put nearly 2 million dollars extra in the growers' pockets. In Mississippi at least 75 percent of the 1950 cotton crop The Insecticide would have been destroyed were it not for the control of insects through the Industry use of the industry's products. Insecti- cides applied in Nebraska to control Lea S. Hitchner grasshoppers in 1949 resulted in savings estimated at 2 million dollars. Insecti- cidal treatment of alfalfa raised for The insecticide industry of today seed production in various States has comprises more than 50 basic producers doubled the yield. or manufacturers and more than 500 One factor among others responsible formulatorsj xemixers, and processors. for the high productivity of American From their plants throughout the coun- agriculture is the cooperative attack try comes a great variety of insecticides that is waged on insects and other pests. and related products. The agricultural chemicals industry The products, except those derived has welcomed the opportunity to co- from botanical sources, have their ori- operate with Federal and State agen- gins in the basic chemicals on which cies and with farm organizations in this the industry is founded, but the proc- important work and to carry the re- esses that turn the raw materials into sponsibility for developing, producing, the finished products applied by farm- and delivering the necessary pesticides. ers are long, highly scientific, and ex- Such a responsibility is a heavy one pensive in capital. investment and even in normal times. It becomes operating costs. acutely heavy in times of national The industry employs thousands of stress, when shortages of raw materials, scientists in the fields of entomology, containers, personnel, and transporta- plant pathology, botany, toxicology, tion may hamper production and dis- medicine, chemistry, and chemical en- tribution. gineering; thousands of skilled and The industry has come a long way semiskilled workers in the manufactur- since the i88o's, when its development ing plants; and thousands of men re- began to have a real impact on Ameri- sponsible for sales, either as employees can agriculture. To be sure, the use of industry or dealers who sell directly of chemicals to control insects goes to farmers and other consumers. back at least a century, and long before Demand for the products has that, man had declared war against the climbed to the point where annual sales insects that had plagued him from total at least 200 million dollars, the time beyond memory. sum paid for the hundreds of products Among the earliest records of insect that industry has developed, produced, control is the Biblical story of the and distributed to agriculturists in prophet Amos, who was a "dresser of every State and many foreign lands. sycamores." He was one of many who The products include insecticides, fun- regularly climbed sycamore trees to gicides, weed killers, rodenticides, de- pinch off the ends of the young fruit, foliants, and plant hormones. Never which resembled figs, hoping this before has the farmer been so well would destroy the insect usually found armed to fight insects and other pests. there. For thousands of years the con- Some examples of the effectiveness trol of insects and diseases was almost of the products: Growers of peas in entirely guesswork or practically non- Wisconsin in a recent year achieved a existent, with the exception of mechan- return of 6 dollars for each dollar ical control, like that carried on by invested in insect control. The insecti- Amos, supplemented by a rather hap- cides boosted the yields 15 percent and hazard system of crop rotation. 450 The Insecticide Industry The first record of effective chemi- boll weevil was not yet the serious pest cal control dates from 1882, when a it became later in the South. Frenchman, Millardet, accidentally Supplies of calcium arsenate were discovered what is now known as bor- also sent to potato growers in Virginia deaux mixture. Sixty years ago most of and to apple growers in Nova Scotia. the materials applied for pest control On the basis of results obtained by the were chemicals^ such as paris green Virginia growers, Piver began selling and london purple, used primarily in calcium arsenate to potato men in New other industries but accidentally dis- Jersey. Not all the early results were covered to be effective against insects. good. In 1915, Piver's company had 21 PROBABLY THE FIRST insecticide re- customers; in 1916, 55 customers. By sulting from deliberately planned man- then the boll weevil was serious in cot- ufacture was calcium arsenate, des- ton. Entomologists accepted the chal- tined to become one of the most widely lenge by carrying on extensive experi- used materials throughout the Nation ments with calcium arsenate. In 1918, and to play a special role in the control on the basis of Government