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Home , Geochemistry of carbon, Petroleum geochemistry, Unsaturated hydrocarbon

Glossary of Terms Applicable to Geochemistry

Frederik W. Vlierboom Occidental Petroleum Corporation BakersFeld, California, U.S.A.

Note: Terms denoted by asterisks (*) are defined as entries to black streak. It is practically insoluble in elsewhere in the Glossary. disulfide but partly soluble in turpentine; decom- poses prior to fusion. ABNORMAL PRESSURE: Any departure from hydro- static pressure. Overpressures generally range : A class of -containing organic above 12 kPa/m (0.53 psi/ft) and underpressures compounds having the structure R--OH, where R is range below 9.8 kPa/m (0.43psi/ft). a radical.

ABSORPTION: Penetration of a substance into the ALGAE: General biological term for a large group of body of another (includes dissolution). lower plants of single cell or cell aggregates, the majority living in and containing chlorophyll* ACIDIFICATION: The process by which most of the (autotroph). In geology, generally designating all inorganic mineral matrix of a is destroyed with phytoplankton, e.g., diatoms,* dinoflagellates, and acid to release the insoluble organic matter () seaweed. for further study. Hydrochloric acid (HC1) is used to destroy carbonates; hydrofluoric acid (HF) is used to ALGINITE: The coal maceral* of the exinite* group destroy the silicates. formed from algal remains. It is rare in humic coal* but is the principal constituent of the sapropelic* ACTIVATION ENERGY: The extra amount of energy a Boghead coal.* molecule must have before it can participate in a certain reaction (E in the Arrhenius equation*). ALICYCLIC: Referring to saturated cyclic hydrocar- bons. ACYCLIC: Having no rings. ALIPHATIC: Referring to all organic compounds char- ADSORPTION: The adhesion of a thin layer of acterized by open-chain structures. molecules of gases, , or dissolved substances to the surface of solids. : Saturated* with either straight or branched (by not cyclic) chains of carbon AEROBE: A bacterium that utilizes molecular oxygen . Alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+2, for its metabolic processes. e.g., phytane; C20H42.

AEROBIC: A term applied to bacteria or other microor- n-ALKANES: Alkanes having a continuous, ganisms living or active only in the presence of unbranched, noncyclic chain of carbon atoms. Also molecular oxygen. called straight-chain alkanes or normal alkanes.

AIR SPACE: Synonym for headspace.* : An unsaturated hydrocarbon with at least one carbon-carbon present. ALBERTITE: An asphaltite* with specific gravity of 1.07-1.10 and 2550% fixed carbon; having brilliant ALKYL: The adjective form of , made by luster, conchoidal fracture, hardness 1-2, and brown dropping -ane and adding -yl. The same substitu-

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tion can be made to convert the names for specific API GRAVITY: An arbitrary scale known as the API alkanes (such as ) to names for attached degree used for reporting the gravity or the density groups (propyl). of a petroleum product. The degree API is related to the specific gravity scale (6OoF/60"F)by the formula: ALLOCHTHONOUS: Originating elsewhere. Contrast with autochthonous.* 141.5 Degree API = -131.5 Specific gravity at 60°F ALPHA: A designation meaning that the indicated group in a polycyclic compound is attached below the plan of the beta ring. AROMATICS: Hydrocarbons derived from or related to ,' C6&. The benzene nucleus is the origin AMINO ACIDS: Amino acids are compounds having of a group of characteristic chemical properties both amino (-NH) and (--COOH) known as the aromatic character of the molecule. groups. They occur in nature in the free state and in Only one is bound to each carbon proteins: which are condensation products of amino atom of the ring; they may be replaced by various acids. Most natural acids can be represented by types of side chains. Typical aromatics are benzene, , and . The general structure is shown here.

c 4 \ H-C C-H in which R represents an aliphatic, aromatic, or hetero- I II cyclic group. H-$, ,c-H

AMORPHOUS ORGANIC MATTER: Kerogen F particles exhibiting no distinctive morphology. Some amorphous organic material is apparently of AROMATIZATION: The process of converting an algal origin; other examples represent highly alicyclic system to an aromatic one. Aromatization is degraded material of uncertain or perhaps eclectic an oxidative process that occurs during catagenesis origin. and metagenesis.

AMU: See Atomic mass unit.* ARRHENIUS EQUATION: k = Ae-E/RT,where k is the rate constant, A is the frequency factor, E is the acti- ANAEROBE: A microorganism that functions under vation energy,* R is the universal gas constant, and T anaerobic conditions. is the absolute temperature.

ANAEROBIC: A term applied to bacteria or other ASH: Inorganic residue obtained after of microorganisms that live and grow in the absence of or caustobiolites.* molecular oxygen. ASPHALT: A term applied to both native asphalt* and ANCHIMETAMORPHISM: Meaning high-age meta- pyrogenous asphalts (i.e., man-made asphalt from morphism and applied in those instances where thermal treatment of residual oils). They are reactions are interpreted as essentially governed by generally hard, dark-colored, nonvolatile materials time. It is not recommended to use this term in with low fusing points, low specific gravities connection with organic metamorphism.* (1.0-1.1), and low fixed-carbon values (4-20%). They are generally soluble in carbon disulfide, but are ANOXIC: Conditions where Q is absent or where the soluble only to the extend of 10-70°h in petroleum concentration of 02is very low (less than 0.1 mL/L naphtha. water). ASPHALTENES: The portion of petroleum and of ANTHRACITE: See Coal rank.* other bitumen that is soluble in solvents such as benzene, chloroform, and carbon disulfide (hence, ANTHRAXOLITE: A coal-like, lustrous, probably soluble or extractable bitumen), but which is highly coalified asphaltite* rich in carbon (8595%); insoluble in low-boiling (C3-7) alkanes. They hardness 3-4, specific gravity near 2; insoluble in generally contain more than 40 carbon atoms per organic solvents, practically infusible. molecule.

