Review Assessment on Wind Farm Locations in the West of France Since COP 21

DEGREE PROJECT IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, SECOND CYCLE, 30 CREDITS STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN 2021

Review assessment on wind farm locations in the West of France since COP 21

PAUL MARCHENOIR

KTH ROYAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AND COMPUTER SCIENCE

Review assessment on wind farm locations in the West of France since COP 21

Paul Marchenoir

Master in Electrical Engineering Date: February 11, 2021 Examiner: Lina Bertling Tjernberg School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Host company: Valeco

Abstract

The development of wind power in France is a very sensitive subject. Indeed, most of the electricity produced in France comes from nuclear energy, and therefore changing the French energy mix to not only depend on production is a very ambitious challenge. Similarly, the COP 21 organized in Paris is one of the illustrations of the work done since the Grenelle Environment Forum to integrate renewable energies into the electricity grid.

This thesis attempts to understand the legislative and technical issues to be taken into account for the implementation of a wind farm in France, particularly in the western regions of France (Brittany and Pays-de-la-Loire). Many factors are to be considered when prospecting for a wind project. Local, aeronautical, environmental and heritage constraints are among the most restrictive easements that can restrict or even cancel the potential of a wind farm. This report first attempts to show how best to integrate all the data to be considered on a concrete project, that of Séglien in Morbihan in Brittany.

In a second step, a business plan will be evaluated to determine the feasibility of implementing this project on site. By studying the choice of topology, the choice of machines and the connection point of the project to the French electrical network, a theoretical LCOE can be estimated. This LCOE will allow Valeco, a renewable energy producer in France, to position itself on the French electricity market.

According to the results obtained by this business plan, the choice to select one turbine rather than another can be influenced not only by the power curves of the machine as one might think, but also by important factors such as the noise made by the machine. Indeed, noise is a factor that can force the developer to clamp the machine and thus produce less electricity. In the same way, the optimization of the electrical topology can drastically reduce the CAPEX of a project. Indeed the electrical connection is one of the most expensive data of the project. A reduction of the connection distance by a factor of three allows to save about 2.5 million euros and thus to reduce the LCOE by 4.5 €/MWh. This also allows to position the project on lower tenders. An intelligent use of Aluminum instead of copper when possible also allows to reduce the CAPEX of the project. However, this thesis does not estimate the cost of social acceptance, because the perception of the French people of the multiplication of industrial wind farms is different according to their social, demographic, cultural and economic characteristics and therefore difficult to quantify.

Sammanfattning

Utvecklingen av vindkraft i Frankrike är ett känsligt ämne. Idag kommer den största andelen el som produceras i Frankrike från kärnenergi. Därför är det en mycket ambitiös utmaning att ändra den franska energimixen för att domineras av förnyelsebara energikällor liksom vindkraft. På samma sätt är COP 21 organiserad i Paris en av illustrationerna av det arbete som utförts sedan Grenelle Environment Forum för att integrera förnybar energi i elnätet.

Detta arbete försöker förstå de lagstiftnings- och tekniska frågor som ska beaktas vid utbyggnad en vindkraftspark i Frankrike, särskilt i de västra regionerna i Frankrike (Bretagne och Pays-de-la-Loire). Många faktorer ska beaktas vid prospektering av ett vindprojekt. Lokala, flyg-, miljö- och kulturella intressen leder till begränsningar och kan även leda till att avslag från att exploatera vindkraftsparker. Denna studie försöker i ett första steg visa hur man bäst integrerar all information som ska beaktas i ett konkret vindkraftsprojekt, Séglien i Morbihan i Bretagne.

I ett andra steg utvärderas en affärsplan för att genomföra vindkraftsprojektet. Genom att studera valet av topologi, valet av maskiner och projektets anslutningspunkt till det franska elnätet kan en teoretisk LCOE uppskattas. LCOE gör det möjligt för Valeco, en producent av förnybar energi i Frankrike, att positionera sig på den franska elmarknaden.

Enligt resultat från studierna med aktuell affärsplan kan valet att välja en turbin snarare än en annan påverkas inte bara av vindturbinens effektkurvor, som man kan tro, utan också av viktiga faktorer som buller från turbinerna. För att minska buller kan exempelvis vindkraftsturbiner behöva stängas av vilket leder till minskad elproduktion. På samma sätt kan optimeringen av den elektriska topologin drastiskt minska CAPEX i ett projekt. Den elektriska anslutningen är en av de dyraste faktorerna i ett vindkraftsprojektet. En minskning av anslutningsavståndet med en faktor på tre gör det möjligt att spara cirka 2,5 miljoner euro och därmed minska LCOE med 4,5 € / MWh. Detta gör det också möjligt att placera projektet på lägre anbud. En intelligent användning av aluminium istället för koppar när det är möjligt gör det också möjligt att minska projektets CAPEX. Denna avhandling uppskattar dock inte kostnaden för social acceptans, eftersom det franska folks uppfattning om förökningen av industriella vindkraftparker är olika beroende på deras sociala, demografiska, kulturella och ekonomiska egenskaper och därför svårt att kvantifiera.

Table of Figures

Figure 1: Map of Valeco branches in France, Valeco ...... 11 Figure 2: Tuchan (Solar Power) and Lunel (Wind farm), Valeco ...... 11 Figure 3 : The French Energy mix in 2019, FEE ...... 17 Figure 4 : Objectives in terms of installed capacity as determined by the PPE, FEE ...... 18 Figure 5 : Wind Power in France after 31 march 2020, FEE ...... 18 Figure 6: French electrical consumption coverage in 2019, FEE ...... 18 Figure 7: Wind power and electricity production in Pays-de-la-Loire, FEE ...... 19 Figure 8 : Location of Séglien ...... 20 Figure 9 : Local context at Séglien, Valeco ...... 22 Figure 10: Wind speed extrapolation ...... 24 Figure 11: Mean wind speed in France, MétéoFrance ...... 24 Figure 12: Weibull distribution at Séglien ...... 25 Figure 13 :Map of all the RTBA in France, Army...... 26 Figure 14: Map of the VOLTAC zone in France, Army ...... 26 Figure 15 : Map of all the SETBA zone in France, Army ...... 27 Figure 16 :Map of weather radar range in France, MétéoFrance ...... 28 Figure 17 : Aeronautical context next to Séglien, Valeco ...... 29 Figure 18 : map of all the ZNIEFFs in France, MNHM ...... 31 Figure 19: NRP In France, Supagro Institute ...... 32 Figure 20 : Environmental context next to Séglien, Valeco ...... 33 Figure 21 : Patrimonial context next to Séglien, Valeco ...... 34 Figure 22: Saint-Germain chapel, photo credit: Lanzonnet ...... 34 Figure 23 : Saint-Laurent chapel, photo credit : Elita1 ...... 34 Figure 24: Locmaria chapel, photo credit: XIIIfromTOKYO ...... 34 Figure 25: The 3 study zones at Séglien, Valeco...... 36 Figure 26: Environmental sensitivity on the ZIP at Séglien during exploitation, Calidris ...... 40 Figure 27 :Environmental sensitivity on the ZIP during construction, Calidris ...... 41 Figure 28: Photomontage of the wind farm from Sifliac and Langoëland, Calidris ...... 42 Figure 29: Wind rose on site, AWS ...... 43 Figure 30: First topological layout ...... 44 Figure 31: Productible Comparison and first LCOE ...... 46 Figure 32: Remuneration scheme, FEE ...... 48 Figure 33: Feed-in-premium scheme, FEE ...... 48 Figure 34 : S3RENR Schemes and the national grid situation, FEE and RTE ...... 50 Figure 35: Connection charges for generation at distribution and transmission level, EWEA ...... 51 Figure 36 : Scheme of a power line ...... 53 Figure 37 : Electrical connection between the wind turbines, Valeco ...... 56 Figure 38: Voltage drop in the line (Pontivy) ...... 57 Figure 39:Voltage drop in the line (Locmalo) ...... 57 Figure 40:Droop curve for FCR response ...... 63

Table of Tables

Tableau 1: MétéoFrance radar exclusion perimeter ...... 27 Tableau 2: Civil Aviation exclusion perimeter, DGAC ...... 29 Tableau 3: Type of impact and examples ...... 35 Tableau 4: Study areas and its caracteristics ...... 36 Tableau 5: Noise Emergence ...... 38 Tableau 6: Period for observing the fauna ...... 39 Tableau 7: Data of the wind turbines chosen for the study ...... 43 Tableau 8: Quote-part for the French Regions in 2020, RTE ...... 52 Tableau 9: Data of the potential wind farm ...... 53 Tableau 10: Maximum current for 2 cables side-by-side, AFNOR (21) ...... 54 Tableau 11: MV costs ...... 55 Tableau 12: Costs with a PDL at the end of the site ...... 55 Tableau 13 : Costs with a PDL at the middle of the site ...... 56 Tableau 14: Costs of the the Séglien project ...... 61 Tableau 15: current carrying capacity in a three-phase circuit, AFNOR ...... 72 Tableau 16 : correction factor in the connection trench, AFNOR ...... 73 Tableau 17: Resistance and Capacity for different cable cross-sections, Nexans ...... 73 Tableau 18 : Sound power level of the different wind turbines considered, Alhyange Acoustique ..... 74 Tableau 19: Tables summarizing the various studies carried out for the Séglien project ...... 78 Tableau 20: Power curve of Enercon E-138 3.5 MW...... 79 Tableau 21: Power curve of Nordex N117 3.6 MW ...... 80 Tableau 22: Power curve of Nordex N117 2.4 MW ...... 81 Tableau 23: Power curve of Nordex N131 3.6 MW ...... 82

Nomenclature

AC : Alternative Current

ADEME : Agence de l'Environnement et de la Maîtrise de l'Energie (Environment and Energy Management Agency) aFRR : automatic Frequency Restoration Reserve

ANFR : Agence Nationale des Fréquences (National Frequencies Agency)

CAPEX : CAPital EXpenditure

CDC : Caisse des Dépôts et Consignation

COP : Conference of Parties

CSA : Above Surface

CSPE : Contribution au Service Public de l'Electricité (Contribution to the Public Electricity Service)

DGAC : Direction Générale de l'Aviation Civile (General Direction of the Civil Aviation)

DSO : Distribution System Operators

DY : Delivery Year

EnR : Energie Renouvelable (Renewable Energy)

EPP : Energy Pluriannual Program

FCR : Frequency Containment Reserve

FiT: Feed-in Tariff

ICPE : Installations Classées pour la Protection de l'Environnement (Classified Installations for the Protection of the Environment)

LCOE : Levelized Cost of Energy mFRR : manual Frequency Restoration Reserve

MV : Medium Voltage

OPEX: OPerational EXpenditure

PADD : Projet d'Aménagement et de Développement Durable (Planning and Sustainable Development Project)

PCAET : Plan Climat Air-Energie Territorial

PDL : Poste de Livraison (Delivery Station)

PDN : Public Distribution Network

PLU : Plan local d’urbanisme (Local urban plan)

PLUi : Plan local d’urbanisme intercommunaux (Inter-municipal local urban development plan)

PPA : Power Purchase Agreement

PS : Poste Source

RNP : Regional Nature Park

RR : Replacement Reserve

RTBA : Réseau Très Basse Altitude (Very Low Altitude Network)

S3REnR : Schéma régional de raccordement au réseau des énergies renouvelables (Regional scheme for connection to the renewable energy network)

SAC : Special Area of Conservation

SoC : State of Charge

SPA : Special Protection Area

SRADDET : Schémas Régionaux d’Aménagement, de Développement Durable et d’Egalité des territoires (Regional Planning, Sustainable Development and Regional Equality Schemes)

SRE : Schéma Régional Eolien (Regional Wind Power Scheme)

TSO : Transmission System Operator

TURPE : Tarif d'utilisation du réseau public d'électricité (Tariff for use of the public electricity system)

UNFCCC : United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

VOLTAC : VOL TACtique

WSM : Wind Sector Management

ZDE : Zone de Développement Eolien (Wind Development Zone)

ZIP : Zone d’implantation potentielle (Potential location area)

ZNIEFF : Zone Naturelle d'Intérêt Ecologique, Faunistique et Floristique (Natural Area of Ecological, Faunistic and Floristic Interest)

Acknowledgements

First of all, I would like to thank the entire Valeco team who allowed me to learn more about wind energy. I would like to thank Brice, Martin and Valentin who were kind enough to answer all my questions about their respective fields of expertise. I thank Nicolas T and Nicolas P for their availability and for having welcomed me as it should be. I felt there a small family in the same boat.

I would also like to thank my examiner, Lina Bertling Tjernberg, who was able to answer my questions and who went to great lengths each time I asked for her help. I would also like to thank KTH for the quality of the courses taught, and in particular the Wind Power course, which has aroused in me a real interest in the sector.

Finally I want to thank my family, my friends who have been there for me in these complicated times for everyone. I thank especially Anaëlle who knew how to support me during all this extraordinary adventure. I finish by thanking God for having put on my path all these incredible people.

Table of contents Abstract ...... 2 Sammanfattning ...... 3 Table of Figures ...... 4 Table of Tables...... 5 Nomenclature ...... 6 Acknowledgements ...... 8 I) Valeco ...... 11 II) Grenelle II, COP 21, medium and long-term objective ...... 13 a) History ...... 13 b) COP 21 ...... 14 c) The Energy Pluriannual Program (EPP) ...... 16 III) Wind power in France and the Great West ...... 17 a) French energy mix ...... 17 b) Great West ...... 19 IV) Prospecting ...... 20 a) Thesis method ...... 20 b) Local context ...... 21 c) Windy Region ...... 23 d) Aerial easements ...... 25 ARMY : ...... 25 Méteo France ...... 27 DGAC Radar ...... 28 e) Environmental Easements ...... 30 SPA ...... 30 SCA ...... 30 ZNIEFF ...... 31 RNP ...... 31 f) Heritage easement ...... 33 V) Study on site ...... 35 a) Definition of study areas ...... 35 b) Acoustic study ...... 37 c) Environmental study ...... 39 d) Landscape study ...... 41 VI) Choosing wind turbine ...... 43 a) Topological layout ...... 43

b) Losses ...... 44 c) Turbine selection ...... 45 VII) Financial study ...... 47 a) Electricity market ...... 47 b) Connection Grid ...... 49 c) Cable sizing ...... 52 d) LCOE...... 58 e) CAPEX and OPEX ...... 60 VIII) Storage and Wind farm ...... 62 a) Grid stability ...... 62 Frequency ...... 62 Capacity mechanism ...... 64 Voltage...... 65 b) Arbitrage ...... 65 IX) Further Discussion ...... 67 Conclusion ...... 68 References ...... 69 Appendix ...... 72

I) Valeco

To carry out this end-of-study project, I did an internship from September 2020 to February 2021 at Valeco, a developer of renewable energy throughout France. I worked at the Nantes agency in the west of France, trying to find new potential projects in the Pays-de-la-Loire and Brittany regions. I was able to have access to a number of resources, software for estimating the wind speed in these areas, but also mapping software for the various constraints that wind turbines have to respect, which will be developed later in this thesis.