tests, a of the boll weevil in the South. Federal entomologist telegraphed Piver William G. Piver was typical of the for 40 tons of calcium arsenate—the enterprising young businessmen in the largest single order he had ever re- industry. Within the first 5 years after ceived and a third larger than his high- his graduation from the University of est yearly production. The order nearly North Carolina, Piver took part in an floored him. He had to get special per- early campaign to promote lead arse- mission from his company's board of nate. He conceived the possibility of directors to make up so large a single producing calcium arsenate for use as batch because factory production at an insecticide. He reasoned that the that time produced so many failures arsenical insecticides then in use were that the factory back yard was knee effective primarily because they con- deep with the discarded mixes run out tained arsenic—yet the paris green was from the tanks and dried in the sun. expensive because it also contained He was "wasting assets of the com- copper and a large share of the cost pany," they said, but he won his point. for lead arsenate was because of its The shipment was made up and sent lead content. He therefore set out to south. Professional entomologists were find a way to combine the arsenic with quick to realize the potentialities of a readily available and inexpensive calcium arsenate as an insecticide* base, such as lime. About the time Fiver's company Piver's first experimental apparatus started to manufacture, W. D. Hunter, was hidden under his bed in a board- in charge of southern field crops inves- ing house because his landlady wanted tigations of the Department of Agri- no poisonous or explosive chemicals in culture, and B. R. Goad, in charge of her house. He worked at night, and his the laboratory in Tallulah, La., began progress was slow. He found practi- extensive studies on the use of calcium cally nothing in the technical litera- arsenate for cotton insects. The experi- ture to guide him. But he persevered mental work continued many years, and he finally produced laboratory and much of the development and use amounts of calcium arsenate—but only of calcium arsenate may be attributed in pound lots. Then followed further to their efforts. study and research, until in 1912 the first commercial batch of calcium ar- TYPICAL OF THE DEVELOPMENT of senate was produced and shipped in other products by industry is the re- powdered form to a dealer in Houston, search in the early 1920's that led to Tex. The shipment was intended for the commercial sale of summer spray the control of the cotton leafv/orm ■ the oils, now widely used on fruit crops. 452 Yearbook of Agriculture 1952 The late William Hunter Volck is con- efficient agriculture. Among the early sidered by many as one of the greatest pioneers were A. P. and David Ans- contributors to this field. He first bacher and Fred L. Lavenburg, who started work on spray oils in 1902 in worked with paris green; James A. collaboration with G. W. Wood worth, Blanchard, also with paris green ; B. G. of the University of California; from Pratt, miscible oils ; and Thomas Gras- then on he continued to study petro- selli, Arthur Kent, Frank Hemingway, leum oil products. Volck developed a G. D. Vrecland, and George A. Martin, series of spray oils^ including in 1924 lead arsenate. Besides Pi ver, Theodore the summer oils, which can be used on Dosch, Ernest Hart, and Fred Moburg foliage. He also developed quick- were identified with the development breaking emulsions and, in collabora- of calcium arsenate; George F. Leon- tion with Hugh Knight and others, ard and Charles Taylor, with nicotine summer oils plus poisons and emulsive sulfate; William Rose, Edward Mech- oil products. ling, Herbert Dow, Gerald Cushman, To list all the names of industrial R. W. Scott, Arthur Stern, and others, companies, scientists, and university with arsenicals and other products. and Government workers who have The second phase sometimes is called contributed to the development of the era of organic insecticides. It was petroleum oil pesticides would be to stimulated by wartime research and list the names of many of the leaders of necessity and resulted in a tremendous research development in the United increase in the number of products States. Today approximately 85 mil- available to growers. lion gallons of petroleum oil products The development of DDT exempli- are used in agriculture to control pests fies the telescoping in a short time the and weeds. research that might well have taken years. Some authorities have said the THE GROWTH OF THE INDUSTRY can major discoveries in curative and pre- be divided into two periods—the first ventive medicine during the war were dates from the development of calcium DDT, plasma, and penicillin. arsenate