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/books/book/chapter-pdf/3837691/9781629811208_backmatter.pdf by guest on 24 September 2021 Glossa y of Terms Applicable to Petroleum Geochemistry 161 ASPHALTIC CRUDE OILS: Crude oils with a high (cycloparaffins). A naphthenic-base crude contains content of asphaltenes, and often also of vanadium predominantly naphthene hydrocarbons. An and , and with API gravities below about 35. asphalt-base crude is one containing a relatively high They can be classified as asphaltic-paraffinic crudes proportion of nonhydrocarbon constituents such as or as asphaltic-naphtheniccrudes. , sulfur, and oxygen compounds. The term aromatic base is not used because there are no oils ASPHALTIC ROCK: Predominantly sedimentary known to contain predominantly aromatic hydrocar- rocks containing in their porous space native bons. asphalt.* An asphaltic sandstone is very often, but incorrectly, called a tar sand; asphaltic limestone is BENZENE: See Aromatics.* generally, but inadequately, called bituminous limestone. BICYCLANES: Saturated compounds having two condensed rings in their molecules. ASPHALTITE: A group name embracing solid forms of native naphthabitumens7 which are harder and BIOCHEMICAL PHASE: See Organic metamorphism.' less fusible than true asphalt*. They are composed principally of hydrocarbons (substantially free from BIODEGRADATION: The alteration of organic matter, oxygenated bodies and crystallizable alkanes), either including oils, by microbes (bacteria); in the case of pure or associated with mineral matter. Asphaltites oils, usually producing poorer quality oils depleted are derived either from naphthabitumen* or in normal paraffins and with added sulfur. kerogen* and altered during or after migration.* They are usually found in veins and fissures. BIOGENIC: Formed biologically by an organism or According to their solubility in carbon disulfide and within an organism. benzene, they are divided into two groups: (1) largely soluble: gilsonite,* glance pitch,* and BIOGENIC GAS: (1) Natural gas, virtually all , grahamite*; and (2) largely insoluble: elaterite,* produced by microbes (bacteria) in shallow rocks. wurtzilite,* albertite,* impsonite,* and anthraxolite.* Biogenic methane can be recognized by its relative It is possible that elaterite and wurtzilite represent abundance of the 12C isotope; also called marsh gas. immature kerogenous material; if so, they should be Hydrogen sulfide is also a biogenic gas. (2) Dry gas treated as sapropelites*. Albertite, impsonite, and (virtually pure methane) formed by anaerobic anthraxolite may be asphaltites with a high microorganisms called methanogens. maturity* acquired after migration. BIOLOGICAL MARKERS: Organic compounds whose ASSAY: See Fischer assay.* carbon structure, or skeleton, is formed by living organisms and is sufficiently stable to be recognized ATOMIC MASS UNIT (AMU): A mass approximately in crude oil or the organic matter of ancient equal to that of one neutron, used in describing the . Typical markers are the porphyrins, masses of atoms, molecules, or ions. pristane, phytane, steranes, carotenes, and penta- cyclic triterpanes. ATROMOTE: Fine (10 p)detrital huminite particles of varying shape including cell wall debris or BIOMARKERS: Chemical compounds derived from formless, dense, and almost homogeneous humhitic specific biological precursors. The trans-formation of material. Forms matrix of brown coals. Bright red to precursor to biomarker can often be traced directly, red in transmitted light, very weak fluorescence. permitting the utilization of biomarkers as environ- mental and maturity indicators. Important AUTOCHTHONOUS: Originating in its present biomarkers include n-alkanes, isoprenoids, steranes, location (that is, deposited in situ). Contrast with triterpanes, and porphyrins. allochthonous.* BIOPOLYMERS: created by enzymes. They BACTERICIDE: A chemical that kills bacteria. have very regular, predictable structures. See also Geopolymers.* BASE OF CRUDE OIL: The "base" of a crude oil is descriptive of the chemical nature of its main BIS: Prefix meaning two. constituents. A paraffin-base oil contains predomi- nantly paraffinic hydrocarbons, while an interme- BITUMEN: A term not recommended for specific diate- or mixed-base crude contains roughly equiva- purposes because of its wide range and greatly lent mixtures of paraffins and naphthenes varying definitions. It comprises hydrocarbon

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/books/book/chapter-pdf/3837691/9781629811208_backmatter.pdf by guest on 24 September 2021 mixtures of both artificial (pyrogenous) and natural CALORIFIC VALUE: The quantity of heat produced origin. Natural bitumen includes all naturally by a substances upon complete combustion at occurring combustible materials rich in hydrocar- constant volume. Units are either calories* per gram bons, gaseous, and solid, soluble or insoluble (1 cal/g) or British thermal units* per pound (1.8 in carbon disulfide. The petroleum group is called Btu/lb). naphthabitumen* and is derived from caustobio- lites.' CANNEL COAL: A sapropelic coal* chiefly consisting of the maceral group* of exinite,* particularly BITUMINOUS COAL: A group of coal ranks* divided sporinite.* It burns with a steady bright . into high-, medium-, and low-volatile bituminous Massive, tough, clean coal of fine compact grain, dull coal. luster, usually with conchoidal fracture and good regular jointing. BITUMINOUS LIMESTONE: A nonspecific and not recommended term meaning either asphaltic* CAPILLARY COLUMN: A very long, narrow- limestone (see Asphaltic rock*) or kerogenous* diameter tube often used in gas chromatography. limestone (see Oil source rock*). Because of the column's narrow diameter, the stationary phase is coated directly on the walls of the BOGHEAD COAL: A sapropelic coal* also called column. See also Packed column* and Gas chro- torbanite, chiefly consisting of the maceral* alginite.* matography.* Compact, brownish black to black, very tough and difficult to break; conchoidal to subconchoidal CAPILLARY ENTRY PRESSURE: The pressure that fracture. opposes the deformation of a hydrocarbon globule and thus its movement into a constricting pore BRANCHED CYCLIC FRACTION: Saturated hydro- throat. It retards migration and thus can influence from a bitumen or crude oil from which the migration pathways and velocities. Capillary entry unbranched hydrocarbons (n-alkanes) have been pressure is the force that ultimately leads to accurnu- removed. lation of hydrocarbons.

BRITISH THERMAL UNIT (BTU): The quantity of heat CARBOHYDRATES: A class of neutral compounds required to increase the temperature of 1 lb of water composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in units by 1OF. See Calorific value.* of five or six carbon atoms, usually connected by oxygen atoms, and having the general formula BROWN COAL: Low rank humic coal* intermediate CHzO),. Carbohydrates are formed by all green between and bituminous coal, containing about plants through . Includes sugars, 10-75% water. See also Coal rank.* It is differenti- starch, and cellulose, with the following general ated into soft or unconsolidated brown coal and hard structure: or consolidated. The soft one is made up of visible plant remains, while hard brown coal (lignite*) is compact, more homogeneous, and tough.

BURIAL HISTORY CURVE: An age-depth plot that I , , .c-0 C-C ,, I traces the burial and tectonic history of a rock from the time of deposition to the present day, using the sea bottom as the datum. See also Geohistory diagram.*

CIS+: Essentially the same as bitumen, so named because it contains most of the compounds having 15 to 35 carbon atoms that were present in the original sample. Compounds having fewer than 15 carbon CARBONACEOUS: Pertaining to hurnic coal.* atoms are partially or completely lost during evapo- ration of the extraction solvent. See also Bitumen.* : The cycle through which carbon moves from its inorganic reservoirs in the atmo- CAI: See Conodont alteration index.' sphere, in aqueous solution, and in carbonate minerals to the biosphere via photosynthesis, and CALORIE: The amount of heat required to raise the finally back to the inorganic reservoirs via oxidative temperature of 1g of water by 1"C. decomposition.

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/books/book/chapter-pdf/3837691/9781629811208_backmatter.pdf by guest on 24 September 2021 Glossary of Terms Applicable to Petroleum Geochemistry 163 CARBONIZATION: Widely used instead of carbonifi- : The speeding-up of a chemical reaction cation or coalification.* It is advised to use the term by offering an alternative pathway having a lower carbonization only for artificial processes. activation energy.