Figure 1: Map of Valeco branches in France, Valeco

Valeco is a company created in 1995 by the Gay family, and historically based in Montpellier in the South of France. Valeco was originally an electricity producer; and quickly turned to the production of renewable energy, in particular wind and solar power plants. The first wind farm was commissioned in 2001 in Tuchan near Montpellier, the largest wind farm in France at the time of its construction. This park, consisting of 15 machines with a connected power of 11.7 MW, was one of the most productive in France. In 2008 Valeco installed the first French solar power plant with a peak power of 500 kWp on a surface of 1.50 ha in Lunel near Montpellier. These two examples make Valeco one of the pioneers in the development of renewable energy in France.

Figure 2: Tuchan (Solar Power) and Lunel (Wind farm), Valeco

Valeco's growth also took off in 2008. Indeed, the "Caisse des Dépôts et Consignation" (CDC) has decided to take a stake in the company's capital. The CDC is a public investment fund with the aim of helping companies to grow so that they can develop further. It is thanks to the investment of the CDC that Valeco has been able to develop in France, and not only in the South near Montpellier. This is how different agencies have been able to set up, starting in the North with Amiens, then with agencies in Paris, Dijon, Toulouse and Nantes. This has enabled Valeco to be at the heart of the territories, and to have a local proximity that favours the development of renewable energy.

In 2018, the first repowering of a wind turbine took place. At the end of the park's life, the replacement of the wind turbines with more efficient turbines may be considered. This will be explained in more detail later in this thesis. In 2019 the CDC decides to withdraw from the company's capital. The Gay family decided not to buy back these shares. It is finally ENBW, one of the largest German energy companies, which bought back 100% of the company's shares. This takeover of Valeco by ENBW is a win-win situation: on the one hand ENBW, through its capital, allows Valeco to position itself on tenders on which it would never have been able to position itself before (notably on national tenders for offshore wind farms amounting to billions of euros); on the other hand Valeco offers ENBW a strong territorial anchorage in France. ENBW has the ambition to make Valeco one of the five best renewable energy developers in France.

Valeco is currently present at all stages of a wind power project: it carries out the entire project for the various wind farms: feasibility studies, site identification, territorial impact studies, etc.; but also its construction, operation and dismantling. Today Valeco has more than 500 MW of installed power with 175 wind turbines and 37 solar farms, and is one of the main players in the production of renewable energy in France. (1)

II) Grenelle II, COP 21, medium and long-term objective

a) History

The fight against global warming is not new. It is a sensitive subject, a collective awareness of a global problem. In 1992, at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, the United Nations adopted a framework for action to combat global warming: the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). This convention brings together almost all the countries in the world that are referred to as "Parties". Their representatives have been meeting once a year since 1995 at the "COPs" (Conferences of Parties).

It is notably during these COPs that the signatory states can ratify agreements on the reduction of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, with common or differentiated objectives. They also assess the progress of their commitments and the implementation of the Framework Convention. Negotiation sessions are held prior to these summits. The COPs bring together the representatives of the Parties but also non-State actors: local authorities, NGOs, scientists, etc. COP21 is part of a long process of international climate negotiations, the ins and outs of which will be examined in order to understand how the Paris agreements can be described as historic.

In 1992 the third Earth Summit was held in Rio de Janeiro. These Earth Summits take place every 10 years in different major world cities. In Rio de Janeiro the states recognised the existence of man-made climate change and committed themselves to combating global warming within the framework of an international convention. However, it is not legally binding. On the contrary, it recognises the sovereignty of states to "exploit their own resources in accordance with their environmental and development policies". (2)

In 1997, the third COP was held in Kyoto, which led to the famous "Kyoto Protocol". The initial objective of the Kyoto Protocol was to achieve during the commitment period 2008-2012 a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions of human origin by at least 5% (in the countries committed) compared to 1990 levels. To enter into force, it had to be ratified by 55 developed countries accounting for at least 55% of global greenhouse gas emissions in 1990. Only 37 industrialised countries have actually committed to the targets of the scheme, with the notable exception of the United States, which was the largest emitter of greenhouse gases. The United States signed it but never ratified it. In practice, the sanctions for non-compliance with the Kyoto Protocol have never been clearly defined. Moreover, the agreement is not legally binding to date. The protocol has been a success for the countries that ratified it, since the reduction of man-made greenhouse gas emissions in those countries has exceeded 20%. However, as the protocol is not global, it has not succeeded in reducing global greenhouse gas emissions.

In 2009, in Copenhagen, the COP 15 took place. Countries committed themselves to limiting global warming to 2°C compared to 1850, but without setting binding targets to achieve this. The Copenhagen conference was an important turning point in the climate negotiations. It showed that an agreement cannot be successful unless it is universally validated, transparent and assessable. This has led to a major shift in climate negotiations from a top-down to a bottom-up approach, rather than a shared effort. From the countries' point of view, the fight against climate change is therefore no longer simply

13 a question of emissions and the distribution of efforts, but also of technological, economic and social choices and vision for the future.

In order to concretely implement the objectives of the Kyoto Protocol that France has ratified, and with the aim of limiting global warming to 2°C promised at the Copenhagen conference; in France, the law on the national commitment to the environment, known as "Grenelle 2 de l’environnement", was promulgated on 12 July 2010. This law corresponds to the implementation of part of the 2009 Grenelle de l'Environnement commitments. It places the fight against climate change "at the top of the agenda". The fight against climate change has three main thrusts:

- Reducing energy consumption ; - The prevention of greenhouse gas emissions; - The promotion of renewable energies.

Within the framework of the promotion of renewable energies and with regard to wind turbines, the government has more clearly defined the stakes and objectives, along three main lines.

- Regional wind energy schemes (SRE) will be established , which will include geographical areas favourable to the implantation of wind turbines in France, at the regional level.

- As of 2011, wind turbines will be subject to the ICPE (Installations Classified for the Protection of the Environment) regime, making their installation more difficult but controlled. An installation classified for environmental protection is an installation operated or owned by any natural or legal person, public or private, which may present dangers or inconveniences either for the convenience of the neighbourhood, or for public health, safety, public health, agriculture, or for the protection of nature, the environment and the landscape, or for the rational use of energy, or for the conservation of sites and monuments as well as elements of the archaeological heritage. (6)

- Government commits to build at least 500 wind turbines per year (5) b) COP 21

In 2015 Paris was hosting COP 21. The general objective of COP 21 is the same as that announced at the Copenhagen Conference: to limit global warming to 2°C compared to 1850. It goes even a little further, adding that the efforts of the States must be intensified in order to hope to limit the generalised increase in temperature to 1.5°C.

To achieve this goal, the main issues at COP 21 were therefore to reach an agreement :

- Who proposes concrete actions to meet the set objective? - Which is suitable for all countries involved to ratify; - Legally binding so that States have a duty to put these measures in place.

To make this possible, each party prepared its own commitments in advance. Other key points also needed to be clarified at COP 21, including the following:

- The establishment of a system for monitoring and controlling the results of each party's greenhouse gas emissions;

- The possibility of involving other actors in addition to the United Nations in this fight, for example local and regional authorities and the private sector; - The amount, duration and modalities of financial assistance from the most developed countries to the least developed countries and those most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change; - The modification of the world energy mix to see the share of renewable energies increase and that of fossil fuels decrease.

A total of 196 parties (195 signatory countries and the European Union, all of which have ratified the UNFCCC) and 2 observer countries were present at COP 21 in Paris to negotiate this new global agreement, and 147 world leaders travelled to attend. In addition, 1109 NGOs were present as observers and 1366 media covered the event. Only Syria, then in civil war, was unable to ratify the agreement.

This COP also led to other agreements to help developing countries in particular:

- 1 trillion dollars will be used to fight the effects of global warming and invest in clean energy, especially solar and wind power. - Developed countries will provide $100 billion annually to developing countries from 2020 to help them in their transition. This amount is a floor that will be increased thereafter. (3)

Participants are given a great deal of freedom on how to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions, but are required to be transparent in monitoring the efforts that are being made. The parties will be obliged to report on their progress in greenhouse gas emissions every 5 years and give their commitments for the following period. The agreement will not be fully legally binding. While signatory countries are obliged to report on their progress, their individual targets are freely set in the form of national commitments submitted to the United Nations;

President Donald Trump announced on 1 June 2017 the withdrawal of the United States from the Paris Agreement. This is a serious blow to global ambitions against global warming. The explanation given by the US President is that the measures foreseen in the text would be harmful to the country's economy; he also expressed his readiness to re-enter the negotiation process if a more favourable agreement for the US is proposed. Although it is still too early to judge the success of the Paris agreements, it is clear that for the first time an agreement has been signed by (almost) all countries. There is still a long way to go, but it does allow for more concrete progress to be made in the various national ecological transitions.

Indeed, thanks to the Paris agreements and with the law on energy transition, France has set itself two main objectives:

- 40% reduction in its emissions by 2030, compared to 1990 levels. - 75% reduction in its emissions by 2050, compared to 1990 levels.

To do so, it has committed itself to the evolution of the energy mix:

- Increasing the share of renewable energies in final energy consumption to 32% in 2030; - Reduce energy consumption by 50% by 2050. (4)

c) The Energy Pluriannual Program (EPP)

The Pluriannual Energy Program was updated during 2015 and 2016 to set renewable energy targets for 2018 and 2023. It sets a trajectory for the energy mix, as well as "priorities for action for the management of all forms of energy on the continental metropolitan territory, in order to achieve the national objectives set by the law on energy transition.

Nevertheless, in order to best achieve the national objectives of the EPP. Local and regional authorities are a key actor in the local implementation of the energy transition. Indeed, they have taken up the issue, sometimes in an ambitious way. The regions must draw up Regional Schemes for Town and Country Planning, Sustainable Development and Territorial Equality (SRADDET) setting out the main guidelines for reducing energy consumption and preventing greenhouse gas emissions. Based on an inventory of greenhouse gas emissions and chemical pollutants, as well as on an assessment of energy production at regional level, these plans must set out guidelines for 2020 and 2050 to curb climate change, mitigate and adapt to its effects, reduce atmospheric pollution and set targets to be achieved in order to develop the potential for renewable energies. (7)

Each SRADDET contains a wind energy component, the Regional Wind Energy Plan (SRE), which precisely defines the objectives to be achieved at the regional level according to known environmental, landscape and technical constraints. A cartography of the zones favourable to wind development is thus carried out, and gives a framework for the development of wind farms, although these RREs have no legal value. Measures have been taken to facilitate wind development. The so-called "five-mast" law was repealed in April 2013. This law was intended to avoid wind sprawl by allowing only wind farms with at least 5 wind turbines. Wind development zones (ZDE) were also abolished. Introduced by the law of 13 July 2005, the ZDEs, created on the initiative of the local authorities, were priority areas for developing parks, thanks to the obligation to purchase the electricity produced by the wind turbines. The obligation to purchase was only possible within these zones, outside there were none. The space delimitation was based on the criteria of electrical connection potential, landscape integration and wind potential. Finally, the introduction of a single building permit in the spring of 2014 made it possible to lighten the administrative procedures. This dossier includes the building permit and the ICPE dossier, saving time in the preparation and processing of these dossiers. (4)

III) Wind power in France and the Great West

a) French energy mix

Most of the electricity produced in France is generated by nuclear power. This can be explained by the massive development of this means of production in the 20th century. And although the French energy policy is to reduce the share of nuclear power in the French energy mix. The statistics for the year 2019 provided by the FEE (France Energy Wind Power) show us the still majority share of nuclear power.

Figure 3 : The French Energy mix in 2019, FEE

France has set itself a target of carbon neutrality by 2050. The EPP published in April 2016 sets the country's energy transition objectives until 2028. The text foresees that wind energy capacity should increase by 45% within 3 years. However, with only 1,337 MW connected in 2019, the installed wind power capacity must accelerate. France aims, over the next decade, at a rate of installation of onshore wind power capacity of 2,000 MW per year in order to reach the target of 34 GW of cumulative capacity connected in 2028. Offshore wind power capacity must also grow at a sustained rate. To meet the EPP targets, nearly 1,000 MW of capacity needs to be allocated through tenders each year by 2024 until 2028. (7)

Figure 4 : Objectives in terms of installed capacity as determined by the PPE, FEE

Wind turbine capacities are spread throughout France, with more than 1,450 wind farms with 8,436 wind turbines, located in all metropolitan regions as well as in overseas France. At 31 December 2019, French wind power had an installed capacity of 16.6 GW. The Hauts-de-France and Grand Est regions are the leading wind power regions. These 2 regions alone account for 50% of the power connected in France. Occitania in the South of France, the historical cradle of wind power in France, is in 3rd position nationally. It covers on average 7.2% of French electricity consumption, an increase of 1.3% compared to 2018. This rate rises to 10.8% in the first quarter of 2020. For example, on 29 March 2020, renewable energies contributed up to 39% of the French electricity mix, of which 24% came from wind power alone. The French wind farm then produced 12.8 GW of electricity. (8)

Figure 6: French electrical consumption coverage in 2019, FEE Figure 5 : Wind Power in France after 31 march 2020, FEE

In the West (Brittany, Pays-de-la-Loire, New Aquitaine), the installed capacity has exceeded 1 GW since the middle of 2020, proof of the harmonious development of the sector throughout the territory.

b) Great West

This thesis tries to answer the problem of the implantation of wind turbines in the West of France. The next developments will mainly focus on two regions of France: Brittany and Pays-de-la-Loire.

As seen previously, these two regions exceeded the GW of installed capacity in 2020. Nevertheless, these figures are far from the objectives set out in the EPP. Many factors explain this delay in almost all regions; some of these factors will be explained later in this thesis.