through the early period of In recognition of his outstanding the Second World War, and the second work in the development of DDT as from that time until the present. an insecticide, Dr. Paul Müller of J. R, During the first period, the industry Geigy, S. A., of Basle, Switzerland, was developed several effective products, awarded the 1948 Nobel Prize in Phys- adaptable to a wide range of crops and iology and Medicine. In 1939 the insects—calcium arsenate, lead arse- potato crop of Switzerland was seri- nate, sulfur, nicotine, rotenone, pyreth- ously threatened by the Colorado po- rum, cryolite, and various copper com- tato beetle. The Swiss firm made avail- pounds. The number of manufacturers able to the Swiss entomologists a sam- grew to more than 35, and they hired ple of DDT for testing. Results of the entomologists, plant pathologists, and first tests against the Colorado potato toxicologists. Cooperative work be- beetle confirmed the company's find- tween industry and Federal and State ings and culminated in the control of entomologists proceeded. Sales of in- this destructive insect. The effective- secticides reached 75 to 100 million ness of DDT against other destructive dollars annually. The quality of agri- insect pests was soon discovered. cultural products was remarkably im- A good example of how the insecti- proved, further concentration of crop cide industry developed a product to production became possible, and the fill a particular need lies in the story of area available for crop production was toxaphcne. The toxaphene dusts and enlarged. sprays are used to kill cotton insects, Many look back on this period as one grasshoppers, and scores of other pests. of pioneer contributions to a more A chemist of Hercules Powder Co. con- The Insecticide Industry 453 ceived the idea that insect toxicants they require special precautions in might be found in the highly chlori- their manufacture and use. nated terpene products. Chlorinated In the production and marketing of terpenes of relatively low chlorine con- parathion, for instance, a notable job tent were rather well known^ but little has been done to insure proper han- was known about chlorinated terpenes dling. The technical material is shipped of high chlorine content. in welded, specially designed drums. By synthesizing a number of differ- For further protection of the handlers, ent chlorinated terpene materials of the drums were reduced from a 500- varying degrees of chlorination^ and pound size to 280 pounds as further as- submitting them to routine tests against surance against accidents. Companies house flies, he discovered that when manufacturing the material limited its camphene, a bicyclic terpene hydro- sale to processors who proved them- carbon of the formula CjoHic, was selves properly equipped to formulate chlorinated to above 60 percent, a parathion. Their departments of in- unique waxlike product of excellent dustrial hygiene took an active interest stability and high insecticidal activity in the handling of the chemical from against house flies resulted. When his then on and continued to cooperate tests were extended to include agricul- with the processors to insure continued tural pests, he found that the high safety in handling and distribution. activity was even more pronounced. Beyond that, the companies worked Formulation of the material into closely with the various Government dusts, wettable powders, emulsions, agencies and devised a model label to and oil-soluble concentrates became be followed by formulators of the fin- important. A considerable amount of ished insecticide. They also prepared application work was undertaken. It manuals for growers and safety precau- was estimated that 150,000 pounds of tions in the use of the chemical. toxaphene would be required for ex- I give only a meager outline of what tensive field tests. A pilot plant was set the insecticide companies undertake to up to make it at Brunswick, Ga. insure safe use of a product. The toxi- Quantities of toxaphene for com- cological studies, laboratory and field mercial consumption first were pro- tests, chemical analyses, and many duced in 1947. Testing has continued other costly and laborious activities are since, and the insecticide has been involved. Yet the consumer gets the found effective against many pests. materials cheap enough to pay him to Construction was started on another apply them. toxaphene-manufacturing unit in the Many of the companies test 10,000 South. chemicals or more a year in the search In 1949 at the request of the De- for effective new products. Often sev- partment of Agriculture, the trade eral tens of thousands of chemicals are name toxaphene was released, so that screened before one or two of real the word could be used commonly for promise are found. When such a mate- chlorinated camphene