CARBON ISOTOPES: See Isotopes.* CATALYST: A substance capable of accelerating a chemical reaction. CARBON NUMBER: The number of carbon atoms in one molecule. CATALYTIC CRACKING: The conversion of heavy hydrocarbons into lighter ones by the action of heat CARBON PREFERENCE INDEX (CPI): A carbon pref- in the presence of an (acidic) catalyst (primarily by a erence index value is defined as the mean of two carbonium ion process). See also Thermal cracking." ratios that are determined by dividing the sum of the concentration of odd-carbon-numbered n-alkanes by CAUSTOBIOLITE: Literally, combustible biogenic the sum of even-carbon-numbered n-alkanes over rock. General name for sediments consisting of, or given concentration ranges. One ratio is obtained by rich in, combustible native (organic) matter and its dividing the sum of the percentages of the odd- natural derivatives. Their classification is shown in carbon numbers 25-33 by the sum of the even- Table 1. carbon numbers 26-34. The other ratio is obtained by changing the denominator to the sum of the percentages of 24-32. See also odd-predominance Table 1. Caustobiolite classification (OEP). * I. Sediments containing syngenetic, largely autochthonous organic constituents CARBON RATIO: The ratio of fixed carbon* to the sum of fixed carbon and volatile matter in a coal. The so- OilIGas Source Rocks = Gas Source Rocks = called ratio is actually expressed as a percentage. KEROGENOUS ROCKS CARBONACEOUS ROCKS Sapropelites Humolites CARBON RATIO THEORY: The theory that the API Kerogenous , Humic coal gravity of oil increases (specific gravity decreases) as marts, and limestones Carbonaceous sediments the carbon ratio of coals in the same area increases. Sapropelic coal As coals increase in rank, oils become lighter, even- Oil tually changing to gas. The carbon ratio is the ratio 11. Epigenetic, largely allochthonous, natural derivatives of of fixed carbon to (fixed plus volatile) in kerogenous and carbonaceous rocks: a coal. NAPHTHABITUMENS CARBOXYL: The -COOH. The From kerogenous rocks From carbonaceous rocks hydrogen in carboxyl groups is acidic. Natural gas Natural gas Petroleum CAROTENES: Hydrocarbon compounds belonging to Asphalt the group of ." Mineral wax Asphaltite !3 Naturally occurring pigments having 20 or 40 carbon atoms in an isoprenoid structure*; they have a widespread distribution in plants and animals and belong to the lipids." CENTIPOISE: A standard unit of dynamic viscosity, equal to 0.01 poise, the cgs unit of viscosity. Water at CASING HEAD GASOLINE: The liquid hydrocarbon 20°C has a viscosity of 1.002 centipoise. recovered from casing head gas by adsorption, compression, or refrigeration. Casing head gas is the CHARCOAL: Dead carbon or carbonaceous residue. gas recovered at the surface from an oil well. The nonvolatile residue with a very high fixed- carbon content obtained when a carbonaceous* CATAGENESIS: The process by which organic material is partially burned or heated in the absence material in sediments is thermally altered by of air (pyrolyzed). It is insoluble in organic solvents. increasing temperature. Catagenesis covers the temperature range between diagenesis and rock CHEMICAL DIAGENESIS: Alteration of organic metamorphism, approximately 50-200°C matter by attack with reactive chemicals; for (122-392°F). example, sulfur or hydrogen sulfide can react with

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saturated hydrocarbons to form unsaturated ones or of organic metamorphism (DOM*), maturity, or sulfur-containingbitumens. coalification determines the coal rank.*

CHITIN: A polysaccharide (carbohydrate ) COALIFICATION: The natural process of organic with a structure similar to cellulose, except that two metamorphism*in humic coal* resulting in a relative OH groups are replaced by CIGONH groups in each increase in carbon content and a relative decrease in (C.H2O)6 unit. Chitin forms the horny, hard, outer the content of hydrogen and other elements. See also cover of insects, crustaceans, and parts of certain Coal rank.* other invertebrates. COAL MACERAL: Generally homogeneous micro- CHLORIN: A precursor molecule for a porphyrin.* scopic constituents of coal,* analogs to the minerals The difference is that porphyrins have an aromatic in inorganic rocks. The properties of most macerals structure, whereas chlorins have one double bond change in the course of coalification.* All coal less than a completely conjugated aromatic structure. macerals have the suffix -inite. Their classification is Chlorophyll* is a chlorin. shown in Table 3.

CHLOROPHYLL: The green pigment occurring in plants. Its presence is essential to photosynthesis. Table 3. Coal maceral classification The chlorophyll molecule contains a phytol* Maceral Group Symbol Maceral remnant. Vitrinite V Collinite* Telinite* CHROMATOGRAPHY: A physical process of fraction- (Gelinite*) ation and separation involving the partitioning of a (Detrinite*) sample between stationary and moving phases, e.g., Exinite* or liptinite* E Sporinite* in a column. Table 2 shows the various chromato- Cutinite* graphic techniques. Alginite* Resinite* lnertinite I Sclerotinite* Table 2. Chromatographic techniques Semifusinte* Chromatography Moving Stationary Fusinite* Techniques Phase Phase Micrinite* LSC Liquid Solid LLC Liquid Liquid GLC Gas Liquid GSC Gas Solid COAL MACERAL ASSOCIATION: See Microlithotype.*

COAL RANK: One of the various stages in natural CIS: A configuration in which two groups attached to a coalification* indicating the degree of organic meta- molecule are on the same side of the molecule. See morphism (DOM*) of humic coal.* For low-rank also Trans.* coal, it is determined by the calorific value* of vitrite*; for high-rank coal, by the percentage of fixed CLATHRATE: A in which a loose carbon* of vitrite or its volatile matter.* Coal rank is molecule is trapped inside a crystalline network of not yet well defined in sapropelic coal. For humic surrounding molecules, usually of a different coal, the two internationally used classifications are compound. See also Gas hydrates.* given in Table 4 (see Coal structure*).

COAL: Coal is divided into two groups: humic coal* COAL STRUCTURE: Humic coal,* not being a homo- and sapropelic coal*. (See also Caustobiolite.*) If no geneous material but an association of various coal adjective is added, the term coal is used in the macerals; has been divided in coal petrography into restricted sense of humic coal.* In the loose sense, various structures. The macroscopic fine structures coal is a combustible (organic) , or lithotypes* have the ending -ah, while the rnicro- usually with less than 40% mineral (inorganic) scopic structures, called micolithotypes* or coal matter (based on dry material), formed by the accu- types,* always have the ending -ite, as shown in mulation, decomposition and transformation of Table 4. plant material. The nature of the original plant material determines the coal type,* while the degree COAL TYPE: See Microlithotype.*

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Table 4. Coal Classification. Macroscopic Microscopic Fine Structure Fine Structure

Lithotype Microlithotype Principal Groups of Constituent Macerals or Coal Type Vitrain Vitrite Vitrinite Fusain Fusite Homo- lnertiite Monomacerals - Liptite geneous -I Liptinite + exinite Clarain Clarite Vitrinite + exinite Durain Durite lnertinite + exinite Bimacerals - Vitrinertite Vitrinite + inertinite Transitions Duroclarite Vitrinite + exinite + inertinite Trimacerals Clarodurite lnertinite + exinite + vitrinite

COLCORMET: A gadget developed by Shell Oil Co. from reservoirs in which both gas and condensate for the shade comparison with palynomorphs* to exist as a homogeneous phase. estimate light translucency in coalification* studies. CONDUIT: A continuous migration pathway. COLLINITE: The apparently largely structureless coal Conduits can include coarse-grained rocks, fractured maceral of the vitrinite* group appearing in reflected or jointed rocks, and possibly active fault planes. light as the most homogeneous part of humic coal.* CONJUGATED SYSTEM: A series of alternating single COLORIMETRY: See Pyrolysis-colorimetry.* and double bonds between adjacent carbon atoms, as in the benzene molecule. COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY: In petroleum geochemistry, chromatography carried out in a CONNATE WATER: Fossil reservoir water that has vertical column filled with a stationary phase, such not been in contact with the since depo- as silica gel or alumina, and a mobile liquid phase, sition. It is high in chloride and calcium and which initially is an aliphatic hydrocarbon-like n- frequently contains more than 100,000 ppm . The mixture to be separated is introduced at dissolved total solids. the top of the column, and the liquid phase is allowed to flow through the column by gravity into a CONODONT ALTERATION INDEX (CAI): A collecting vessel at the bottom. The liquid phase is maturity scale with values ranging from 1 to 8 that is continually replenished at the top of the column. based on darkening of conodonts, which are micro- The saturated hydrocarbons* quickly pass through fossils found in many Paleozoic rocks. It is most (elute from) the column. After a predetermined valid and useful beyond peak oil generation. amount of n-hexane has flowed through, a more polar liquid phase, usually benzene,* replaces the n- COORONGITE: A substance resembling rubber, hexane. The benzene rapidly elutes the aromatic composed of algae, bits of plant tissue, and diatoms. hydrocarbons, which are collected in a second vessel. It is often compared with elaterite* and is perhaps in Successively more polar solvents (benzene methanol asphakite,* but is more probably a very immature or chloroform) can elute many NSO compounds.* sapropelite.* Asphaltenes* do not move easily through the column and are not recovered by column chro- CORRELATION: Comparison of gross or detailed matography. This technique is the first step in most chemical and physical properties of two or more bitumen analyses because it separates the complex samples of organic matter in an effort to compare bitumen mixture into relatively homogeneous their origins, diagenesis, catagenesis, migration, and packages. alteration.