The fact remains that at the end of 2019 we had only 1047 MW of connected power for 1939 GWh of energy produced in Brittany, which is half less than the SRADDET objectives for 2020, which were 2004 MW for the region. (7)

Figure 7: Wind power and electricity production in Pays-de-la-Loire, FEE

IV) Prospecting

a) Thesis method

The perspective of this thesis is to determine under which conditions, the implementation of a wind farm in the West of France is conceivable. The objective is to investigate all the technical and legal constraints that impact the wind farm, to minimize the costs of the electrical connection to the already existing network, as well as to carry out an economic study to determine whether the site is profitable for the producer.

For confidentiality reasons, we will rely on a project already carried out by Valeco. Nevertheless, the study would remain valid for any search for a potential site that could accommodate a wind farm. So I decided to back up my remarks with a study of a project under development at Valeco. It is a project in the town of Séglien in Morbihan (56) in Brittany. The commune of Séglien is a rural commune of 38.36 km², which makes it a fairly large commune. Its territory is hilly and lies between 123 meters and 248 meters. It is crossed by the Saar river, a tributary of the Blavet. Since 2006, the commune has already had a wind farm with 6 wind turbines of 9 MW. It is part of the Pontivy-Community intermunicipality. In 2017 it had 669 inhabitants.

Figure 8 : Location of Séglien

To achieve the objective defined above, I used Excel and Matlab softwares to estimate the profitability of the wind farm, as well as Arcgis software to share and exploit the different geographical layers useful for my analysis. First of all I carried out a bibliographical research to understand the global, European and French policies regarding the energy transition. I also researched the European electricity market and the integration of renewable energies into the existing grid. I then carried out my study in the following way:

1) First of all, I looked for a potential site by looking at the most restrictive criterion there is: the minimum distance to the nearest dwellings. 2) Then, the different criteria (environmental, aeronautical, heritage and urban planning) were studied. 3) As soon as a site is identified as a potential site, a preliminary economic study is carried out to determine whether or not money is injected for the various studies to be carried out afterwards (wind deposit study, acoustic study, environmental study, landscape study, etc.). 4) Special attention was paid to the electrical connection of the wind farm to the existing electricity grid to assess the feasibility of the project.

If one of these tasks is not validated, the project cannot be valid and the search for a new site must be started again. However, if all the necessary authorisations are obtained for the project to be carried out, then the project can be approved. These different tasks will be explained in detail in the rest of this thesis.

First of all, when prospecting in order to find a Potential Planting Zone (after referred to as a ZIP), it is important to take into account and comply with certain legislative and technical constraints. They can have strong impacts that can constrain the size of the wind turbines, but also make the project unfeasible. These constraints will be grouped by categories and will be explained afterwards: we will first study the urban planning constraints, then the aeronautical constraints, but also the environmental constraints and finally the heritage constraints. b) Local context

The first constraints to be observed when looking for ZIPs are urban planning constraints, and more particularly the distance to dwellings. Indeed since the Grenelle II law on the environment in 2010, wind turbines under the ICPE must be located at a minimum distance of 500 m from homes in France. A dwelling is considered to be a construction connected to drinking water, with some particularities :

- a separate room for the toilet (bathroom with shower and washbasin) and a toilet inside the accommodation - a space designed to accommodate cooking appliances - a mailbox.

France is a very rural country, with just under 35 000 communes. This is why dwellings are very scattered, and therefore make it difficult to set up large wind farms. It is estimated that 65 % of the surface area is covered by this constraint of minimum distance to dwellings. This is also one of the reasons that led the government to repeal the 5-mast rule. Indeed, as the large ZIPs were now identified, it was complicated, if not impossible, to create new parks with more than 5 machines. As the technology became more and more mature, it became possible to create profitable wind farms with two or more machines.

Next, the local urban development plans (PLU) or local inter-municipal urban development plans (PLUi) must be taken into account to find out the special status of the plots in the municipality. The PLU and PLUi are spatial planning projects. Since the Grenelle II Environment Act, these have included a Sustainable Development and Planning Project (PADD) which continues to comply with urban planning, housing and urban transport policies. It is the communes in consultation with the community

21 of communes that define whether or not the land is suitable for the installation of wind turbines through the PLU or PLUi. (5)

Roads (departmental, national or motorways) are also to be taken into account. In addition to the fact that they will allow the different components of the wind turbine to be transported (blades, hub, mast etc.), they impose a distance from the road of at least one mast height to install the wind turbine. This is mainly for safety reasons, in case of a fall of the wind turbine in order not to create other accidents on the road. It is therefore necessary to find a compromise between being close to major roads to limit the cost of transporting the wind turbine, but not being too close to avoid the risk of road accidents. Likewise, wind turbines must be at a level with major railways and overhead power lines to avoid accidents.

Similarly, radio consultations must be carried out if the ZIP cuts off the radio transmission links. The reflection and diffraction of electromagnetic waves on the blades of wind turbines can generate a disturbance of hertzian waves (radio, television, mobile phone relay antennas, etc.). The studies prior to the installation of wind farms take into account all the radioelectric easements, by consulting the organisations concerned (ANFR, Télédiffusion de France). In most cases, a modification of the location of wind turbines makes it possible to avoid disturbances. If the alternative implantation is difficult to implement, the wind turbine developer will have to install a re-transmitter or an alternative mode of television reception, such as satellite.

Finally, consultations with the drinking water catchment management department and the gas pipeline manager must be carried out if the ZIP is located close to these sensitive areas. Indeed, during the construction of the park can frequently encounter the underlying water table and lead to water pollution by the sludge and hydrocarbons used. Technical problems related to the operation of renewable energy sources also pose risks to water resources. With the use of large volumes of oil, the operation of wind turbines is also exposed when the nacelle does not perform well as a retention tank. (9) The following map summarizes all the constraints on the community of communes of Séglien:

Figure 9 : Local context at Séglien, Valeco

It can be noted from now on that depending on the location of the wind turbines, the town of Silfiac in the North could be concerned by the project. Indeed the ZIP is straddling the two communes. But if

22 all the wind turbines are on the commune of Séglien, then all the economic spin-offs at the communal level would return to Séglien.

Moreover, there are no constraints with regard to departmental roads, power lines or water catchment areas. This zone is about 3000 m long, and seems to be correctly oriented as we will see in more detail later on. c) Windy Region

It is obvious that for a wind farm to be profitable there must be enough wind. In fact, the available power can be calculated by the following formula :

1 푃 = 휌 퐴푣3 (eq. 1) 2 푎푖푟 Where :

- P is the maximum power available

- 휌푎푖푟 is the air density - 퐴 is the area swept by the blades - 푣 is the wind speed at hub height

This power is therefore a function of the cube of the wind speed. So multiplying the wind speed by 2 means that you get 8 times more power! Of course all this power is not recoverable. Indeed the German Albert Betz established in 1919 that the maximum theoretical power developed by a wind sensor is equal to 16/27 of the incident power of the wind which crosses the wind turbine. (10)

In this thesis the air density is considered constant equal to 1.19 kg/ M3. This is not always true. First, at higher temperatures, gas molecules further accelerate. As a result, they push harder against their surroundings, expanding the volume of the gas. And the higher the volume with the same number of particles, the lower the density is. Therefore, air's density decreases as the air is heated. Moreover, we could understand why altitude has a significant influence on air density. Because as you go higher, the greater the pressure drops. The air is less compressed, so it extends and therefore the volume increases (and the density decreases). Then, if the humidity increase, for a same volume, temperature and pressure, water vapor molecules have to replace nitrogen, oxygen or argon, the three main dry air molecules. Because molecules of H₂O are lighter than the other, the total mass of the gas decreases, decreasing the density of the air too.

Similarly, the higher the hub of the wind turbine, the higher the speed increases according to the following formula:

훼 푍ℎ푢푏 푉ℎ푢푏 = 푉푟푒푓 ∗ ( ) (푒푞. 2) 푍푟푒푓

Figure 10: Wind speed extrapolation

So for a given blade tip height, a compromise must be made between the hub height and the diameter of the wind turbine blades. The higher the hub will be and the smaller the blades will be. The lower the hub will be, the bigger the blades will be. This ratio between hub height and blade diameter must not be disproportionate to preserve the aesthetics of the wind turbine in order to be socially acceptable.

Still, in metropolitan France, thanks to a long and windy coastline, the wind potential is there and very present.

Figure 11: Mean wind speed in France, MétéoFrance

When we start a project or when we don't have a lot of wind data on the site under consideration, we can use software to simulate the wind deposit on the site. This software provides us with a lot of data that can give us a first idea of the wind potential. To do this I used AWS software which was able to give me the wind rose allowing us to know the wind direction and its frequency, the Weibbull coefficients k and A allowing us to model the wind distribution on the site. (10)

푘−1 푉 푘 푘 푉 −( ) 푓(푉) = ∗ ( ) ∗ 푒 퐴 (푒푞. 3) 퐴 퐴

In this case I found A = 7.89 and k =2.415

Then I could plot the Weibull distribution at Séglien.

Figure 12: Weibull distribution at Séglien

This is one of the major criteria to be taken into account when seeking to install wind turbines. Of course a thorough study with a measuring mast is mandatory to refine our production and obtain a viable model on the long term. Often a wind study takes at least one year to obtain data for a full year. Then we can extrapolate these data to obtain a consistent distribution over the life of the project. However, the wind distribution is only a minor constraint when seeking to install wind turbines in the West of France. Indeed, as we can see on the map, the wind deposit is large enough and is therefore not an obstacle to the profitability of the site. d) Aerial easements

France, like other European countries, is constantly overflown by airliners, private planes, military planes, helicopters, microlights etc. In order to avoid any accidents, the French aviation sector is governed by strict regulations. It is therefore necessary to consult the various organisations that govern the air code to find out the provisions for the installation of wind turbines. This report presents the main aviation constraints that can be identified in France, and more particularly in the West, at the end of 2020. These aviation constraints are regularly redefined in consultation with the various organizations concerned.

ARMY : In example, though the military represents 10% of air traffic, military flight paths prevent the installation of wind turbines on almost 50% of the territory. It is therefore challenging to install wind turbines over a large part of the country, and even more so when more than 150 meters high.

RTBA : These sectors, of which there are six spread across the country, are intended to allow military air activities at heights below 150m/CSA. They enable aircraft to fly very close to the ground at very high speed to become accustomed to very low altitude flight, maintain specific know-how and develop particular tactics. Air-to-ground combat training missions are also carried out there. Thus, in view of training requirements, the constraints of armies lead to the adoption of a case-by-case study. Defence does not issue any restrictions when these projects are located in an area already impacted by wind turbines without increasing the existing disturbance.

RTBAs limit the installation of wind turbines by imposing a ceiling ranging from 90m/AFSC to 150m/AFSC, depending on the location. The wind turbines are therefore limited in height and therefore in power.

Figure 13 :Map of all the RTBA in France, Army

VOLTAC The VOLTAC sectors are land volumes between the surface and 150 m above ground level within which helicopter flights are carried out at very low altitudes, day and night. Thus, with regard to training requirements, opinions on obstacle projects in the VOLTAC sectors are not systematically unfavourable. The defence does not issue any restrictions when these projects are located in areas already impacted by wind turbines without increasing the existing disturbance. They are studied on a case-by-case basis. As for the RTBAs, the VOLTAC sectors have been reduced by 11% since 2019. It is impossible to install wind turbines under VOLTAC.

Figure 14: Map of the VOLTAC zone in France, Army

SETBA The Very Low Altitude Training Areas (SETBA) are military training areas for naval aircraft that extend from the ground to 150 meters in height for the purpose of conducting sea penetration exercises for

26 land operations. It is not possible to install wind turbines under SETBA. Nevertheless, SETBA "pockets" have been negotiated, notably to allow the construction of wind farms. (13)

Figure 15 : Map of all the SETBA zone in France, Army

Méteo France

Weather radars make it possible to locate precipitation and measure its intensity in real time. Spread over the whole territory, they have a range of about 100 km to measure the quantity of precipitation and about 200 km to detect dangerous phenomena. In addition to the intensity of precipitation, weather radars use the Doppler effect to provide information on the wind in precipitation zones. The most recent radars are able to distinguish between different types of precipitation (rain, snow, hail, etc.).

Meteo Radar Protection zone Exclusion zone

C frequency bandwidth 5 km 20 km

S frequency bandwidth 10 km 30 km

X frequency bandwidth 4 km 10 km Tableau 1: MétéoFrance radar exclusion perimeter

Figure 16 :Map of weather radar range in France, MétéoFrance

In order for MéteoFrance to give a favourable opinion on the installation of wind turbines under weather radar, several criteria need to be validated:

- the impact zone associated with the wind project must have a maximum length of 10 km

- the different impact zones created by the different wind farms under weather radar must respect a minimum inter-distance of 10 km.

- at all times, wind turbines must create a maximum shadowing of 10% of the radar beam area

The Météo-France radar network in mainland France (situation as at 8 October 2020). The circles of the radars in S band (in red) and C band (in blue, in black for the bordering radars) have a radius of 100 km. The X-band radar circles (green and purple) have a radius of 50 km. (14)

DGAC Radar DGAC air traffic control radars are radars (primary and secondary) used by air traffic control to locate, track and guide aircraft in the airspace or around an aerodrome. Primary radars use the echo principle. They emit pulses of electromagnetic waves and detect the return of these pulses after they have been reflected off targets. The time difference between emission and reception determines the distance of the target from the antenna. The position of the antenna when receiving the echo, together with a correction calculation (the antenna rotates continuously), determines the azimuth of the target.

These secondary radars use the principle of dialogue and not echo localisation. Secondary radars emit a series of pulses of electromagnetic waves representing interrogation messages. Transponders on board aircraft detect these interrogations, decode them, and in turn emit pulses of electromagnetic waves representing the answers to each interrogation received. The radar determines the aircraft's azimuth by the reception angle and the distance of the aircraft by the return time of the message. Primary radars are gradually being replaced by secondary radars.

Civil Aviation Radar Exclusion zone

Primary radar 30 km

Secondary radar 16 km

VOR (Visual Omni Range) 15 km Tableau 2: Civil Aviation exclusion perimeter, DGAC

The wind turbines come to disturb these radars. Indeed, when their metal blades start to move, they reflect or diffract the radioelectric impulses sent by the radars. This is why it is necessary to consult the DGAC if you are in an area covered by a DGAC radar.

The following map summarizes all the constraints on the community of communes of Séglien

Figure 17 : Aeronautical context next to Séglien, Valeco

On the map summarizing the different air constraints, we can see that the RTBA flies over the ZIP identified in the Local Context section. This constraint is one of the most important since this section prevents us from installing wind turbines measuring more than 150 m above sea level according to the return given to us by the army. We will therefore be limited in height and therefore in installed capacity.