having a chlo- rial is discovered, it is scrutinized im- rine content of 67-69 percent. mediately by a battery of scientists. In the wartime research, many If it appears that the insects to be con- chemicals were screened for efficacy, trolled and the cost of production will and several phosphorus compounds create a new field of use or improve the were found to have insecticidal activ- control resulting from the use of exist- ity. Hexaethyl tetraphosphate, tetra- ing products, the material undergoes a ethyl pyrophosphate, and parathion series of intensive tests. It may be tested were soon on the market. They are ef- in the manufacturer's greenhouses and fective against many pests not con- experimental farms for its insecticidal trolled by earlier materials. They there- effectiveness and for the reaction of the fore have been marketed even though crop being treated. At the same time it 454 Yearbook of Agriculture 1952 is studied by company toxicologists and industry whose members often sell their by toxicological laboratories through- products throughout the country. out the country. Entomological and Many States have tried to enact uni- toxicological testing are coordinated so form legislation; in that effort, the in- that data showing the insects that arc dustry has cooperated with the Coun- controlled, and precautions to be ob- cil of State Governments, the Depart- served in use, are available at as nearly ment of Agriculture, the National As- the same time as possible. Often years sociation of Commissioners, and Fed- are required to obtain adequate data. eral and State regulatory officials. The Because of the competitive nature of combined efforts of those groups have the industry, most of this information produced the Uniform State Insecti- is not published. I have no count of cide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act, laboratories engaged in research on the which has been enacted into law in 19 toxicity of agricultural chemicals, Tox- States. Tw^enty-onc States have other icologists have estimated that there are pesticide laws. The industry believes nearly 125 such laboratories and that public interest will be served by the their facilities are now being used to enactment of a uniform act in more capacity. States. The industry also actively sup- It is also estimated that 10 to 20 new ports a proposed Uniform Custom Ap- agricultural chemicals are thoroughly plicators' Law, which was drafted by studied for toxic hazards each year in the Council of State Governments and the United States. Not all finally reach other interested groups. Its purpose is the market in quantity. Probably 500 to to insure the safe application of pesti- 1,000 products each year receive some cides from the air and by other means, study through the early stages of devel- opment but later are abandoned for TPIE AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY in- various reasons. Toxicological research dustry has made noteworthy achieve- on a chemical that presents no haz- ments, but it is not content merely to ards of food residues probably costs think of them. Its research is being not less than 5,000 dollars, but some- intensified, with increased emphasis on times, when residues of the chemical fundamental studies. Substantial cap- may occur on food products, the cost ital investments have been made in often exceeds 20,000 dollars. new plants. Manufacturing and proc- A sampling of 20 manufacturers essing techniques are being improved showed that the yearly expenditures constantly. More efficient methods of for their research, including toxicologi- distribution are being instituted. Toxi- cal studies, is nearly 4 million dollars. cological studies and educational pro- Such studies represent fundamental grams more and more seek to safeguard , work directed toward the protection of users of its products and the general the health of all concerned—workers public. in the manufacturing plant, farmers who apply the product, and consumers LEA S. HITCHNER is the executive W'ho buy and consume the commodities secretary of the National Agricultural that have been sprayed or dusted. Chemicals Association, which was For that reason, too, the industry founded in 1933 and to which manu- has supported State and Federal legis- facturers of agricultural pest-control lation to regulate the distribution and chemicals belong, A native of New Jer- use of insecticides, fungicides, and re- sey and a graduate of the University lated products. of Pennsylvania, he has worked in the field of agricultural chemicals since THE INDUSTRY is regulated at the his twenties, A member of the Ameri- State and the National level. Many can Trade Association Executives, he State laws, some of them conflicting, is a past vice president of that organi- present something of a problem to an zation's New York chapter.