CONDENSATE: A liquid hydrocarbon mixture, CORRELATION INDEX (CI): The correlation index consisting mainly of very light components, that is was developed empirically by H. M. Smith of the produced along with gas by pressure decrease (a U.S. Bureau of Mines. He set up an equation such phenomenon known as retrograde condensation) that the addition of the reciprocal absolute boiling

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point and the specific gravity with appropriate formed from cuticles (the waxy layer formed on constants was equal to 0 for the normal paraffins* outer walls of epidermal plant cells). and equal to 100 for the aromatic hydrocarbon benzene.* The equation is CUTTINGS GAS: The natural gas that remains in well cuttings upon their arrival at the shale shaker. The amounts found in cuttings are either run at the well site or canned at the well site and sent to the labora- where CI is the correlation index, K is the average tory for analysis. After removal of the drilling mud, boiling point of the fraction in degrees Kelvin, and G the cuttings are crushed in a blender and the released is the specific gravity of the fraction at 60°F (16°C). gas is analyzed. It is used in the estimation of the relative source potential of the rock units in the CRACKING: Breakdown of large organic molecules subsurface. into smaller ones. It is a process usually associated with the formation of condensates, gasoline-range DEASPHALTENING: The process by which hydrocarbons, and gas from oil. It involves thermal asphaltenes* are separated from rock extracts in the decomposition of large organic molecules, such as laboratory (by diluting with nonpolar solvents) or kerogen and asphaltenes, to yield bitumen molecules from oils in the reservoir (by dilution with increasing of various sizes. In this usage it is similar to catagen- amounts of methane). esis. DEAD CARBON: See Charcoal.* CR/CTRATIO: The ratio of (residual) organic carbon* that is left after pyrolysis* under standard conditions DECARBOXYLATION: Elimination of (CR)to the (total) organic carbon (CT)before from the carboxyl group (--COOH). pyrolysis and after extraction.* The CR/CTratio is comparable to, but not identical to, the carbon ratio* DELOCALIZATION: Freedom of movement of (fixed carbon*) of humic coals.* In contract to the electrons through a conjugated system. carbon ratio, the CR/CTratio can also be determined Delocalization greatly increases the stability of a in rocks containing inorganic matter. molecule compared to a nondelocalized analog. Delocalization also increases the stability of an ion CRUDE OIL: A petroleum that is removed from the formed from a molecule containing delocalized earth in liquid state or is capable of being so electrons or of excited-energy states of such a removed. molecule or ion by spreading the excess charge or energy (which represents a stress on the system) CRUDE OIL FRACTIONS: Fractions of crude oil based over a greater number of atoms. on viscosity and boiling point, which include gasoline,* kerosine,* gas oil,* lubricating oil,* and DENSINITE: Fine (40p) detrital hurninite particles residuum* (see individual fractions). of varying shape, including cell wall debris or formless, dense, and almost homogeneous huminitic CYCLANES: See .* material. Forms matrix of brown coals. Bright red to red in transmitted light, very weak fluorescence. CYCLICS: Compounds having one or more rings in their structures. Most cyclic compounds in geological DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION: See Pyrolysis.* environments have six-membered rings, although five-membered rings also occur occasionally. Cyclic DETRINITE: A coal maceral* of the vitrinite* group compounds can include alicyclics, aromatics, and observed in brown coal* only. Possibly the naphthenoaromatics. precursor of collinite.*

CYCLIZATION: Formation of cyclic structures by DIAGENESIS: The process involving biological, chemical reactions. physical, and chemical alteration of the organic debris in sediments without a pronounced effect CYCLOALKANES: Also called cyclanes or cycloparaf- from rising temperature. fins. Hydrocarbons of the general formula C,H2,, containing one or more saturated* rings (cyclic DIATOMS: Microscopic plants having silica skeletons. chains) of carbon atoms, but no aromatic* rings. See See also Algae.* also Naphthenes.* DIESEL : A refined petroleum distillate (a gas oil) CUTINITE: A coal maceral* of the exinite* group containing mainly saturated hydrocarbons of 13 to

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17 carbon atoms. It is often used as an additive in DRILL STEM TEST (DST): A test of the productive drilling muds. Also called diesel oil or dieseline. capacity of a well while it is still full of drilling mud. The testing tool is lowered into the hole attached to DIFFUSION: The slow movement of material from an the drill pipe and placed opposite the formation to area of high concentration or pressure to areas of low be tested. Packers are set to shut off the weight of concentration or pressure. It may be an ancillary the drilling mud, and the tool is opened to permit the mechanism for expulsion of hydrocarbons from a flow of any formation fluid into the drill pipe, where source rock. Diffusion plays a role in hydrocarbon the flow is measured. movement in the subsurface, but as a dispersive force, it cannot account for accumulation. It will in DRY GAS: Natural gas consisting principally of fact help destroy accumulations because much methane and devoid of readily condensible leakage is diffusional. constituents such as gasoline. Dry gas contains less than 0.1 gal natural gas liquid vapors per 1000 ft3 (1.3 DISPARITY COEFFICIENT: A mathematical quantity, L/100 m3). based on the composition of selected C6 and C7 hydrocarbons, which indicates the degree of correla- DSRA: Abbreviation for detailed source rock* analysis. tion between crude oil and source rock hydrocarbons or between hydrocarbons from different groups of DYSAEROBIC: A process occurring in a dysoxic envi- crude oils. The lower the value of this quantity, the ronment. better the correlation. See also Similarity coefficient* and Rank correlation.* DYSOXIC: An environment depleted in oxygen but not quite anoxic. DISPROPORTIONATION: Conversion of a single starting material into two products. One of the EFFECTIVE SOURCE ROCK: See Source rock.' products will be oxidized relative to the starting material; the other will be reduced. The process thus ELATERITE: A rare, massive, amorphous, rubbery, represents an internal oxidation-reduction () dark brown hydrocarbon or asphaltite*ranging from system. It is important in kerogen catagenesis and soft and elastic when fresh to hard and brittle when cracking. The light hydrocarbon products are exposed, and having a conchoidal fracture. Gives a reduced and rich in hydrogen, whereas the residue brown steak and melts in candle flame without (asphaltics, dead carbon, etc.) is oxidized and decrepitation. hydrogen poor. ELECTRON SPIN RESONANCE: A technique for esti- DISTILLATE: The hydrocarbon fluid produced from mating maturity of kerogen by measuring the natural gas processing. It is denser than condensate number of unpaired electrons (free radicals) in the and is generally run into the tanks with the crude oil. kerogen. At higher maturity levels the increased Gravities range from 50" API upward. stabilizes unpaired electrons.

DITERPANES: Hydrocarbons formed from two ELEMENTAL ANALYSIS: Quantitative analysis of the terpane (four isoprene) units. Many have three six- various elements present in a sample. The elements member rings. They often are derived from resinite. most commonly analyzed in petroleum geochem- istry are carbon and hydrogen; oxygen, sulfur, and DOM: Degree of organic metamorphism. A scale nitrogen are next. based on the coal rank* of humic coal*. In the high ranks, the units are equal to fixed carbon* of vitrites*, ELUATE: A solution of a fraction eluted (desorbed) while for the lower ranks, they are adapted to the from a chromatographic* column by means of a calorific value.* The true layer DOM (TL DOM) of a specific solvent, e.g., eluate and toluene is the DOM that a thick layer of humic eluate containing, respectively, saturated* and would have obtained when subjected to the same aromatic*hydrocarbons.* burial history. See also Coal rank* and LOM.* ENTRY PRESSURE: See Capillary entry pressure.* DOUBLE BOND: A bond between two atoms in which four electrons are shared instead of the normal two. EOM: See Bitumen.* The most common double bonds encountered in petroleum geochemistry are carbon-carbon and EOMETAMORHISM.. Meaning early meta-morphism. carbon-xygen. Double bonds are stronger and of Synonym for the geochemical phase of organic meta- shorter length than single bonds. morphism.* Not recommended for use.