The exclusion zone of the MétéoFrance radar in Noyal-Pontivy is 10 km because it uses an X frequency band. So it does not impact the project in Séglien, as well as the aerodrome of Noyal-Pontivy or the heliport of Pontivy.

e) Environmental Easements

Wind turbines have been classified since the Grenelle II law on the environment as an ICPE. As such, they must comply with a certain number of criteria regarding respect for the environment. The respect of biodiversity, air migration routes, fauna and flora ... are all things to be taken into account when you want to set up a wind farm in France. Similarly, a European and French legal framework has been set up to preserve the territories.

An example of legislation at European level is the Natura 2000 network. This brings together natural or semi-natural sites in the European Union which are of great heritage value, because of the exceptional flora and fauna they contain. The aim of the Natura 2000 network is to maintain the biological diversity of environments, while taking into account economic, social, cultural and regional requirements in a sustainable development approach, and bearing in mind that the conservation of protected areas and biodiversity is also of long-term economic interest.

The desire to set up a European network of natural sites was a response to an observation: conserving biodiversity is only possible by taking into account the needs of animal and plant populations, which do not know the administrative borders between States. This desire to preserve biodiversity has led to the creation of two preservation zones: SPAs and SACs.

SPA

SPAs are sites designated by EU Member States for the preservation of birdlife. They are marine and land sites that are particularly suitable for survival or that serve as breeding, wintering or staging areas for migratory bird species.

SPAs aim to :

- conserve or restore to a state favourable to their long-term maintenance the natural habitats and populations of the species of wild fauna which justified the designation of the Natura 2000 site. - Avoid the deterioration of natural habitats and disturbances likely to significantly affect the species of wild fauna that justified the designation of the Natura 2000 site.

SCA SCAs are sites designated by EU Member States for the conservation of ecological sites. SACs concern :

- habitats hosting endangered, vulnerable, rare or endemic species of Community interest

- landscape elements which, due to their linear and continuous structure or their role as relays, are essential for the migration, geographical distribution and genetic exchange of wild species.

There is a one-kilometer buffer zone to protect these areas and to create a transition space between the area to be protected and the areas that can be modified by human activity. The establishment of a wind farm in these zones as well as in their buffer zones is strictly forbidden by law.

ZNIEFF

The Natural Zones of Ecological, Faunistic and Floristic Interest (ZNIEFF) are set up by the National Inventory of Natural Heritage. This is not a legal device but rather a tool of scientific knowledge that allows for the protection of the environment. Forests, ponds and forest plots may be concerned by this system. There are two types of ZNIEFF, which are divided according to their own interest :

- ZNIEFF 1: Sectors of great biological or ecological interest. - ZNIEFF 2: Large, rich natural areas with little modification, offering significant biological potential.

The ZNIEFF 2 may also include one or more type 1 zones and cover large areas such as mountain ranges or landscapes. Some parts of the zone may not contain any remarkable species or areas but are part of a whole. The areas concerned may be wetlands, ponds, ponds or wooded areas, forests, scrublands or even maquis. It is important to note that a geographical area can be at the same time ZNIEFF, SAC and/or SPA. The ZNIEFFs are to be taken into account but are not prohibitive for the establishment of a wind farm. (15)

Figure 18 : map of all the ZNIEFFs in France, MNHM

RNP

Regional Nature Parks are created to protect and enhance large inhabited rural areas. An area with a predominantly rural character, whose landscapes, natural environments and cultural heritage are of high quality, but whose balance is fragile, may be classified as a "Regional Nature Park". A Regional Nature Park is organised around a concerted sustainable development project, based on the protection and enhancement of its natural and cultural heritage. Today there are 56 Regional Nature Parks in France, representing 16.5% of the French territory, more than 4700 municipalities, more than 9 million hectares and more than 4.4 million inhabitants. The Regional Nature Parks are territories recognised for the richness of their natural and cultural heritage, the diversity and richness of their built heritage, the great variety of their terroirs, the beauty of their landscapes (some of which are internationally recognised).

Unlike a national park, nature reserve or classified site, a RNP has no regulatory powers. It is impossible for a RNP to prohibit anything, nor is construction, hunting or land use restricted by law. The measures for the protection of fauna and flora, water and soil, forests and landscapes that apply in RNPs are those that exist in the current regulations. However, an RNP must undertake to comply with existing regulations, particularly with regard to the protection of the most fragile areas and the most endangered species. The RNPs are equipped with the means (technical, financial, human, etc.) to promote development that respects social and economic, natural, cultural and heritage balances, by seeking to maintain traditional activities in decline, renew or reinforce them, while at the same time inventing new solutions to resolve the specific difficulties encountered by these territories. (16)

There are many classified sites, sites registered in the Parks' territories. Several French sites listed as Unesco World Heritage sites are located within the Parks' territories: the banks of the Loire in the Loire- Anjou-Touraine Park.

The regulations of the RNP often take into consideration the locations within it where wind farms can be built. Thus, in order to establish a wind farm, it is necessary to consult the geographical regulations in force in the park.

Figure 19: NRP In France, Supagro Institute

The following map summarizes all the constraints on the community of communes of Séglien :

Figure 20 : Environmental context next to Séglien, Valeco

We can notice that Séglien is at more than 50% in a ZNIEFF 2: Scorff/Pont-Calleck forest. However, this is not a prohibitive factor for setting up a wind farm, but will require increased vigilance on the fauna and flora.

According to the documentation of this ZNIEFF, particular attention will have to be paid to the two following botanical species: the cochlearia aesturia (Cochlearia aesturia) and the remarkable trichomanes (Trichomanes speciosum). As for the zoological interest of the area, the otter presents in the Pont-Callecket sector the basin heads of the Scorff and its tributaries is to be noted. A further study will be carried out and explained later in this thesis.

f) Heritage easement

France also boasts a large number of areas of historical and heritage interest. A listed or registered site in France is a natural area or a remarkable natural formation whose historical, artistic, scientific, legendary or picturesque character calls, in the name of the general interest, for conservation in its current state (maintenance, restoration, enhancement...) as well as the preservation of any serious damage (destruction, alteration, trivialisation...). But on the other hand, this multitude of historical sites are as many sites where the installation of wind turbines is complicated if not impossible. Indeed, although the minimum distance from the building is 500m as seen above, this distance can reach several kilometers depending on the importance of the site, due to the modification of the visual and urban landscape. This notion of minimum distance to a place classified as a historic monument is subjective and must be examined on a case-by-case basis by landscape design offices. This study can be requested by the administration but is not necessary for the constitution of the file. For example, wanting to build a wind farm close to listed or classified sites is not an obstacle.

However, the classification of a UNESCO World Heritage site and its buffer zone makes it impossible to build a wind farm in this area. This is particularly marked in the west by the classification of the châteaux of the Loire as a UNESCO world heritage site. It is therefore an important factor to take into account when prospecting for wind farms in the Loire-Atlantique region but not in Brittany.

The following map summarizes all the constraints on the community of communes of Séglien:

Figure 21 : Patrimonial context next to Séglien, Valeco

In and around Séglien you can find many chapels classified as national heritage. As such, a 500 m exclusion zone around the monument must be respected. We can found the following chapels :

Figure 22: Saint-Germain Figure 23 : Saint-Laurent chapel, Figure 24: Locmaria chapel, chapel, photo credit: Lanzonnet photo credit : Elita1 photo credit: XIIIfromTOKYO

Nevertheless these chapels are all far from the ZIP. Vigilance must be exercised during the landscape study studied later in this report.

V) Study on site

a) Definition of study areas

Conducting a wind energy project to its conclusion, from the identification of potential sectors to the dismantling of the wind farm at the end of its life, requires many stages during which environmental assessment through different impact studies plays an important role. An impact study must address the positive and negative impacts of a project for all environmental issues. Generally speaking, three main negative impacts are to be considered with regard to the operation and implementation of wind farms: acoustic impacts, impacts on flying fauna and impacts on landscapes and heritage. However, in view of the characteristics of the site and the project, other significant impacts may occur. Examples include a more detailed study of the risks of ice-related accidents, or a geo-biological study to prove the non-existence of water tables near the ZIP.

Regulations require that these impacts be characterised: direct or indirect, temporary or permanent, negative or positive, short, medium or long term. For example, the construction phase may induce disturbances to flying or terrestrial fauna, or a disruption of road traffic (during the transport of wind turbines). Similarly, wind farms have positive effects, for example on the physical and human environment (avoided CO2 emissions, direct and indirect job creation). The impact study will have to present these as well. All these studies are carried out by specialised and independent research consultancies, whose report will be added to the file to be submitted to the Prefecture.

Type of Example impact Direct modification of access paths modification of bird Indirect movement routes destruction of vegetation on Permanent the sites of implantation disturbance of wildlife Temporary during the work increased visitor traffic to Induced the site Tableau 3: Type of impact and examples

The definition of the study area is one of the keys to the success of the ecological study. The whole geographical area concerned by the development project should be considered. In the case of wind farms, the different ecological units present around the wind site must be taken into account: bird hunting zones, resting areas for migratory birds, wildlife transit zones, birthing sites for chiropterans, etc. This approach is essential to establish the ecological functioning of the site and its dynamics. A disturbance on one of the units, even if it is not directly concerned by the installation of the wind turbines, can have consequences on the whole functioning of the local ecosystem. (17)

On the basis of bibliographical work and field investigations, environmental issues are identified at three levels: the remote, close and immediate study area. The distances to the project from these

35 study areas remain to be defined on a case-by-case basis according to the sensitivities and characteristics of the site.

Study area Caracteristics

area where the wind turbines will be installed, where the initial state Immediate must be fully analysed, in particular by drawing up an inventory of the (<1 km) animal and plant species present (mammals, birds, flora, etc.). Area potentially affected by the project, the magnitude of which varies according to the location and value of neighbouring ecological units. Close (from Within this area, targeted inventories must be carried out on the most 1 to 10 km) sensitive protected species or habitats, areas of concentration of fauna and the main biodiversity hotspots. Remote The study of this area must be part of the logic of the analysis of (>10km) cumulative effects within the dynamics of a territory. Tableau 4: Study areas and its caracteristics

For the Séglien project the 3 zones have been defined as follows:

Figure 25: The 3 study zones at Séglien, Valeco

Nevertheless, these 3 study areas can be slightly modified by the different engineering and design departments in order to stick as well as possible with their own constraints.

b) Acoustic study

Wind turbine noise can be divided into two categories: mechanical and aerodynamic noise. Mechanical noise is caused by all the equipment in the nacelle. It is a generally stable noise that can be reduced by improving the components, confining and insulating them. The main method of reducing mechanical noise nuisance is the use of natural ventilation, in order to limit the use of fans, the reduction of vibrations of mechanical parts, the improvement of equipment and the confinement of the nacelle's equipment.

As for aerodynamic noise, it is related to the rotation of the blades. It is generated by the interaction of the tip and leading and trailing edges of the blades with the turbulence of the air. These noises increase with the speed of rotation of the blades. Reducing the speed of the blades, fine-tuning their profile and modifying the leading and trailing edges limits the nuisance. In recent years, the size and electrical power of installed wind turbines have increased steadily, while their acoustic power has varied little. Indeed, the main noise contribution, at great distances, is aerodynamic noise which is directly linked to the rotation speed of the blades and the wind speed. The larger a wind turbine is, the slower its blades rotate (this is technically explained by the fact that the speed at the tip of the blade has limits that must not be exceeded).

The calculated sound power is an intrinsic noise level of the machine, taking into account all aerodynamic and mechanical noise of the wind turbine. This power is the power that a point source would have generating, at a given location, sound levels equivalent to those actually measured with the wind turbine in operation. It is available in octave bands. The sound power of a wind turbine is usually between 95 and 110 dB(A) depending on the model and wind speed. This is in no way comparable with the sound pressure levels at the base of the turbine nacelle, which are closer to 60 dB(A).

Faced with these nuisances, France has chosen an original regulatory approach. Rather than limiting noise nuisance to a fixed level expressed in decibels (dB), the issue is dealt with by the notion of the "emergence" of the nuisance. This involves considering the difference between ambient noise and the noise of a wind farm, so that the noise nuisance of a wind farm does not exceed ambient noise by more than 5 dB during the day and more than 3 dB at night. In concrete terms, ambient noise varies according to the surrounding vegetation and the weather, making each situation unique. For example, the stronger the wind, the greater the ambient noise, especially due to the rustle of the vegetation. Finally, it is when the wind is weak that it is most difficult to limit the emergence linked to the park, because if the noise of the blades is low, the ambient noise does not mask the relatively stable mechanical noise of the gondola's equipment. Experience and modelling show that emergences are most critical for wind speeds between 6 and 8 m/s measured at 10m from the ground. Above 10 m/s, except for special site conditions (especially for sites with marked topography), the residual level due to the wind in the vegetation and other obstacles becomes consequent and higher than the contributions of the machines. (17)

However, in certain circumstances, clamping the machines is still the only solution to comply with the legislation. In particular, the rotation speed of the blades must be limited by controlling their inclination at a level that limits the emergence of nuisances. A solution that can go as far as stopping the machines completely in extreme cases. In concrete terms, the clamping is controlled according to

the wind speed, its direction and the hourly criteria defined by the legislation in order to limit noise when the wind blows in the direction of homes. The first step is to zone-zone the dwellings and set up typical scenarios according to wind speed and direction. While this is simple to do, it is expensive because it involves a reduction in electricity production. However, it is not necessary if the wind project is to be implemented.

The calculation of the sound levels perceived at a given point is based on the modelling of sound wave propagation. This prediction is carried out by specialised calculation software. The prediction is based, on the one hand, on the emission values of the wind turbines (sound power) and, on the other hand, on mathematical models of sound wave propagation. The main parameters influencing the propagation of sound waves from wind turbines are as follows:

- floor effects ;

- vegetation effects ;

- the relief around the site ;

- weather conditions (especially wind and temperature gradients);

- and, of course, the distance

The results of the modelling can take two forms:

- or a cartography of the noise iso-curves around the wind farm;

- or the numerical value calculated at the level of the dwellings shown in the initial state.

