A. girardii Seed number and weight response

-1 2 2 360 L L ; y = -378.860+42.571x-0.898x ; R = 0.84 200 -1 2 2 760 L L ; y = -483.020+50.557x-1.052x ; R = 0.98 )

NS -1 [CO2] T *** Total weight response 150 NS [CO2] x T

60 100 NS [CO2]

) T ***

-1 50 NS [CO2] x T

Seeds (no. panicle Seeds 50 40

30 0 15 20 25 30 35 40 20 o -1 2 2 Temperature ( C) 360 L L ; y = -59.272+7.245x-0.134x ; R = 0.95

-1 2 2 760 L L ; y = -21.178+4.796x-0.093x ; R = 0.94 Total biomass (g plant Total biomass 10 0.28

720 µL L-1 0.26 0 360 µL L-1

15 20 25 30 35 40 0.24 o Temperature ( C) 0.22

0.20

0.18

Seed weight, g Seed weight, 0.16

0.14

0.12

0.10 15 20 25 30 35 Temperature, °C Chickpea is a cool-season crop grown substantially in South and West Asia, the Mediterranean region, and South and Central America. Chickpea - Cicer arietinum L.

Production and distribution • Chickpea is a cool season food legume crop grown on >10 million ha in 45 countries of the world. • Chickpea is either the first or the second most important, rainfed, cool season food legume, grown mainly by small farmers in the semi-arid tropics (SAT) and West Asia and North Africa (WANA) regions. • The crop is also grown in southern and eastern Africa (particularly important in Ethiopia), Europe, the Americas and, more recently, Australia. • World production is 7 million tones. • International trade in chickpeas has increased over the years. Phenology - Species Variability Temperature - Sowing to 50% Emergence Chickpea Cultivars Roberts et al., 1980. Expt. Agric.16:343-360. 10

Days to 50% Emergence 2 Chaffa - Early = 10.1 - 0.26*X, R2=0.79 G 130 - Late = 11.3 - 0.30*X, R2=0.87 Rabat - Mid-late = 13.5 - 0.33*x, R2=0.61 0 10 15 20 25 30 35 Average Air emperature, C Phenology - Species Variability Temperature - Sowing to First Flower Chickpea Cultivars Roberts et al., 1980. Expt. Agric.16:343-360. 100

Chafa-Early = 61-1.3*X, r2 =0.44 G 130 - Late = 102-1.9*X, r2 = 0.14 2 80 Rabat - mid-late = 86-1.1*X, r = 0.08

40 Days from Sowing to First Flower

20 10 15 20 25 30 35 Average Air emperature, °C Phenology - Species Variability Temperature - First Flower to Maturity Chickpea Cultivars Roberts et al., 1980. Expt. Agric.16:343-360. 150

Chaffa-Early = 203 - 5.8*X, r2 = 0.69 2 125 G 130 - Late = 167 - 4.7*X, r = 0.77 Rabat - Mid-late = 173-4.8X, r2 = 0.63

100

50 Days from First Flower to Maturity 25 10 15 20 25 30 35 Average Air Temperature, °C Phenology - Species Variability Temperature - Sowing to Maturity Chickpea Cultivars Roberts et al., 1980. Expt. Agric.16:343-360. 200

Chaffa - Early = 264 - 7.1*X, r2 = 0.72 175 G 130 - Late = 270 - 6.6*X, r2 = 0.64 Rabat - mid-late = 261 - 5.9*X, r2 = 0.64 150

125

100

50 Crop Duration (sowing to maturity), d 25 10 15 20 25 30 35 Average Air Temperature, °C Groundnut or Peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.)

Groundnut, an important cash crop, is an annual legume. Its seeds are a rich source of edible oil (43-55%) and protein (25- 28%). About two thirds of world production is crushed for oil and the remaining one third is consumed as food. Its cake is used as feed or for making other food products and haulms provide quality fodder. Groundnut or Peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.)

2 7 1 3

WC 5 SEA Asia A1 Mali 3 Kenya 7 India Mali2 Niger 6 Kenya4 Malawi India Niger3 Nigeria Malawi5 Zimbabwe Semi-arid Nigeria Zimbabwe tropic s

The semi-arid tropics of Asia and Africa (WC = western and central Africa; SEA = southern and eastern Africa (Source: http://www. cgiar.org/icrisat/) Distribution: Groundnut originated in the southern Bolivia/north west Argentina region in south America and is presently cultivated in 108 countries of the world.

Asia with 63.4% area produces 71.7% of world groundnut production followed by Africa with 31.3% area and 18.6% production, and North-Central America with 3.7% area and 7.5% production.