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EPIGENETIC (SECONDARY): As applied to the organic matter in a sedimentary basin, epigenetic EXTRACT: The material removed from a mixture by includes derivatives (e.g., petroleum and gilsonite) the selective action of a solvent. from the primary (syngenetic) sedimentary organic matter. EXTRACTABLE ORGANIC MATTER: Organic matter that can be extracted from sedimentary rocks by EPIMER: Isomers* that differ only in configuration at means of organic solvents such as benzene methanol, one carbon atom. ether, and chloroform. The percentage extract repre- sents mainly the high-boiling (above -325°C) EPIMERIZATION: The conversion of one epirner into compounds; the low-boiling compounds are lost the other. during the removal of the solvent by evaporation. See also Extract.* EQUILIBRIUM ISOTOPE EFFECT: The effect derived from the fact that the heavier isotopes of an element EXTRACTION: Removal of bitumen from a rock prefer to exist in more oxidized compounds, the matrix. Extraction can be accomplished by a solvent lighter isotopes in the more reduced compounds. or by heat. Thus, for any reversible reaction that has come to equilibrium, the isotopic distribution among the : Esters of saturated fatty acids* and glycerol. See components is dependent on the relative stabilities of also Lipids.* the compounds rather than on their rate of formation. In organic geochemistry, the equilibrium FATTY ACID: An organic acid containing carbon, isotope effect is important primarily in the carbon hydrogen, and oxygen and having the following dioxide-carbonate equilibrium. See also Kinetic general structure: isotope effect.*

ESR: See Electron spin resonance.*

ESTERS: Compounds formed by the combination of an acid (generally organic) with an . Thus, and ethyl alcohol give an ester called ethyl acetate. Esters of long-chain fatty acids and alcohols FID: See Flame ionization detector.* are called waxes (to be distinguished from petroleum waxes*). FIRST-ORDER REACTION: A reaction the rate of which is proportional to the first power of the ETCHING: As applied to rock samples, etching refers concentration of only one of the reactants. to the successive treatment of a flat rock surface with hydrochloric acid, water, and hydrofluoric acid to FISCHER ASSAY: Actually, modified Fischer assay. A expose the organic material and its original texture. method used to determine the yield of shale oil from an oil shale* by the low-temperature pyrolysis* or ETHERS: Organic compounds in which two hydro- destructive distillation* of a rock sample. carbon radicals are bridged by an oxygen atom. The best known ether is C2H5--0<2& (diethyl ether). FIXED CARBON: The percentage of coal's organic carbon that remains after pyrolysis* of that coal EUXINIC: From the Latin Pontus Euxinus, or Black Sea, under prescribed conditions (ASTM method D121- famous for its sapropelic* conditions with stagnant, 30). Fixed carbon is numerically equal to 100 minus chemically layered, partly sulfurated . Ewcinic the percent volatile matter on a water-free and ash- environments favor sapropelic* facies. free (waf) basis

EXINITE: Synonym for liptinite, but applied only to FLAME IONIZATION DETECTOR (FID): A detector hard coal macerals.* The coal maceral* group used in gas chromatographs in which molecules including sporinite, cutinite, alginite, and resinite. emerging from the column are burned in a hydrogen These are not necessarily all exines, but they appear flame and the ions produced are counted as a to have similar properties. measure of the flux of material off the column.

EXPULSION: Transfer of oil and/or gas from fine- FLUORESCENCE: The property of emitting radiation grained source rock into other formations or into as the result of absorption of radiation from some fractures. The often seen term primary migration other source. The emitted radiation persists only as should be discouraged. long as the exposure to radiation. The fluorescent

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FUSINITE: A coal maceral* of the inertinite* group GAS SOURCE ROCK: A caustobiolite* capable of chiefly found in fossil wood charcoal, showing well- generating and expelling natural gas in the past, the defined cellular structure. present, or the future. Carbonaceous rocks are capable of releasing (dry) gas but incapable of GAMMA FACTOR: Temperature factor used in calcu- releasing oil. Kerogenous rocks can release oil and lating TTI* values by Lopatin's method.* gas but are usually simply called oil source rocks.* In the postmature stage, however, they can only GAS CHROMATOGRAM: The output data in analog generate and release gas. See also Natural gas.* form from a gas chromatograph.* GC: See Gas chromatograph.* GAS CHROMATOGRAPH (GC): An instrument for performing separation of hydrocarbon mixtures. GCMS: See Gas chromatograph-mass spectro-meter." The mixture is introduced via syringe into the heated injection port, where it is vaporized immediately. GELINITE: A coal maceral* of the vitrinite* group An inert gas, usually nitrogen or helium, flows found only in a low-rank humic coal and sapropelic through the injection port and sweeps the vapor onto coal. Probably a gelified collinite.* and through the column, which is a narrow-diameter metal or glass tube. More volatile, less polar compo- GEOCHEMICAL PHASE: See Organic meta- nents pass through most rapidly. The separated morphism.*

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GEOHISTORY DIAGRAM: An age-depth plot tracing well site are canned with an added bactericide. In the burial and tectonic histories of a rock from the the laboratory, the expelled gas is taken from the can time of deposition to the present day. It differs from with a syringe and analyzed. Also called airspace a burial history curve* in that the datum is sea level gas.* rather than the sea floor, thus permitting water depth to be shown at all times. HEAT FLOW: The quantity of heat (cal) that passes a unit area (cm) of a body in a unit time (sec). GEOPOLYMER: A polymer* formed in the geosphere Together with the thermal conductivity* of rocks, it as the result of chemical combination of small defines the geothermal gradient.* molecules. Their structure is random, almost completely lacking the strict ordering of biopoly- HEAVY HYDROCARBONS (HHC): A term applied to mers.* Because of their irregular structures, they are the total of saturated* and aromatic* hydrocarbons not susceptible to microbial attack. Geopolymers boiling above 325°C (617°F)separated by liquidsolid include fulvic acids,* humic acids,* asphaltenes: and chromatography (see Chromatography*) from the .* extractable organic matter.*