Residual Calculated noise Mesure Calculated noise level, Respect of Period level level, wind project Emergence point wind project + residual regulations measured only 1 Day 44 dB(A) 42 dB(A) 46 dB(A) 2 dB(A) Yes 1 Night 40 dB(A) 42 dB(A) 44 dB(A) 4 dB(A) No 2 Day 45 dB(A) 38 dB(A) 45,8 dB(A) 0,8 dB(A) Yes 2 Night 39 dB(A) 38 dB(A) 41,5 dB(A) 2,5 dB(A) Yes Tableau 5: Noise Emergence

The specific effects of noise on human health are rather difficult to determine, partly because sensitivity to noise varies greatly between individuals. Noise exerts two kinds of health effects: auditory and non-auditory effects. Given the noise levels involved at wind farms (about 60 dB(A) at the foot of a wind turbine, 45 dB(A) at 300 m), no impact on the hearing system is expected. Thus, only the study of non-auditory effects is expected in the health section of the impact study of a wind turbine project. The possible non-auditory effects are essentially psychological and mainly concern the sensation of discomfort. This discomfort is correlated, on the one hand, with the perceived sound levels and, on the other hand, with the general perception of wind energy, and of the project in particular (landscape impacts, cast shadows,...).

In our case, the dwellings are all close to each other. The closest being about 500 m from one of the turbines. Moreover the residual noise is very low on site. This is why a clamping plan has been

38 requested by the design office to limit the noise of the park if the wind blows in a specific direction with a specific speed.

In addition, when choosing a machine, it is advisable to choose the one that emits the least amount of sound to allow less frequent clamping.

c) Environmental study

It is very important to make an environmental study of the site to measure the impact of the wind project on the fauna and flora. This study is carried out over at least one year to study all the species during the different seasons. The method to assess the impacts consists in comparing the conclusions of the initial state (species present, interest of species habitats, wider environmental context) with the characteristics of the wind project and the sensitivity of the species concerned. It is also important to take into account the cumulative effects of wind farms among themselves, but also with other anthropogenic developments (high voltage lines, motorway, future industrial zone, etc.) which may affect the movement of fauna. While a single wind farm may have a reduced negative effect (on migrating birds for example), the multiplication of obstacles (to migration) may have more important consequences.

The table below shows the favorable periods to observe the fauna.

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.

Flora

Nesting birds

Migratory birds

Bats

Mammals

Tableau 6: Period for observing the fauna

Bats

Because of their mobility, their omnipresence in natural areas and the known sensitivity of certain species to the risks of mortality and/or habitat loss, bats are one of the groups most susceptible to the effects of wind farm installation. Some thirty species frequent the metropolitan area, with significant variations depending on the region. The two main types of impact to be studied are the risk of direct mortality during the operation phase (collision/barotrauma) and direct damage to habitats or even species during the construction phase (destruction of shelter trees). Indirect disturbance due to wind turbines (disturbance, barrier effect or habitat loss through scaring) must also be studied.

Birds

Because of its mobility, its omnipresence in natural areas and the known stakes for certain species, avifauna is one of the groups most subject to the effects of the installation of a wind farm. The study of the avifauna prior to the installation of a wind farm focuses, on the one hand, on the populations of bird species present or using the site, and on the other hand, on the behaviour of these birds and in

39 particular on their movement routes and flight heights. Indeed, the main impacts on birds are of three types: habitat loss, direct mortality and disturbance. However, these impacts vary greatly depending on the environments and species concerned, as well as the density, layout and typology of the wind turbines installed. This is why special attention must therefore be paid to bird censuses during the entire life cycle, if necessary. It is also necessary to take into account not only the resting, feeding and breeding areas of the various local species, but also the movements linked to these activities.

According to Erickson et al. in 2005, direct mortality from wind turbines contributes to a reduced level of human-induced bird mortality compared to collisions with buildings and windows, electrical installations (lines and towers), cats or road collisions.

Mammals

Mammals are also asking for a study to measure the impact of wind turbines on their habitat and way of life. Nevertheless, the study of mammals generally presents fewer constraints than for bats. This is the case for the Séglien project, as can be seen in the Appendix.

For the Séglien project, we conducted an extensive environmental study, the maps below are the result of this study:

Figure 26: Environmental sensitivity on the ZIP at Séglien during exploitation, Calidris

Figure 27 :Environmental sensitivity on the ZIP during construction, Calidris

We can note that the construction of the park will have a moderate to strong impact on the species present on the site. It will therefore be necessary to respect a strict protocol to limit these impacts. We can also note that the impact of the park in operation on wildlife is measured from low to zero impact. This corroborates the fact that setting up a wind farm in a ZNIEFF is not prohibitive for the flora.

d) Landscape study

These are undoubtedly the most discussed effects of a wind project. Wind turbines, by their large size, their white color, their movement, are objects that cannot be concealed and little modified. It is therefore in its relationship with the location that the wind farm will "make landscape", that is to say that the pre-existing landscape and the wind farm will mutually integrate into a new landscape. The visual effects analysis must demonstrate how the project achieves this. The three study areas are complementary: the far study area ensures that there is no incompatibility of the project on the scale of the larger landscape; the near study area allows for the design of a real landscape project; the immediate study area allows for the specification of siting details and amenities to reduce impacts on the landscape in the vicinity of the facilities. The park must be seen in its landscape, but it must be seen "well": it is impossible to hide such a development, so it is as much as possible to claim it by its visual qualities of insertion.

The photomontages are an excellent support for consultation. Software allows, from a given photo, to simulate the position and appearance of wind turbines (included in catalogs) in a fine, panoramic way, to resemble the visual field. The objective of the shot must be specified (in relation to human vision). The points of view must be taken from the places of habitat, habit, passage and from important places of the territory (panorama, monuments, summits, etc.) and listed with precision. The photos below allow us to realize the impact of the park on the landscape at various places in the area close to the site:

Figure 28: Photomontage of the wind farm from Sifliac and Langoëland, Calidris

Since wind turbines are not concealable, measurements at near and far landscape scales are limited. However, thanks in particular to the visual influence zones, it is possible to predict the areas from which the project can be seen. Thus, in areas of major sensitivity, it may be possible to consider hiding the vision of the wind turbines (plantations around a monument, a major point of life in a village, etc.).

VI) Choosing wind turbine

a) Topological layout

When deciding what turbine to choose for a location, it is important to know what kind of wind conditions there are in the area. In our case we have to find turbines that respect the 150m high air ceiling. So I studied the "extreme" variants from a rotor point of view and an intermediate variant. Today there are many different wind turbine manufacturers. In this case, four turbines of different brands are chosen. The Brands are of Nordex and Enercon and the different turbine models are presented in the table below, along with some of their specifications. (29)

Wind turbines and attributes E138 3,5MW N117 3,6MW N131 3,6MW N 117 2,4MW T81 T91 T84 T91 Brend Enercon Nordex Nordex Nordex Size (MW) 3,5 3,6 3,6 2,4 Hub height (m) 81 91 84 91 Rotor diameter 69 58,5 69 58,5 (m) Blade tip height 150 149,5 153 149,5 (m) Frequency (Hz) 50 50 50 50 Rated speed (m/s) 13 14 12 11 Cut in speed (m/s) 2 2 2 2 Cut off speed 26 26 26 21 (m/s) Tableau 7: Data of the wind turbines chosen for the study

The facing direction of the wind turbines is determined by the most probable wind direction. In order to know the most probable wind direction, the wind rose of the selected place is studied. The wind rose is given below.

Figure 29: Wind rose on site, AWS

Therefore, following the most probable direction, the turbines are positioned facing the SW wind direction. In order to maximize the amount of energy that can be produced at a given location, wind turbines must be separated by at least 3 wind turbine diameters. This is to reduce the wake effects as much as possible. The wake losses are explained in the next part.

Figure 30: First topological layout Figure 31: Second topological layout

We will thus realize two different topologies according to the machine used. The restricted nature of the zone prevents us from putting more than 4 Enercon-type wind turbines on the site. Configuration 2 is the one chosen for the Enercon-produced turbine. It is also complicated to put more than 5 N131 type wind turbines in a linear configuration. The first configuration is chosen for the other Nordex turbines. b) Losses

When we want to calculate the annual production on site, we have to take into account different energy losses. These losses can be physical (wake effect or variation in air density) or of human origin (maintenance, clamping). We will detail the main losses taken into account in this thesis.

WSM loss

The Wind Sector Management losses are estimated by the turbine manufacturer. Once the site's wind deposit has been measured (by extrapolation or otherwise), the wind developer sends them to the turbine manufacturer so that they can analyze whether the turbine will be able to cope with the turbulence induced by wind speeds and variations. If at certain times the turbine developer feels that it will be difficult for the turbine to cope, a bridle can be put in place. In this report these losses are considered to occur 2% of the time.

Environmental loss

These losses occur when a certain amount of clamping is required due to environmental constraints, such as slowing down or even stopping the machine when the bats are active. In this report these losses are supposed independent of the machine used and are considered to occur 2% of the time.

Loss of unavailability

These losses occur when the machine is not operational: this can happen in case of maintenance or when the turbine is damaged. In this report these losses are supposed independent of the machine used and are considered to occur 3% of the time.

Loss due to changes in air density

As we have seen, variations in air density affect the power recoverable by the wind turbine. In this thesis we have assumed constant air density; therefore, these losses are considered to be zero.

Wake losses

In this wake, the average wind speed is decreased since the turbine has captured some of the kinetic energy of the natural wind and the turbulence intensity is increased. The wind leaving the propeller has a lower energy capacity than the wind entering the propeller.

The wake of a wind turbine therefore has a double effect on the immediate environment :

- a decrease in the wind speed behind the wind turbine resulting in a decrease in the production of the surrounding wind turbines. - an increase in fatigue loads (and therefore a decrease in service life) related to the increase in turbulence intensity (18)

The energy loss due to the park effect is generally about 5%.

Acoustic losses

As we have seen during the on-site acoustic study, acoustic losses are the most important losses to be taken into account in our study. Indeed, the first houses are at about 550 m from the site, and strongly constrain the noise emerging from the wind turbines. A restraint will therefore be carried out to limit as much as possible the noise nuisance for these houses. Although the various turbine manufacturers have made many efforts to make the turbines quieter, this clamping can lead to losses ranging from 7 to 15%.

Acoustic losses are estimated at 7% thanks to the acoustic study carried out on site. c) Turbine selection

Thanks to the different power curves delivered by the turbiners and which can be found in the appendix, we are able to estimate the energy production of each turbine by the following formula :

푣푚푎푥 퐸푊푇 = 8760 ∗ ∫ 푝(푣)푃(푣)푑푣 (푒푞. 4) 푣푚푖푛 Where:

- p is the Weibull distribution curve on site - P is the power curve of the wind turbine

This is called P50, because there is a 50% chance of having a higher or lower production. P50 and net P50 can be obtained by subtracting the different losses of each machine. So we have:

Productible Comparison & first LCOE

90 24 80 70 22 60 20 50 18 40 16 30

14 (€/MWh) LCOE ElectricityGWh/y) 20 10 12 0 10 4xE138 3,5MW 6xN117 3,6MW 5xN131 3,6MW 6xN117 2,4MW

Net P50 Losses

Figure 31: Productible Comparison and first LCOE

Based solely on the energy produced, it can be concluded that Enercon machines do not provide enough energy. We will therefore choose a machine from the Nordex company. However, other parameters must also be taken into account, such as price, delivery time, means of delivery etc. Unfortunately I am not able to give the exact prices of the turbines, which are unique to each project. According to the ADEME (Agence de l'Environnement et de la Maîtrise de l'Energie), large wind turbines cost between 1,300 and 1,500 euros per kW to install. To this price must be added annual operating costs of about 2 to 3% of the initial investment cost. So in this project we will take the same cost per kW for each Nordex turbine equal to 1400 euros per kW. The calculated LCOE only takes into account the price of the turbine amortized over 25 years, the recommended operating life of wind turbines, assuming that the energy produced is identical for each year of operation. As we can see in the figure above, both the N117 and N131 have similar performance. But one of the important issues at stake is noise. Since the N117 has better acoustic performance, we will choose the N117 next. We will therefore focus on configuration 1.

VII) Financial study

a) Electricity market

France started setting up support mechanisms for renewable energies in the early 2000s with the feed- in tariffs (FiT). This support mechanism encouraged the development of the French wind power industry. This feed-in tariff should make it possible to compensate for the investments that were necessary for the construction of the power plant as well as those for its maintenance and eventual dismantling. The producer is also aiming for a high profitability margin so that the construction of the power plant will enable it to obtain the best possible profit. The decree of 17 November 2008 sets a 15-year purchase obligation contract, with tariffs of €8.2 per kWh for 10 years, then between €2.8 and €8.2 per kWh over the following 5 years depending on the profitability of the production sites. By way of comparison, the feed-in tariff for wind power is €8.2 c€ per kWh or €82 per MWh (over the first 10 years of operation of the wind farm), compared to €30 to €40 per MWh for nuclear power (high cost estimate, as EDF does not give exact figures for the cost of nuclear power). Wind power is more expensive than fossil fuels, such as nuclear or coal (€50 to €100 per MWh), although in its early days nuclear was also very expensive and benefited from state-supported purchase prices. On the other hand, the installation of new nuclear power plants, such as the new EPR being built by EDF in the UK, leads to more expensive resale costs for the electricity produced. It is estimated that the cost per kWh for the new EPR in the UK is 12 cents. Renewable energies are therefore an energy of the future, both in terms of use (they are renewable, unlike fossil fuels), but also in terms of their cost in the future. Since the law of 3 January 2003 establishing the CSPE (contribution to the public electricity service), the public electricity service charges borne by suppliers (notably EDF, ELD...) are compensated. The CSPE also makes it possible to finance the payment of the bonus to operators. This CSPE is carried over to the electricity consumer's bill and is proportional to the kWh consumed. It is therefore the final electricity consumers who bear the additional costs of renewable energies.

In 2015 the French government decided to modify the revenues for wind energy in order to comply with the European guidelines. Indeed, the European State Aid Guidelines required that renewable energy should be progressively exposed to market competition. France introduced a feed-in-premium tariff in €/MWh, with an extra revenue that depends on the electricity price. (19)

Figure 32: Remuneration scheme, FEE

The "complément de remuneration" is composed of the premium in €/MWh plus the management bonus and minus the revenues from the capacity market, as we can see in the following figure.

Figure 33: Feed-in-premium scheme, FEE

Developers are entitled to one of these two additional revenue streams depending on the size and power of the park. The conditions are as follows:

- Direct contracting under cumulative conditions: • A maximum number of 6 wind turbines • A maximum power of 3MW for each turbine - Tendering process : the selection is made by the price of the bid in €/MWh which sets the feed-in premium. Thus, there is a risk of not getting the premium tariff through this tender process: • 7 wind turbines and more • Any wind farm with turbines > 3 MW

EDF OA then pays for the difference between this market price and a reference value that is defined either by direct guaranteed contracts or proceeds from a tender procedure.