Important groundnut producing countries are China, India, Indonesia, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam in Asia; Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan, Zaire, Chad, Uganda, Cote d'Ivory, Mali, Burkina Faso, Guinea, Mozambique, and Cameroon in Africa; Argentina and Brazil in South America and USA and Mexico in North America. Phenology - Species Variability Temperature - Groundnut (Peanut, cv. Robut 33-1) 0.4 Leaf appearance

0.3

0.2 Branching

0.1 Flowering Rate of Development Rate of Pegging 0.0 Podding

-0.1 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Temperature, C

S.K. Leong and C.K.Ong. 1983. J. Expt. Bot. 34: 1551-1561. Phenology - Species Variability Temperature - Groundnut (Peanut, cv. Robut 33-1)

Event Equation CGDD Tbase

Leaf appearnce = 0.018*T - 0.183, r2 =0.79, 56 10.0 Branching = 0.0097*T - 0.0924, r2 =0.89, 103 9.5 Flowering = 0.00186*T - 0.0201, r2 =0.96, 538 10.8 Pegging = 0.00149*T - 0.0158, r2 =0.90, 669 10.6 Podding = 0.00139*T - 0.0158, r2 =0.98, 720 11.4

S.K. Leong and C.K.Ong. 1983. J. Expt. Bot. 34: 1551-1561. Temperature – Pollen Germination Susceptible ICGV 92116 Moderate ICGV 92118 80 Tolerant 55-437 % Tb Topt Tmax 70

60 40 13.8 26.5 38.5 50 51.5 11.7 30.6 40.7

40 70.3 11.9 31.9 45.2

30 Pollen germination (%) 20

0 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Temperature (C)

Effect of temperature on percentage pollen germination of susceptible

(Topt < mean-LSD), moderately tolerant (Topt = mean) and tolerant (Topt > mean+LSD) genotypes. Symbols are observed values and lines are fitted values. Temperature – Pollen Tube Growth

ICGV 92116 ICGV 92116 55-437 % Tb Topt Tmax 16

14 1280 16.0 36.4 45.5 1080 15.3 30.5 37.7 12 1410 14.5 37.6 45.1 10

0 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Temperature (C) Cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata belong to the family Fabaceae.

Cowpeas were originally native to Asia and are now an important forage and cover crop in the southern United States. The seeds, usually called black-eyed peas or black-eyed beans, are cooked and eaten. Phenology – Species Variability – Cowpea Lines Sowing to Flowering Phenology and Growth - Species Variability Cardinal Temperatures - Major Crops

Sanchez et al. (2014), Global Change Biology, 20:408-417 Phenology and Growth - Species Variability Cardinal Temperatures - Major Crops

Sanchez et al. (2014), Global Change Biology, 20:408-417 Phenology and Growth - Species Variability Temperatures Response Functions - Major Crops

Warm-season Turf Grasses 80 Latitude 36, Y = -70.432 + 6.5202x - 0.0959x2; r² = 0.90 MSB-285, Y = -42.856 + 3.9114x - 0.0347x2; r² = 0.99 Tifway, Y = -57.719 + 5.7073x - 0.00896x2; r² = 0.99 2 -2 60 TifEagle, Y = -67.303 + 6.6061x - 0.1026x ; r² = 0.99 Cool-season Turf Grasses

40 80 Penn A1/A4, Y = 6.508 + 2.8872x - 0.07446x2; r² = 0.87 Penncross, Y = 1.301 + 3.6046x - 0.09145x2; r² = 0.90 Midnight, Y = -26.368 + 6.3349x - 0.1622x2; r² = 0.97 2 -2 Clipping yield, g m yield, Clipping 20 60 Fiesta 4, Y = -29.371 + 8.4339x - 0.2180x ; r² = 0.98 Fiesta 5, Y = -26.967 + 6.9053x - 0.01613x2; r² = 0.73

0 40 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Temperature, °C

Clipping yield, g m yield, Clipping 20

0 10 15 20 25 30 35 Temperature, °C Phenology – Species Variability Horticultural Crops Phenology – Species Variability Phenology – Species Variability – Crops and weeds Species Tmin or Tbase, °C GDD per leaf tip Maize 8 39 Sorghum 8 48 Pearl millet 12 26 Wheat 0 99 Barley 1 75 Rice 5 90 Soybean 7 54 Sunflower 9 29 Cowpeas 16 30 Sugar beet 2 30 Velvet leaf 8 24 Pigweed 10 12 Banana 8 196 Phenology – Species Variability

Phenology and Seed Germination: • The minimum or the base temperature, heat sum (s) or the growing degree days (GDD) from that base temperature for a number of horticultural crops. EPI Concept and Plant Growth and Development

One way to quantify the effects of environmental factors on plant growth and development is to use the EPI concept similar to the one that we used in cotton as model crop. EPI-phenology = Temperature (potential) * Nutrient Index (C, N, P, K) * Water index * PPF Index * PGR Index etc., EPI-growth = Temperature (potential) * Nutrient Index (C, N, P, K)* Water index * PPF Index * PGR Index etc., Once the potential is defined and quantified, then we can use EPI concept to decrease that potential to account for the effects of multiple environmental factors on given process such growth or development of any plant/crop species as in cotton crop. EPI Concept and Plant Growth and Development

 Environmental productivity index concept, if applied, works across species and locations.  EPI also allows one to interpret and to understand stresses in the field situations.  If we know the factor that is limiting most at any point of time during the growing season, then, we can make appropriate management decisions to correct that limitation.  EPI concept is the way to quantify the effects of multiple environmental factors on plant growth and development (photosynthesis, phenology, and growth) and thus productivity of any species or crop.