GEOTHERMAL DIAGENESIS: The alteration of HEAVY Ok Oil or tar that has a low API gravity* (less organic material in rocks in response to the than about 15"-20" API, depending on various increasing temperatures at depth. See also factors, particularly economic ones). Heavy oil can Eometamorphism.' be formed in two distinct ways: by biodegradation* (aided sometimes by water washing or evaporation) GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT: The change in tempera- of normal crude oils and as oils generated early from ture in the earth's crust with depth, usually some sulfur-rich kerogens. See also Tar." expressed in "C/lOO m or "F/100 ft. It is propor- tional to the heat flow* and inversely proportional to HEMPEL DISTILLATION: A method of distilling an the thermal conductivity*of the rocks involved. oil into 15 fractions and the residuum.* The first fraction consists of everything distilling up to 50°C GILSONITE: A soluble asphaltite* with specific gravity (122°F). The next 9 fractions are taken at intervals of of 1.03-1.10 and 10-20% fixed carbon,* having a 25°C (45°F) up to 275°C (527°F) under atmospheric black color, brilliant luster, brown streak, and pressure. The last 5 fractions are distilled under conchoidal fracture. Known chiefly in Utah, U.S.A., vacuum at 40 mm Hg pressure. The eleventh in vertical veins varying in width from a few fraction consists of all materials boiling up to 200°C millimeters to several meiers. (Obsolete synonyms (392"F), and the succeeding 4 fractions are taken at are uinthahite and uintanite.) intervals of 25°C (45°C)up to 275°C (527°F) at 40 rnm Hg. The base of the crude and the quantities of GLANCE PITCH: A soluble asphaltite* with a specific gasoline and other constituents in the crude can be gravity of 1.1-1.15 and 20-35% fixed carbon,* having calculated from the distillation data. a black streak and brilliant conchoidal fracture. When sufficiently free of mineral matter, it is also HERBACEOUS: Organic material of land plant origin, called Manjak. especially that which is rich in lipid components. Herbaceous organic matter is normally considered to GRAHAMITE: A soluble asphaltite* with a specific have good oil source potential. gravity of 1.15-1.20 and 35-50% fixed carbon,* having jet-black luster, conchoidal fracture, and HETEROATOMS: Any atoms other than carbon and black streak. It is fusible and brittle and occurs in hydrogen found in kerogen,* petroleum,* bitumen: veins; often mixed with up to 50% mineral matter and natural gas.* The most common heteroatoms are nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen. GRAPHITIZATION: The process leading to graphite, which is the ultimate polycyclic* aromatic material. HETEROCOMPOUNDS: Organic compounds Graphitization is what happens to kerogen* during containing, besides carbon and hydrogen, other metagenesis* when aromatization*is very advanced. elements such as nitrogen, sulfur and/or oxygen. The term is used colloquially in source rock* investi- HALOCLINE: See Pycnocline.* gations to indicate extractable organic matter* from which the saturated* and aromatic* hydrocarbons* HC: See Hydrocarbons.* have been removed.

HEADSPACE GAS: Refers to gas expelled from HETEROCYCLIC COMPOUNDS: Ring compounds in canned cuttings samples. Cuttings collected at the which one or more of the carbon atoms in the ring

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/books/book/chapter-pdf/3837691/9781629811208_backmatter.pdf by guest on 24 September 2021 [ryof Terms Applicable to Petroleum Geochemistry 171 are replaced by an atom of another element such as tively low hydrogedcarbon ratio, composed largely nitrogen, sulfur, or oxygen. of woody and cellulosic material of terrestrial origin. Humic substances generate a little oil and some gas, HIGH-PERFORMANCE LIQUID CHROMATO- but do not have high-generative capacities for hydro- GRAPHY (HPLC): A type of column chromatog- carbons. raphy performed under high pressure to achieve a more efficient separation of compounds within a HUMIN: Humic material of high molecular weight particular class. It is most commonly used with that is insoluble in both aqueous acid and base. See porphyrins* and sometimes with hydrocarbon also Fulvic acids,* Humic acids,* and Kerogen.* biomarkers.* EIUMOLITE: A sediment consisting of, or rich in HHC: See Heavy hydrocarbons.' organic matter of, predominantly humic coal* type carbonaceous rock. See also Caustobiolite.* HILT'S LAW: The observation that the volatile carbon in coal decreases proportionally with depth of the HYDRATES: See Gas hydrates.* coal in normal stratigraphic sequences. The nonvolatile or fixed carbon or coals increases with HYDROCARBON DEADLINE: Maximum depth or increasing depth and temperature. temperature at which oil or gas is present in economic quantities in a particular area. HOMOLOGOUS SERIES: A series of compounds with the same type of structure in which each compound HYDROCARBONS (HC): Compounds composed only is distinguished from its preceding one by having of carbon and hydrogen. In the petroleum industry, one more CH group. The members of the series bear a general term that includes a variety of accumula- close chemical relation to each other. tions of hydrogen-rich organic matter having a predominantly hydrocarbon character, for example, HOMOLOGS: Compounds that are members of the crude oil,* natural gas*, natural asphalts,* and same class but which differ in the number of carbon asphaltites*. atoms they contain. For example, n-pentane and n- hexane are homologs, as are pristane and phytane. : The addition of hydrogen to a chemical compound, usually by reaction with the HOPANES: Pentacyclic triterpanes* whose precursors electrons in a double bond. For example, ethene occur in some terrestrial plants and in many microor- (CZ&) + HZ+ (C2fi)- ganisms. They are useful indicators of depositional environment and thermal maturity. HYDROGEN INDEX (HI): An indication of the remaining hydrocarbon-generative capacity of a HPLC: See High-performance liquid chromato- kerogen, as measured by Rock-Eva1 pyrolysis.* graphy.* Hydrogen index is expressed in mg HC/g TOC. See also Oxygen index.* HUMIC ACIDS: Organic compounds, generally dark brown, which occur in soils and sediments and HYDROPHILIC: Literally, water loving. Hydrophilic dissolve in or are peptized by aqueous alkaline compounds or functional groups are polar and thus solutions; they generally precipitate from these miscible with water. solutions upon addition of acid. HYDROPHOBIC: Literally, water fearing. HUMIC COAL: Coal, in the strict sense. The fossil Hydrophobic -compounds are nonpolar and thus remnants of vegetable debris, chiefly woody immiscible with water. material, often having maintained their morpholog- ical organization with little decay. Major element is HYDROSTATIC GRADIENT: The pressure increase carbon (60-100°/o), with hydrocarbon between 1 and with depth of a liquid in contact with the surface. 6%. Humic coals are subdivided according to coal The gradient for freshwater is 9.8 kPa/m (0.433 type* and coal rank.* psi/ft).

HUMIC ORGANIC MATIER: Organic matter derived HYDROXYL: The functional group -OH. primarily from the decomposition of woody plant material and having a low hydrogen content (<6%) HYPERSALINE: Any water with a dissolved salt even in the uncoalified portion of the subsurface. content higher than that of normal se-.awater.

HUMIC SUBSTANCES: Organic matter with a rela- IMMATURE: See Mature.*

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IMPSONITE: A black variety of asphaltite* with a groups; for example, cis and trans ("boat" and specific gravity of 1.10-1.25 and 50-85% fixed "chair") isomers of 1,2-dimethylcyclopropane. carbon; slightly soluble in carbon disulfide, almost Optical isomers are nonidentical mirror images insoluble in turpentine; black streak, infusible. comparable to right- and left-handed gloves; for example, D- and L-lactic acid. INDIGENOUS: As applied to hydrocarbons in the subsurface, indigenous refers to hydrocarbons* ISOPARAFFINS: See Isoalkanes.* formed in the rocks in which they occur. ISOPRENE An unsaturated hydrocarbon (C5Hs) with INERTINTTE: The group of coal macerals* comprising the following carbon skeleton: micrinite,* semifusinite,* fusinite,* and sclerotinite,* based on certain similarities in the technological properties. The term does not imply that they are more inert than the other macerals, particularly with respect to coalification.* ISOPRENOlD INDEX: A maturity index based on the INERTODETRINITE: All particles in coal that display a following concentration ratio of different higher reflectivity than the corresponding vitrinite isoprenoids*following isoprenoid isoalkanes*: and cannot be classified as micrinite,* macrinite,* or sclerotinite.* It shows no cellular structure, but displays a well-defined multisided and angular outline. Its size varies from <20 to 30 pn. Light gray white color in reflected light, predominantly opaque in transmitted light, only showing dark red to brown The ratio decreases strongly with increasing border in very thin sections. maturity* of the sediment.