The direct contracting structure was made to avoid some wind farms with good wind conditions being over supported. These feed-in tariffs and their impact on the electricity bill are a reason for opposing the wind energy sector. Indeed, whether it is in the cases studied during the research or more globally on wind energy in France, the opposition movements indicate that these feed-in tariffs are too high

48 according to them. They also indicate a certain form of injustice for the consumer who must "pay" for wind energy with the CSPE. These two opinions can be qualified, insofar as the feed-in tariffs set up for the wind energy sector are rightly high, but with a view to supporting and helping the development of the wind energy sector in order to meet the objectives of the energy-climate package. Tariff policies for wind energy are incentives to allow the launch of the sector. Nuclear power, at the time of its launch, benefited from this same type of approach in order to favour its development.

Moreover a wind company can use the Power Purchase Agreements (PPAs): a producer can consult several companies that would like to buy back electricity from the power plant that has been built, and to enter into a PPA to set a feed-in tariff with one of them for several years. b) Connection Grid

The Transmission System Operator (TSO), RTE, and the Distribution System Operators (DSO), Enedis are responsible of the French grid. Because RTE is a monopolist, he only secures and invests on the grid. Both system operators must ensure the balance between supply and demand and ensure fair and non-discriminatory access to the network. RTE is responsible for transporting electricity from production centers on very high voltage lines to distribution networks, whereas Enedis is responsible for medium and low voltage distribution for other customers.

With the deployment of wind energy, we need to re-considerate the grid. Indeed, it is not always most cost efficient to build generation capacity close to demand; investments are made taking into account resource availability. The renewable energies create a new geographical distribution of electricity production and change the disparities between regions and countries. Excess production not drawn locally is transported to other consumption centers. New means of generating renewable electricity thus induce a growing need for flexibility in the power system to guarantee security of supply and system stability (interconnections, active management of production and demand, storage, etc.). This requires the development of electricity transmission network infrastructures at regional, national and European level.

The S3REnRs define the network developments that will make it possible to accommodate all of these deposits. The S3REnR schemes have a threefold purpose: to provide medium-term visibility on the grid's accommodation capacities; to optimise and anticipate all necessary developments over the next years; and to pool costs across producers in order to ensure that the first renewable energy projects do not bear all of the infrastructure costs. The S3REnRs guarantee reserved capacity for all renewable energy production facilities. In some areas, capacity is immediately available on the grid, and in others, grid operators make it accessible using innovative technical solutions. Finally, where the capacity to accommodate the deposits is insufficient, reinforcements to the existing network or the creation of new infrastructure (lines, substations, transformers, etc.) are necessary.

Figure 34 : S3RENR Schemes and the national grid situation, FEE and RTE

To date, the S3REnR schemes represent a total of 29 GW accommodation capacity of renewable energy across the country. Nevertheless, there are still significant disparities in the use of reserved allocation capacities as at mid-2020 as we can see in the figure above.

The design of transmission and distribution charges has being looked at with 3 different connection charges :

- Super-shallow: All costs are socialized via the tariff, no costs are charged to the connecting entity; - Shallow: grid users pay for the infrastructure connecting its installation to the transmission grid (line/cable and other necessary equipment); - Deep: it is a shallow connection charge plus other reinforcements required in the transmission grid to enable the grid user to be connected.

The EWEA explains that : ”The shallow grid connection requires generators to pay their grid connection to the closest point of connection available in the grid, which in the case of resource driven wind generators can be quite far from the existing network. In contrast, deep connection charges entail an extra charge for general grid reinforcements on top of the costs to connect to the closest point in the network. Grid development benefits all producers and consumers and, consequently, its costs and benefits should be socialised”. (20)

Figure 35: Connection charges for generation at distribution and transmission level, EWEA

As we can see on this map, the costs related to the creation of links, substations or transformers on the transmission and distribution networks are, for their part, borne by the producers and are shared at the regional level between those who request a connection to the network for an installation. The costs associated with the reinforcement of transmission network facilities and transformers at source substations are borne by the network operators and are part of the investments financed by the tariff for use of the public electricity network (TURPE).

Today the connection of a wind farm is mainly done on the public HV distribution network (connection voltage level: 20 kV). The maximum power connected by cable is set at 17 MW by ENEDIS. If the power injected by a power plant exceeds this threshold, it is necessary to consider several connection cables or choose to connect to the public HV transmission network (voltage levels: 63 kV, 90 kV or 225 kV).

The medium voltage (MV - 20 kV) electrical connection of the power plant is installed by the grid operator and charged to the producer. It includes :

- earthworks and laying of the MV cables between the power station PDL and the grid connection point,

- adaptation of network protections

- a commissioning fee

- a share: Renewable energy production plants connected to the public grid with an injectable power > 250 kVA are liable to pay the grid operator a "share" proportional to the power injected into the grid. The tariff for this share is defined by RTE according to the production potential of each region. It is updated regularly and currently varies according to the region from 1.55 k€/MW to 84 k€/MW. In some regions, it therefore becomes a significant part of the connection costs to be taken into account. This is called the “quote-part” tariff.

French Regions Quote-part (€ HT/kW) Effective date Nouvelle-Aquitaine 79 T3 2020 AURA 50 T2 2021 Normandie - Not before 2022 Bourgogne-Franche-Comté 60-70 T2 2021 Bretagne - Not before 2022 Centre 70-90 T2 2021 Ile-de-France - Not before 2022 Occitanie 72,94 Mid-2021 Hauts-de-France 83,64 Already in place Pays de la Loire - Mid-2021 PACA 60-80 Mid-2021 1st semester Grand-Est 62 2021 Tableau 8: Quote-part for the French Regions in 2020, RTE

It can already be noted that there is not yet a quota tariff in Brittany, as there are not yet enough projects in operation in this region. Nevertheless, this first tariff will be effective at best in 2022, for the new Valeco projects that will see the light of day.Grid reinforcements are in all cases financed by the grid operator via the TURPE, which is passed on to all users and accounts. The connection and extension remain entirely the responsibility of the producer or the person requesting the connection.

For a wind farm, the connection can be made in two different ways:

- A direct connection to the source station. The solution most often used for a connection is to connect the power station to a source substation of the public distribution network with 20 kV cables. - Antenna connection: if an MV power line closer than the source station has the capacity to accept the power from the power station, it is possible to make the connection by a "tap" on the same line. c) Cable sizing

In this section, we will determine the cables needed to transport the electricity from the wind farm to the nearest source substation. Then we will estimate the cost of connecting the wind farm to the source substation. Today, the closest source substation is located in Pontivy, in the community of communes, 21 km from the wind farm. A source substation is located closer: the Locmalo source substation 7 km away. However, this source substation is not currently available to accommodate a wind farm of this power. It will therefore be necessary to carry out work on this source substation in order to connect to this location, but this will delay the start of operation of the wind farm. Valeco has chosen to connect to Pontivy. Nevertheless I will try to show the differences if we could connect to the source station of Locmalo. The following table summarizes the different data necessary to dimension the electric cables:

Location Séglien Wind Turbine Nordex N131 T84 Unitary power 3,6 Number of 6 Wind Turbine Total Power 21,6 Power factor 0,9 Connection 7 km (Locmalo) distance 21 km (Pontivy) 20 kV - 3 phase AC 50 Voltage Hz Permissible voltage drop 7% (C 13-100 directive) Tableau 9: Data of the potential wind farm

The total resistance/inductance of the line model is calculated as the product between the resistance/inductance per length unit and the length of the line. This approximation is though only valid for short lines and lines of medium length. There are no absolute limits between short, medium and long lines. Usually, lines shorter than 100 km are considered as short, between 100 km and 300 km as medium long and lines longer than 300 km are classified as long. For cables, having considerable higher values ofthe shunt capacitance, the distance 100 km should be considered as medium long. In short line models, the conductance and susceptance parameters are neglected. This because the current flowing through these components is less than one percent of the rated current of the line. Since the substations are often located about ten kilometers from the wind farm, it is reasonable to consider power cables as short lines. The scheme of a power line is defined as follows:

Figure 36 : Scheme of a power line

To dimension the cable it is necessary to respect:

- a criterion of maximum permissible current in the cable. This depends, among other things, on the cross-section of the cable. The maximum operating current of a pipe Ib is determined from

the sum of the powers supplied by this pipe. The value of the admissible current Iz is determined as a function of the operating current and the overall correction factor f, which depends, among other things, on the temperature of the ground, the type of insulation used, the cable grouping and the thermal resistivity of the ground. Iz should be greater than the maximum current injected by the wind farm Ib:

푃푖푛푗 퐼푧 > 퐼푏 = (푒푞. 5) √3 ∗ 푈푔푟푖푑

- a reasonable voltage drop which must not exceed a certain threshold. The two most commonly

used materials are aluminum and copper, in 240 mm² section. The voltage drop 훥푈푔푟푖푑 should be lower than 7% according to the C13-100 directive:

훥푈푔푟푖푑 √3 ∗ 퐼푏 ∗ (푙푒푛퐴푙 ∗ (푅퐴푙푐표푠휑 + 푋퐴푙푠푖푛휑) + 푙푒푛퐶푢(푅퐶푢푐표푠휑 + 푋퐶푢푠푖푛휑)) = < 7% (푒푞. 6) 푈푔푟푖푑 √3 ∗ 푈푔푟푖푑

Aluminum 240mm² can withstand a maximum injected power (and therefore a lower current) of 14 MW and fixed by Enedis, while copper 240mm² can withstand a maximum power of 17 MW. However, this maximum permissible current may decrease depending on the arrangement of the cables. This is due to the magnetic field induced by the cables but also by losses due to Joule effect. Two cables side by side induce less magnetic field than if they were tied together. This phenomenon is quantified in the following table:

Aluminium 240 mm² Copper 240 mm² Iz (for one three-phases cable) 439 A 559 A separated by 25 correction coefficient 0,84 0,84 cm for 2 cables attached 0,76 0,76 Iz (after correction) 368,76 A 333,64 A 469,56 A 424,84 A Tableau 10: Maximum current for 2 cables side-by-side, AFNOR (21)

Cable costs :

We know that : - A 95 mm² Alu 20 kV cable is about 20 €/ml - A 240 mm² Alu 20 kV cable is about 25 €/ml - A 240 mm² Cu 20 kV cable is about 60 €/ml

These prices are approximate because the price is different depending on the supplier, the price of the aluminum and the length required. The cost of civil engineering is included in these prices. It is important to note that it is preferable to install two aluminum cables whenever possible rather than one copper cable. We will therefore try to use as little copper as possible when choosing materials.

MV costs :

The MV costs include all the expenses that will be invoiced by the grid operator to enable it to connect the plant to the grid with MV cables. These costs include the civil engineering work required to build

54 the trench containing the cables. Table 7 shows the average rates identified by VALECO for these civil engineering costs.

Tariff Tariff Number of cables provided Urban roads Rural roads 1 100 €/ml 85 €/ml 2 105 €/ml 90 €/ml 3 110 €/ml 95 €/ml Tableau 11: MV costs

As we have seen when choosing the size of the wind turbines, we have to connect 6 wind turbines of 3.6 MW to the delivery station. To do this, two topologies are studied:

- The delivery station is located at the end of the wind farm. The wind turbines are all connected on the same line.

- The delivery station is located in the middle of the wind farm. The wind turbines are all connected on the same line.

We will determine the power and therefore the maximum intensity passing through the cables. We will then be able to choose the appropriate cable between each wind turbine. In our study we have selected aluminum cables with a cross section of 95 mm², 150 mm², 240 mm², 400 mm² and copper cables with a cross section of 240 mm². Of course this list is not exhaustive, but it includes the main cables used in the industry. In order to know which cable to use, we first calculated the maximum current injected into each cable if the wind turbines are operating at nominal power. Then we chose to minimize costs by selecting the number of parallel cables (1 or 2), as well as the material (aluminum or copper) and its section (95, 150, 240, 400) that meet the criteria of the maximum admissible current in a cable. The characteristics of these cables can be found in the appendix (22).

• If the delivery station is located at the end of the park, the cables used are :

WT1->WT2 WT2->WT3 WT3->WT4 WT4->WT5 WT5->WT6 WT6->PDL Length (km) 0,378 0,539 0,508 0,458 0,513 0,3 Power(MW) 3,6 7,2 10,8 14,4 18 21,6 Ib (A) 103,9 207,8 311,8 415,7 519,6 623,5 Cable 95 Al 150 Al 240 Al 240 Al // 240 Al // 240 Al // Tableau 12: Costs with a PDL at the end of the site

From wind turbine 4 on, the power is too great for the electricity to pass through a single cable. We therefore split the cables to reduce the maximum permissible current. The price for connecting the wind turbines together is 341 695 € with a voltage drop of 0.91%.

• If the delivery station is located between WT4 and WT5, the cables used are :

WT1->WT2 WT2->WT3 WT3->WT4 WT4->PDL PDL->WT5 WT5->WT6 Length (km) 0,378 0,539 0,508 0,458 0,513 0,3 Power(MW) 3,6 7,2 10,8 14,4 7,2 3,6 Ib (A) 103,9 207,8 311,8 415,7 207,8 103,9 Cable 95 Al 150 Al 240 Al 240 Al // 150 Al 95 Al Tableau 13 : Costs with a PDL at the middle of the site

This configuration allows us to decrease the maximum power in the most stressed cable. The price to connect the wind turbines together is 279 708 € with a voltage drop of 0.87%. This configuration is more optimal because it allows us to save money and benefit from a lower voltage drop.

We will therefore choose the second configuration, the one where the delivery station is in the middle of WT4 and WT5, as shown in the following figure :

Figure 37 : Electrical connection between the wind turbines, Valeco

Obviously, we can also double the power lines to avoid inconvenience in case of malfunction, but since this project has only 6 wind turbines, duplication is not necessary.

Now we will determine the cables used to connect the delivery station to the source station, the cost of this connection, as well as the influence of the distance to the connection point by successively studying the connection to Pontivy and the hypothetical connection to Locmalo.

• As we have seen previously, Enedis imposes a maximum voltage drop of 7% on the entire project. We decided to install two power lines in parallel to reduce the maximum current in each cable. Taking into account the voltage drop between the wind turbines we can estimate the voltage drop according to the length of copper used, as shown in the following figure :

Figure 38: Voltage drop in the line (Pontivy)

We will therefore have to use at least 14.31 km of copper to meet Enedis' recommendations for voltage drop, and therefore 6.69 km of aluminum. The cost of the wind farm at the source station will be at least 4.2 million euros (price of materials and landfill work).