IR Abbreviation for infrared. ISOPRENOID ISOALKANES: Alkanes* with methyl groups (CIG groups) attached to every fourth carbon ISOALKANES: Alkanes* with branched chains of of the otherwise continuous chain of carbon atoms: carbon atoms, for example, pristane,' which has this structure: C I - C(-C- G-C- C),-C-

ISOPRENOIDS: Molecules related structurally or genetically to the building block molecule isoprene*: ISODOM: On geological basin maps, the lines connecting points of equal DOM.* If volatile matter* CH3 is mapped, the contours are then called isovol. I (CH,=C- CH= CH,) (Obsolete synonym is isocarb.)

ISOMERIZATION: The conversion of a compound into and existing in petroleum in the form of isoparaf- another compound containing the same atoms in the fins,' naphthenes* (including poly-naphthenes), and molecule but arranged in a different way. For aromatics* (including polyaromatics). example, n- may be converted to by isomerization: ISOTOPE PROFILE: A plot of isotope values measured for several fractions of a bitumen or an oil or for members of a homologous series (n-alkanes, for example). The measured values are generally presented in agraphical (profile) format that shows the trend among the fractions measured. Profiles are ISOMERS: Molecules that have the same number and useful in correlations. kinds of atoms but are different substances. Structural isomers differ in the way atoms are linked ISOTOPE RATIO: The ratio of two isotopes* in a together; for example, n-butane and isobutane. compound. In geochemistry the following ratios are Stereoisomers differ in the spatial arrangements of of special importance: the ratio 12C/13C which may

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/books/book/chapter-pdf/3837691/9781629811208_backmatter.pdf by guest on 24 September 2021 !yof Terms Applicable to Petroleum Geochemistry 173 be indicative of the type of organic matter, and the the structural material of land plants. It has a very ratio of the oxygen isotopes '60/'s0, which may be low potential to source oil and only a slight potential used as an indicator of the paleotemperature. for gas.

ISOTOPES: Elements having an identical number of LIGNINS: Chemical constituents of trees and woody protons in their nuclei, but differing in the number of plants. They are substances of high molecular their neutrons. Isotopes have the same atomic weight built up of structural elements containing number and the same chemical properties, but benzene nuclei and methoxyl groups (43-CI-h). different atomic weights. LIGNITE: Loosely synonymous with brown coal.* In ISOVOL: See Isodom.* the strict sense, lignite is hard or consolidated brown coal or the individual pieces of wood enclosed in KEROGEN: (1) The solid, insoluble organic matter of brown coal. sapropelites*(kerogenous rocks), which yields oil on destructive distillation.* It is the product of the LIPIDS: A general name for plant and animal products biochemical alteration of lipid-rich organic matter. typified by esters* of higher fatty acids* but Its insolubility in organic solvents such as benzene, including certain other oil-soluble, water-insoluble chloroform, and carbon disulfide is related to its substances. The termfat* (or vegetable or animal oil, extremely high molecular weight. See also if liquid) is usually confined to esters of fatty acids Caustobiolite.* (2) After Hunt, the disseminated with glycerol, and the term wax* to esters with other organic matter of sedimentary rocks that is insoluble alcohols*. The term lipids includes fatty acids, in nonoxidizing acids, bases, and organic solvents. alcohols, steroids,* terpenes,* and carotenoids.* The organic matter initially deposited with unconsol- They are generally characterized by solubility in idated sediments is not kerogen but a precursor that solvents such as ether, benzene, and chloroform and is converted to kerogen during diagenesis.* have slight or no solubility in water. Sapropelic* kerogens yield oil and gas on heating, while humic kerogens yield mainly gas. Kerogen LIPTINITE: Synonym of exinite, but applied to brown includes both marine- and land-derived organic coal macerals. A coal maceral group that is the matter, the latter being the same as the components dominant organic constituent of boghead coals.* of coal. Liptinite macerals include sporinite, cutinite, resinite, and alginite, which are derived from spores and KEROGENOUS: Pertaining to kerogen*; of sapropelic* pollen, cuticles, resins, and algae, respectively. origin. Bituminite is an amorphous liptinite maceral. Liptinite is widely disseminated in sediments and is KEROSENE (KEROSINE): A petroleum distillate with an important source of crude oil.* The kerogen* of a boiling range of about 180"-230°C (392"-500°F) and oil shales*is mostly of liptinitic origin. with about 11 to 13 carbon atoms per molecule. LIPTOBIOLITE: See Sapropelite.* KINETIC ISOTOPE EFFECT: The effect derived from the fact that the lighter isotopes* of an element react LIPTODETm: Collective term for constituents of more rapidly than the heavier ones. Thus, any irre- the liptinite* group, which, because of their finely versible reaction in which 100% of the reactant has detrital condition and/or small particle size, can no not yet been consumed will show an enrichment of longer be assigned with certainty to one or other the light isotope in the products. See also macerals of the liptinite group. Have varying forms, Equilibrium isotope effect." sharp-edged splinters, thread-like structures, rounded particles, often only 2-3 pm. In transmitted KINETICS: The study of the rates at which chemical light, are white, yellow, reddish yellow; in reflected reactions proceed and the dependence of these rates light, black, dark gray, or brown; show strong fluo- on various factors, such as time, temperature, rescence. pressure, and concentrations of the reactants. LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY: An analytical method LECO CARBON ANALYZER: An instrument in in which components of a mixture are separated and common use for measuring TOC* values by combus- measured by dissolving them in a liquid and then tion of the organic carbon and subsequent measure- passing them through a column of solid sorbing ment of the carbon dioxide produced. material that has a different affinity for the different components. The liquid emerging from the column LIGNIN: Highly aromatic organic polymer* that forms is collected in a number of fractions in which the

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separated components are identified or measured by or as ground mass in isolated form, rounded chemical or physical methods. outlines. Size mostly above 10 pm generally opaque or brownish red. LITHOSTATIC GRADIENT: The total pressure increase with depth caused by rock grains and water. MANJAK: See Glance pitch." It averages about 24.4 kPa/m (1.08 psi/ft). MASS SPECTROMETER (MS): An instrument used for LITHOTYPE: The macroscopic fine structure of humic identifymg chemical compounds. The compound is coal*; also called ingredient, rock type, banded ingre- vaporized in the inlet system and then bombarded dient, or banded constituent. See also Coal with large amounts of energy. The energy knocks structure.* one electron out of some of the molecules, forming ions with essentially the same mass as the original LOM: Level or organic metamorphism. An arbitrary compounds. The ions are then accelerated into a scale used by Shell Oil Co. in the United States to magnetic field whose intensity allows only certain indicate the progress of the thermal alteration of masses to pass through (the remainder being organic matter in the subsurface. LOM is defined as deflected to one of the magnets). The intensity of the being linear to the maximum temperature of a magnetic field is varied rapidly so that ions of a wide sediment, with an LOM value of zero assigned to range of mass/charge ratios (m/z) can be detected. organic matter subjected to a temperature of 70°F The pattern of ions passing through the magnetic (21°C) and an LOM value of 10 assigned to organic field is called the mass spectrum. Mass spectrome- matter subjected to a sufficient temperature history ters are also used to determine isotope ratios. to produce an opacity or light absorption of 62% for Because molecules containing heavy isotopes are the spore type Sco 31, using the EPR coalification heavier than normal, so are the ions formed in the equipment. See also DOM* and Coal rank.* mass spectrometer. Mass spectrometry is used in fingerprinting, for maturity determinations, and for LOPATIN'S METHOD: A method developed in 1971 environmental determinations. See also Gas chro- by N. V. Lopatin for predicting the thermal maturity matograph-mass spectrometer.* of rocks from a detailed knowledge of their burial and thermal histories. MASS SPECTRUM: The recording of the ions present and their relative abundances in a sample that has LOW-GRAY: Term applied to the vitrinite population been analyzed in a mass spectrometer.* having the lowest reflectance value. Except where caving has occurred, the low-gray population should MATURE: As applied to the organic matter of fine- represent the indigenous, first-cycle material. grained rocks, the organic matter is mature when its indigenous,* extractable hydrocarbons are LUBE OIL: A general name for a variety of refined, petroleum-like in composition. Specifically, the n- nonwaxy, nonasphaltic petroleum fractions boiling alkane* carbon number distribution and the above about 300°C (572°F). naphthene* ring number distributions are used as indices of maturity. Organic matter that has not yet LUBRICATING OIL: The fraction of crude petroleum reached the mature stage is called immature. Mature having a viscosity above 50 sec S.U. at 38°C (100°F) organic matter that has been subjected to a sufficient and a boiling range between about 332" and 421°C temperature for most of the heavier hydrocarbons (630" and 790°F). (14C) to have been converted to light hydrocarbons and dead carbon is referred to as being postmature. M+: The molecular ion formed in a mass spectrom- eter.* See also Molecular ion.* MATURITY: Similarity of extractable rock hydrocar- bons to petroleum in chemical composition. M/Z: Ratio of mass to charge for an ion in a mass spec- trometer.* The charge is virtually always +1, so the MATURITY INDEX: Chemical parameter indicating m/z value is actually the mass of the ion in amu. maturity* of an oil source rock, e.g., the isoprenoid index,* the naphthene index,* and the n-paraffin MACERALS: Elementary organic units of coal that can index.' be distinguished under the microscope. See also Coal maceral.* MERCAPTANS: Compounds containing the sulfhydryl (-SH) group. They are sulfur analogs of MACRINlTE: Shows no cell structure, occurs isolated the alcohols in that the oxygen in the alcohol (4H)