• If the Locmalo substation was available, we would only have 7km of connection to make. Taking into account the voltage drop between the wind turbines we can see that the voltage drop is low enough to not use copper, as shown in the following figure:

Figure 39:Voltage drop in the line (Locmalo)

The cost of the wind farm at the source substation would be at least 1.7 million euros (price of materials, landfill work and work to be carried out at the source substation in Locmalo).

This saves us 2.5 million euros if we connect to the Locmalo source station. This will translate into the project’s LCOE.

d) LCOE

It is important, before investing money in the project, to be able to estimate the profitability of the site. To do this, we can calculate the marginal price that will be offered on the market to satisfy the rate of return on investment defined by the company. This price is called LCOE.

The LCOE corresponds to the level at which production must be valued in order to cover the investment and operating costs of the production installation over its entire lifetime. If the production of each period is valued by the LCOE, the present value of the production is equal to the present value of the expenditure. The formula can be written as follows : 퐾 퐹 + 푉 퐾 + 퐹 + 푉 ∑푛 푡 + ∑푛 푡 푡 퐾 + ∑푛 푡 푡 푡 0 (1 + 푟)푡 1 (1 + 푟)푡 0 1 (1 + 푟)푡 퐿퐶푂퐸 = = (푒푞. 7) 푄 푄 ∑푛 푡 ∑푛 푡 1 (1 + 푟)푡 1 (1 + 푟)푡

Where:

- 퐾푡 = capital expenditure in year t (K0 being the initial investment) - 퐹푡 = fixed operating costs in year t - 푉푡 = variable operating costs in year t - 푄푡 = production in year t. - r = discount rate - n= conventional operating period

We can rearrange the formula as follow :

푛 푛 푄푡 퐾푡 + 퐹푡 + 푉푡 퐿퐶푂퐸 ∑ 푡 = 퐾0 + ∑ 푡 (푒푞. 8) 1 (1 + 푟) 1 (1 + 푟)

And assuming that the value of the production of each period is 푅푡 = 퐿퐶푂퐸 ∗ 푄푡, we obtain:

푛 푛 푅푡 퐾푡 + 퐹푡 + 푉푡 ∑ 푡 = 퐾0 + ∑ 푡 (푒푞. 9) 1 (1 + 푟) 1 (1 + 푟) The LCOE is the sum of three components corresponding respectively to the cost of capital, fixed charges and variable charges, which can be broken down into fuel or energy charges and other variable charges. 퐾 퐹 푉 퐾 + ∑푛 푡 ∑푛 푡 ∑푛 푡 0 1 (1 + 푟)푡 1 (1 + 푟)푡 1 (1 + 푟)푡 퐿퐶푂퐸 = + + (푒푞. 10) 푄 푄 푄 ∑푛 푡 ∑푛 푡 ∑푛 푡 1 (1 + 푟)푡 1 (1 + 푟)푡 1 (1 + 푟)푡

The general formula of the LCOE requires that the value of each of the variables involved in its calculation. For reasons of confidentiality, several simplifying hypotheses have been formulated within the framework of this study.

Assumption 1: Annual production is assumed to be constant over the lifetime of the installation, it is noted Q. 1 With 퐴 = the LCOE can be written as: ∑푛 1 1(1+푟)푡

퐾 + 퐹 + 푉 퐾 + ∑푛 푡 푡 푡 0 1 (1 + 푟)푡 퐿퐶푂퐸 = 퐴 (푒푞. 11) 푄

A is the value of the constant annuity corresponding to the financial amortisation of a loan of €1 at rate "r" for a period of "n" years.

Assumption 2 : The capital expenditure is assumed to have already been fully made at the beginning of year 1: 퐾푡= 0 for t=1 to n.

The formula of the LCOE is then written :

푛 퐹푡 + 푉푡 푛 퐹푡 + 푉푡 퐴퐾0 + 퐴 ∑1 푡 퐴 ∑1 푡 (1 + 푟) 퐴퐾0 (1 + 푟) 퐿퐶푂퐸 = = + (푒푞. 12) 푄 푄 푄 where 퐴퐾0 corresponds to the value of the constant annuity of a loan of 퐾0 euros at rate "r" for a period of "n" years.

Assumption 3 : the annual fixed loads are assumed to be constant over the lifetime of the installation, i.e. 퐹푡 = F regardless of t, as are the variable loads per kWh: Vt = 푉푡 = v Q regardless of t. 푛 퐹푡 + 푉푡 푛 퐴 ∑1 푡 퐹푡 + 푉푡 퐹 + 푉 (1 + 푟) 퐹 + 푉 ∑ 푡 = 푎푛푑 = (푒푞. 13) 1 (1 + 푟) 퐴 푄 푄 Finally, the LCOE formula is simplified by :

퐴퐾0 퐹 퐿퐶푂퐸 = + + 푣 (푒푞. 14) 푄 푄

The LCOE is then expressed as the sum of the value of the constant annuity corresponding to 퐴퐾 the financial amortisation of the initial investment divided by the annual production 0, plus the fixed 푄 퐹 costs divided by the annual production plus the variable cost per kWh (v). (23) 푄

Production :

Production acts as the denominator of two of the components of the LCOE: the cost of capital and fixed costs. This is the annual production which is, as indicated, assumed to be constant (see assumption 1). The annual production is estimated from the load factor which expresses as a percentage the annual time during which the installation produces its nominal power. This load factor can be found from the average annual speed on site and the associated Weibull coefficient. Initially this factor can be estimated using AWS software or any other wind field software; then on-site measurements will be carried out to refine this load factor.

Service life :

Lifetime refers to the number of years the plant is expected to produce before it is taken out of service. It is a relatively standardised variable at a given point in time (technical progress may result in longer lifetimes). It is currently estimated at 25 years on average. It can be extended beyond the initial period by repowering operations. The service life is then defined with reference to the most durable element,

59 which can lead to the replacement of certain components during the service life. The useful life may differ from the term of the borrowings and the term of the purchase obligation or additional remuneration contracts.

Discount rate :

The discount rate used in the LCOE formula reflects the cost corresponding to the expected return on capital employed in production. Indeed, when a company finances a project, it is tying up money. This money can be invested in different areas. The company wants a sufficient return to invest in this project and not elsewhere. For the so-called mature wind energy sector, the social acceptability of wind energy projects is taken into account at a rate of about 4%. This rate can vary according to the financial risk it generates, according to the company's policy, the banks, etc.

Cost perspective:

Over the 2008-2019 period, the LCOE of onshore wind power would have decreased by 42%, from €100/MWh in 2008 to €60/MWh in 2019, due to the decrease in CAPEX, the extension of the lifetime, the improvement of the load factor linked to the increase in the height and size of the rotors, and the decrease in the discount rate from 6% to 4%, which represents one third of the decrease. With the development of the sector, the optimisation of logistics and the implementation of innovations, the LCOE of onshore wind energy should continue to decrease in 2030 and 2050, respectively by 25% on average from 2019 to 2030 and by a further 20% from 2030 to 2050. It should be noted, however, that these prospects are purely technological and that regulatory constraints or local opposition may limit their realisation.

e) CAPEX and OPEX

CAPEX takes into account only the capital costs related to the energy production facility. Energy transmission and distribution costs are excluded, except for the costs of "connecting" the production unit to the grid. Capital costs related to the power generation facility refer to all costs related to the construction of the facility - including costs incurred during preparation periods (studies, earthworks, etc.) and interest charges - the costs of replacing components whose useful life is shorter than that of the main equipment, and finally the costs of dismantling and site restoration. To enable the simplified formula to be applied, all of these costs must be discounted to the date on which the facility is put into service.

OPEX is only made when the park is in operation. In particular, they include rent, insurance, maintenance and upkeep expenses, professional taxes based on power, aggregation costs and other expenses necessary during the operation of the park. It should be noted that, unlike conventional power plants, there are no raw material costs. Maintenance/maintenance expenses (number of hours of intervention, replacement of small parts, etc.) generally increase in volume over time.

Considering the selected wind turbine and the cost of connecting the park to the various connection points calculated in the section on connection, we can estimate the CAPEX and OPEX of the project as

60 well as the LCOE. We decided to calculate the LCOE for the two connection points retained in the connection section, i.e. the source stations of Locmalo and Pontivy. The table above gives an estimate of the price for each project. For reasons of confidentiality, the estimated prices are voluntarily rounded. Nevertheless the different percentages are the exact project data.

Pontivy (21 km) Costs (M€) Locmalo (7 km) Costs (M€) CAPEX Turbine 66,1% 20,5 73,3% 20,5 Grid connection 13,6% 4,2 6,2% 1,7 DEVEX 3,3% 1,0 3,7% 1,0 Others 16,9% 5,3 16,9% 4,7

OPEX Maintenance 29,3% 13,0 28,8% 10,3 Others 40,1% 17,9 39,5% 14,1 Corporate Tax 8,3% 3,7 10,2% 3,6 Local Taxes 22,3% 9,9 21,4% 7,6

OPEX levelized 58,9% 44,5 56,0% 35,6 CAPEX levelized 41,1% 31,1 44,0% 28,0

LCoE tender 61,36 €/MWh 56,84 €/MWh Tableau 14: Costs of the the Séglien project

As the park is composed of 6 wind turbines of 3.6 MW each, it is subject to the tender procedure. This LCOE will be the price that we will launch at the tender once the operating authorization has been obtained from the Prefect. This price is consistent with the latest national calls for tenders which established a price retained by the CRE of 62.2 €/MWh.

VIII) Storage and Wind farm

The integration of an increasing number of machines producing electricity from renewable energy has consequences on the stability of the electrical grid. Indeed, for a network to be considered stable, there must not be too sudden variations in voltage and frequencies, otherwise a large number of electrical equipment could be damaged. We will see how the integration of wind power on the electrical grid can modify these balances, and how storage is a way to mitigate these disturbances.

Many storage technologies coexist, with varying degrees of maturity. These technologies are mechanical (flywheels), thermal (storage of cold or heat), chemical (storage of hydrogen for example), and so on. Battery-based storage thus appears to be a promising technology to meet the growing need for flexibility generated by the global energy transition. The storage capacities will be connected to the networks in a centralized (storage coupled or not to a large power plant) or decentralized (self- consumption) manner. They will be distinguished by their stationary (storage connected to a fixed point of the network) or mobile (storage embedded in electric vehicles) character. Thus, beyond their main function of load transfer, which allows, for example, an RE producer to smooth its injection curve, energy storage devices are capable of providing services to the power system and network managers, whether it be supply-demand balance, frequency and voltage control, balancing or congestion resolution. Though this trend has not yet been reproduced in mainland France, there are signs that this is set to change. There is already 5.1 GW of pumped hydro storage online in France. This hydro storage offers sunk-cost flexibility for slower, longer duration flexibility services.

For this purpose, RTE calls on flexibility options provided by generation and consumption sites on market mechanisms. Flexibility options (a load reduction or an increase of the production) are keys for the energy transition. Adjusting production (dispatchable power plants), controlling consumption (erasure, time-differentiated tariff offers, etc.), or developing the network, especially interconnections, are also sources of flexibility. It provides a means to handle uncertainty in generation, consumption peaks, local network constraints and to facilitate the integration of intermittent energy sources. A load reduction, which consists in reducing all or part of a participant’s consumption, on external request, over a given period, can be remunerated across all mechanisms in the same way as energy generation. (24) a) Grid stability

Frequency

Grid frequency is common across all AC-connected countries and spans across western continental Europe. Frequency also represents the equilibrium between consumption and generation: when the system is at equilibrium, the frequency is at its nominative value of exactly 50Hz, however frequency drops when generation is lower than consumption and increases when the consumption is lower than generation. Rapid variations in the power generated by wind turbines (which can reach a few hundred kW in a few tens of seconds), as well as load variations, can therefore induce fluctuations in the grid frequency. However, as long as the penetration rate of the wind turbine remains low, this influence can be considered negligible.

Figure 40:Droop curve for FCR response

The Transmission System Operator (TSO), RTE in France, is responsible for the supply-demand equilibrium after the closure of the electricity markets 30 minutes before delivery. The TSO relies on ancillary services and operating reserves to balance in real time the consumption and generation of the whole country These services allow the system to withstand an incident such as the unplanned loss of the large power station. They are usually broken down in to Primary Reserve, Secondary Reserve and Tertiary Reserve.

Primary Reserve

Primary Reserve, also known as FCR in continental Europe is the first line of response, reacting swiftly and automatically by providing response proportional to frequency deviations. It’s designed to stop the drop in system frequency induced by a loss of a large power station in less than 30 seconds. Frequency Containment Reserve (FCR), also known as Primary Reserve, is the first reserve called in case of supply-demand imbalance. The service consists of an active power response proportional to frequency deviations from the 50Hz nominal value, with the full contracted power response delivered for frequency deviations of 200mHz. 50% of the response needs to be delivered in 15 seconds and 100% of the response needs to be delivered in 30s. The response at the maximum contracted power needs to be sustained for 15 minutes for deviations higher than 200mHz.

The FCR requirement of each country part of the synchronous area is defined in the ENTSO-E network code, and is based on the share of the country consumption in the total consumption of the synchronous area. The total requirement for the synchronous area is equivalent to the loss of the two largest generators connected for a total of around 3000MW. The FCR requirement from France is 570 MW. The FCR Cooperation allows export up to 30% of the country’s requirement and import up to 70% of the country requirement. The total market size for France is hence between 171 and 741 MW. The batteries are well suited to batteries because it needs high power and low energy throughput. However the market is of limited size. The national requirement is 570 MW, so the market can saturate quickly. (27)

Secondary Reserve

Secondary Reserve, also known as automatic Frequency Restoration Reserve (aFRR) in continental Europe, is activated automatically by the TSO and replaces the FCR over timescales of a few minutes. aFRRis substantially different from FCR because the response is substantially slower, with a Full Activation Time (FAT) of 5minutes*, the volumes of energy activated are far higher and asymmetric and the response is activated on the basis of a signal received from RTE rather than the asset directly measuring frequency deviations. The aFRRrequirement varies throughout the day, the year and between years between around 500MW and 1,200MW with an average of 660MW. Batteries will be able to participate to Secondary Reserve from July 2021. aFRRis is currently a national market and is a prescribed service at a regulated price of around 18€/MW/h, contracted through bilateral agreements with RTE. This payment is for the availability of the service and, if activated, the payment is adjusted up or down to account for the 30-min net absorption or injection of electricity on the basis of the day- ahead spot price. All generators over 40MW are obliged to be technically capable of providing a certain amount of aFRR,

Tertiary Reserve

Tertiary Reserve, also known as manual Frequency Restoration Reserve (mFRR) and Replacement Reserve (RR) in continental Europe, are manually dispatched assets with slower response time (~13 to 30 minutes). But the minimum duration currently starts at 1.5h for availability contracts, but could increase to 4h when it moves to day ahead procurement of availability. This duration is by now not feasible for batteries.

Capacity mechanism

The NOME law in 2020 required the establishment of a Capacity Mechanism in France and the mechanism was implemented in Jan 2017. The Capacity Mechanism requires electricity suppliers to guarantee sufficient number of Capacity Certificates to cover the peak demand of their customers for each Delivery Year (DY). These Capacity Certificates can be obtained through generation or through demand side response and can be traded either through bilateral agreements or through auctions on the EPEX Spot market. To be certified for capacity, the “exploiter of capacity” needs to be available for 10-25 days per year between 1st January and 31st March and between 1st November and 31st December and for the hours 7h-15h and 18h-20h (10hrs total per day). Notification of the days where capacity is needed is given by RTE at 7pm the day before. A unit with less availability can participate but will only accrue a portion of the certificate value. Energy used to provide system services counts towards the available capacity, such that these two revenue streams are complementary. (25)

TURPE is a key element that influences the economics of a battery project. Their application to storage projects is being considered by the CRE and in the future there may be an exemption of part of these charges for storage projects, as is already the case in Germany and in some circumstances in Belgium and Great Britain. Indeed, with the slim lined project costs usually required for a storage project, a key

64 advantage of co locating with renewables is to save on the grid connection costs of the storage facility. However, as of today, this is a key operational cost that needs careful consideration. Two key factors are forcing Enedis and RTE to look seriously at local flex. The first, which everyone speaks of, is the increase in distributed renewable generation The second factor, which is less often discussed, is that the age old solution of building new wires to resolve network constraints is increasingly an inadequate and risky solution. Whereas once electricity demand increased year on year, now energy efficiency and self-generation are reducing electricity demand. The increase in electric vehicles is a counter force which will increase electricity demand but will also significantly change the profile of demand In this time of rapid evolution, there is simply not enough time to build new powerlines to manage constraints (roughly 10 yrs from concept to build for a transmission line) and it is difficult to make a 40 year investment decision on a network upgrade at a time of uncertain future energy patterns The option of deferring that investment decision and using flex instead is more attractive than ever.

Voltage

Consumption installations consume active power and, in general, absorb reactive power. Both of these behaviours tend to lower the voltage on the networks. Conversely, decentralised generation facilities, when generating, inject active power into the networks and thus cause local voltage increases on these networks. Network operators must take these phenomena into account and implement the means at their disposal (network reinforcements, tap or transformer setpoint adjustments, MV compensation means for reactive power, etc.) to ensure that the voltage remains within the regulatory limits for all users. For this reason, wind turbines currently connected to the transmission network are asked to participate in voltage regulation via reactive power regulation. This is possible with wind turbines connected to the grid via power electronics, but not with fixed speed wind turbines whose asynchronous generator is directly coupled to the grid.

Wind turbines can therefore be remunerated for absorbing power from the grid or injecting reactive power into the grid to control the voltage on the grid. In the same way, storage allows the injection of reactive power into the grid through the use of power electronics. b) Arbitrage

Arbitrage can be realised by buying and selling energy on any (or a mix of) the following markets: day- ahead, intraday, balancing market, and soon also the secondary reserve energy market. This section only covers day. The amount of revenue from arbitrage is volatile, however, with negative prices, price volatility expected to increase, revenues could be higher in the next future years. Day-ahead prices can be forecasted with good accuracy, allowing the battery to easily estimate the value of the arbitrage on this market and to lock in, in advance, the spread (difference between the buy and sell price). Generators can submit bids (to purchase energy) and offers (to sell energy) to RTE on the balancing market for every 30 minutes period. Bids and offers specify price and technical capabilities including activation time and min and max power levels. Unlike in the Day-Ahead market, the forecasting accuracy of on the balancing market is low, and there is no guarantee that the asset which has, for example, sold energy (discharged) at a high price will be able to later buy energy (charge) at a sufficiently low price. The volatility of the balancing market is higher than wholesale markets and maximum daily spreads are high. Also, the large energy throughput associated with arbitrage degrades

65 the energy capacity of the battery faster than would be the case for a battery providing FCR. The current revenues of these revenue stream il not really efficient to offset cost of battery degradation. However price volatility is planned to increase with the penetration of renewables, leading to higher potential revenues. This is not relevant to add a storage to a renewable plant the power plant is under a fixed Feed In Tarif FiT but may be a potential opportunity for plants that are selling on the wholesale market, whether or not they are also receiving the Complément de Rémuneration.

By far the most attractive of these markets today is FCR. However, the battery will need to buy and sell small amounts of energy to manage its SoC even when providing FCR and the energy markets for secondary and tertiary reserves plus the day-ahead and intraday markets, will be more economical ways of trading this energy than through a fixed price energy contract. (26)

IX) Further Discussion

At the end of a wind farm's lifespan, the question of dismantling arises. Likewise, recyclability obligations are also provided for by the Ministerial Decree of 22 June 2020: for permission applications filed from 2023 and gradually until 2025, the reuse and recyclability rates will be increased up to 95% of the total mass of the wind turbines (including foundations) and up to 55% of the mass of the rotors. In the event that an operator defaults on its obligations, which has never happened in France to date, site restoration operations will be covered by operational financial guarantees, prior to the commissioning of the site and set at €50,000 per 2 MW wind turbine and €10,000 per additional MW when the unit capacity is greater than 2 MW.

The responsibility for the entire process for managing the end of life of the facilities (disassembly, recycling) is vested by the operator and include the entire process of disassembly and recycling of component waste:

- The disassembly of the power generation installations, substations, as well as the cables within a radius of ten meters around the wind turbines and the substations must be carried out. - The foundations must be "fully excavated down to the base of their footing, with the exception of any piles" and replaced by soil with comparable characteristics to the soil in place near the installation. - The regrading of crane areas and access roads must be filled with soil of comparable characteristics to that of the soil near the installation

Repowering is also possible. Repowering consists in replacing the wind turbines at the end of their life with new, more powerful ones. Even if this saves time on the administrative part, it does not prevent the complete dismantling of the wind turbine.

Moreover there are constant changes in legislation and regulation that jeopardize wind power development and lead to important delays for obtaining the authorization requirements. Indeed, although only prefects and landowners can prevent a wind project from going ahead (mayors and other communities have no legal power to approve or disapprove a project, although their support is valuable in getting a project done), the numerous appeals of anti-wind associations considerably increases the duration of the project. It generally takes two to three years longer in France for a project to see the light of day than in Germany. This local acceptance is different according to their social, demographic, cultural and economic characteristics and therefore difficult to quantify. Valeco tries to involve local residents and communities at the early stage of its process it takes about 6 years in France to obtain the building permit and the different approvals.

Conclusion

To conclude, even if on paper it is possible to set up the wind farm in Séglien, local acceptance has not been taken into account. This thesis has highlighted the main constraints to be taken into account when one wants to set up a wind farm in the west of France. In this thesis we managed to review all the technical constraints to consider when looking for a wind farm location, select the proper wind turbine, make an economical study of our study case and optimize the costs of the electrical connection in our study case. Optimizing the costs of electrical connection allows to position oneself more easily on the various national calls for tenders and thus to be able to operate the park over its lifetime, now 25 years.

However this thesis doesn’t treat different topics, such as the local acceptance in the French territory, which is one of the major issue when selecting a wind farm location. It doesn’t treat about a hybrid system wind/storage (with batteries for example) that can increase the flexibility of wind power et increase the strength of the power grid. Finally, this thesis doesn’t treat the dismantling and repowering of the wind turbine. Indeed, the first wind turbines in France were built at the beginning of the 21st century, with a lifetime of 20 years. That’s why this topic is very new and the sector not enough established.

This thesis needs more improvements, such as a better transparency of all the components of the financial study. Indeed, this thesis was made in collaboration with Valeco. Therefore some data were sensitive therefore I have to make some estimation. However the methodology remains the same. Finally, an update of all the maps of the different constraints that change every year thanks to intense discussion between the FEE and the different actors (ARMY, DGAC …). Likewise, the methodology remains the same.

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27. E-Cube. Etude sur les mécansimes de valorisation des flexibilités pour la gestion et le dimensionnement des réseaux publics de distribution d’électricité. 2017.

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Appendix

Tables taken from the NF C 13-200 standard concerning « Installations électriques à haute tension pour les sites de production d’énergie électrique, les sites industriels, tertiaires et agricoles» (Jun 2018)

The extracts of standards appearing in this work are reproduced with the agreement of AFNOR. Only the original and complete text of the standard as distributed by AFNOR - accessible via the website www.afnor.org - has normative value.

Table 52J below gives the current carrying capacity in a three-phase circuit depending on the cross-section (in mm²), the material (aluminum or copper) and the laying technique (open air or buried, and sheet or cloverleaf).

Tableau 15: current carrying capacity in a three-phase circuit, AFNOR

Table 52K15 gives the correction factor according to the number of 3-phase circuits in the connection trench.

Tableau 16 : correction factor in the connection trench, AFNOR

Tableau 17: Resistance and Capacity for different cable cross-sections, Nexans

Tableau 18 : Sound power level of the different wind turbines considered, Alhyange Acoustique

Tables summarizing the results of the various studies carried out for the Séglien project

Tableau 19: Tables summarizing the various studies carried out for the Séglien project

Power of the different turbines examined in this report

• Enercon E-138 3.5 MW

Tableau 20: Power curve of Enercon E-138 3.5 MW

• Nordex N117 3.6 MW

Tableau 21: Power curve of Nordex N117 3.6 MW

• Nordex N117 2.4 MW

Tableau 22: Power curve of Nordex N117 2.4 MW

• Nordex N131 3.6MW

Tableau 23: Power curve of Nordex N131 3.6 MW

Matlab code to determine the Weibull distribution and the cost of connecting the Séglien project.

X_line=0.15; %Ohm/km V=20; %kV tan_phi=0.1; phi= atan(tan_phi); cos_phi=cos(phi); sin_phi=sin(phi); l=21; %km P=21.6; %MW Ib=P/sqrt(3)/20; correc_25=0.84; % coefficient correctif pour deux câbles distancés de 0.25m correc_join=0.76; % coefficient correctif pour deux câbles jointifs

%50 mm^2 R_50=0.641; %Ohm/km Iz_50=179; %A

%95 mm^2 R_95=0.3200; %Ohm/km Iz_95=262; %A Price_95=20000; %€/km

%150 mm^2 R_150=0.206; %Ohm/km Iz_150=334; %A Price_150=25000; %€/km

%240 mm^2 R_240=0.125; %Ohm/km Iz_240=439; %A Price_240=30000; %€/km

%240 Copper mm^2 R_240_Cu=0.078; %Ohm/km Iz__240_Cu=559; %A Price_240_Cu=70000; %€/km

%400 mm^2 R_400=0.078; %Ohm/km Iz_400=727; %A

%630 mm^2

R_630=0.047; %Ohm/km Iz_630=945; %A

%% PDL at the end of the line at WT6 L=[0.378 0.539 0.508 0.458 0.513 0.3]; P_wt=[3.6 7.2 10.8 14.4 18 21.6]; Ib=P_wt*1000/(sqrt(3)*V); % section [95 150 240 240// 240// 240] R_wt=[R_95 R_150 R_240 R_240/2 R_240/2 R_240/2]; X_wt=[X_line X_line X_line X_line/2 X_line/2 X_line/2]; Pri=[20 22 25 25*2 2*25 2*25]; Delta_V=zeros(1,length(L)); Price=zeros(1,length(L)); for nu=1:length(L); Delta_V(nu)=P_wt(nu)*L(nu)*100*(R_wt(nu)*cos_phi+X_wt(nu)*sin_phi)/(V^2); Price(nu)=Pri(nu)*L(nu); end Delta_V_tot=sum(Delta_V) % in % Price_tot=sum(Price) % in k€

%% PDL between WT4 and WT5 L=[0.378 0.539 0.508 0.3 0.3 0.513]; % WT1->WT2->WT3->WT4-PDL->WT5->WT6 P_wt=[3.6 7.2 10.8 14.4 7.2 3.6]; Ib=P_wt*1000/(sqrt(3)*V); % section [95 150 240 240// 150 95] R_wt=[R_95 R_150 R_240 R_240/2 R_150 R_95]; X_wt=[X_line X_line X_line X_line/2 X_line X_line]; Pri=[20 22 25 25*2 22 20]; Delta_V=zeros(1,length(L)); Price=zeros(1,length(L)); for nu=1:length(L); Delta_V(nu)=P_wt(nu)*L(nu)*100*(R_wt(nu)*cos_phi+X_wt(nu)*sin_phi)/(V^2); Price(nu)=Pri(nu)*L(nu); end Delta_V_tot=sum(Delta_V) % in % Price_tot=sum(Price) % in k€

%% PDL to PS X=0:0.01:l; Delta_V=zeros(1,length(X)); for nu=1:length(X); Delta_V(nu)=Delta_V_tot+P/2*100*((l- X(nu))*(R_240*cos_phi+X_line*sin_phi)+X(nu)*(R_240_Cu*cos_phi+X_line*sin_phi))/V^2; end

84 figure plot(X,Delta_V) xlabel('Length of copper (km)') ylabel('Voltage drop (%)')

%data mean_windspeed = 7.00; k=2.415; c=mean_windspeed/gamma(1+1/k); U=0:20;

%Wind distribution in Séglien winddist=win_dist(U,k,c); figure plot(U,winddist) xlabel('U (m/s)') ylabel('prob')

%Distribution of the energy production Pmean=Ene_dist(U,Power,k,c); CF=Pmean/Pmax FLH=CF*8760

%functions function winddist= win_dist(U,k,c) dist=zeros(length(U),1); for nu = 1:length(U); dist(nu,1)=k/c*((U(nu)/c)^(k-1))*exp(-(U(nu)/c)^k); end winddist=dist; end function P_mean=Ene_dist(U,Power,k,c); P=0; for nu=1:length(U); if U(nu)>=5 && U(nu)<=25; P=P+Power(nu)*k/c*((U(nu)/c)^(k-1))*exp(-(U(nu)/c)^k); end end P_mean=P; end

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