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/books/book/chapter-pdf/3837691/9781629811208_backmatter.pdf by guest on 24 September 2021 y of Terms Applicable to Petroleum Geochemistry 175 group is replaced by sulfur. addition to nonpolar hydrocarbons. Micelle formation would increase the compatibility of water METAANTHRACITE: The highest rank of humic and oil. coal.* See also Coal rank.* MICRINITE: An opaque coal maceral* of the inerti- METAGENESIS: The late stages of thermal maturity nite* group showing no cellular structure. Often when gas generation and cracking* predominate. divided into fine-grained micrinite and massive micrinite. The origin of this maceral has not yet been METAMORPHISM: Modification of original composi- traced. tion in response to temperature, pressure, radiation, catalysts, etc. See also Organic metamorphism.* The MICROBES: Microscopic organisms such as bacteria transformation of preexisting rocks into new types and methanogens, which play very important roles by the action of heat, pressure, stress, and chemically in diagenesis.* active migrating fluids. Metamorphism usually begins at temperatures above 200°C (392°F). At such MICROBIAL: Referring to living microorganisms, temperatures, the organic matter is already reduced including bacteria. to a low-hydrogen carbon residue capable of yielding only small amounts of gas. MICROFRACTURES: Tiny fractures that open up temporarily as a result of overpressuring in source METERORIC WATER: Fresh surface water entering a rocks, at least partially in response to hydrocarbon subsurface sedimentary section through permeable generation. Microfractures may be important outcrops. It is high in sodium, bicarbonate, and pathways for expulsion. Because they apparently sulfate and usually contains less than 10,000 ppm heal rapidly and without leaving a trace in most dissolved total solids. cases, microfractures are not well understood.

METHANE: Cfi, the first member of the homologous MICROLITHOTYPE: Synonym for coal type* and coal series of paraffins: maceral association*; the microscopic fine structure of humic coal*.

MIGRATION: Movement of oil and/or gas in the subsurface after expulsion*. Tenns such as primary and secondary migration are generally discouraged. See also Remigration.*

METHANE HYDRATES: See Gas hydrates.* MINERAL WAX: A species of a bitumen having a characteristic luster and unctuous feel, composed METHANOL: Methyl alcohol, the simplest of the class principally of saturated hydrocarbons* and of organic compounds known as alcohols*: CBOH. containing considerable amounts of crystallizable paraffins: the nonmineral constituents being soluble METHYLPHENANTHRENE INDEX (MPI): Ratio of in carbon disulfide. An example is ozocerite. See several methylphenanthrenes, tricyclic aromatic* also Paraffin wax.* molecules found in the aromatic fractions of oils and bitumens. The index is related to vitrinite MOLE: The mass numerically equal to the molecular reflectance* by the empirical equation R, = 0.60(MPI) weight. It is most frequently expressed as the gram + 0.37. molecular weight, i.e., as the weight of 1 mol expressed in grams. The molecular weight of methyl MICELLE: An aggregation of a few molecules in which alcohol (CIGOH) is 32 (based on atomic weight of C the polar portions of the molecules align themselves = 12, H = 1, and 0 = 16); 1 g mol of methyl alcohol is close together. The nonpolar parts of the molecules 32 g. can thus also lie near each other. In a polar medium, the polar parts of the micelle are pointed outward, MOLECULAR ION: The ion formed in a mass spec- interacting favorably with the medium, while the trometer* by the initial loss of a single electron from nonpolar parts are together in the middle, protected a molecule. Its mass is essentially the same as that of from the medium. In a nonpolar medium the roles the parent molecule. The molecular ion can subse- would be reversed. Oil could form micelles since quently decompose to give fragment ions. most rocks are wetted with polar water molecules, and oils do contain some polar components in MOLECULAR SIEVES: Zeolites used in the laboratory

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separation of n-alkanes from branched and cyclic high naphthene* content and low content of saturated hydrocarbons. See also Urea adduction.* gasoline; API gravities* are usually less than 35".

MORETANES: Pentacyclic triterpanes* that are not NATURAL GAS: A naturally occurring gas in most very stable thermally. Their presence is a good cases consisting mainly of the lighter hydrocarbons, indicator of thermal immaturity, although some oils especially methane.* It is believed to originate from sourced from rocks rich in high-sulfur kerogens* two sources: (a) humic coal* (predominantly may still contain moretanes. methane) and (b) kerogenous* rocks along with or after the formation of petroleum. Natural gas MPI: See Methylphenanthrene index.* consisting principally of methane and ethane and devoid of the heavier hydrocarbons is called dry MS: See Mass spectrometer." gas.* See also Caustobiolite.*

MUDLOGGING: A process in which the amount and NATIVE ASPHALTS: A class of naturally occurring composition of gases in the mud returning up the bitumens* with low fusing points having specific annulus of the drill string from the bit are deter- gravities of about l.0-l.l and fixed carbon values of mined. These values are recorded on a mudlog 4-20%. which reveals relative amounts of gas in fine-grained sediments (shale gas which reflects source character) NONCARBONATE CARBON (NCC): See Organic as well as in reservoir rocks (indications of gas bed carbon.* ring zones). The mudlogger also is used as a warning device to prevent the mud from becoming NORMAL ALKANES: See n-Alkanes.* too heavily "cut" with gas and causing impending blowouts. NORMAL PARAFFINS: See n-Alkanes.*

NAPHTHA: The portion of petroleum boiling in the NSO COMPOUNDS: See Heterocompounds.* temperature range of 100"-200°C (212"-392°F) (as defined by the U.S. Bureau of Mines). NSOs: Nonhydrocarbon organic components of crude oils and extracts with a nitrogen, sulfur and oxygen NAPHTHABITUMEN: The natural, gaseous, liquid atom in their structures in a position normally and solid mixtures of hydrocarbons and hydro- occupied by a carbon atom. carbon-like compounds derived from caustobiolites.* NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE (NMR): A type NAPHTHENE: Synonym for * and of spectroscopic analysis used in organic geochem- cycloparaffin. A hydrocarbon ring with the istry to distinguish aliphatic carbon atoms from molecular formula CnHa. (Cs) and aromaticones. Application has been rather rare but (C6) ring structures are the most may increase in the future in kerogen studies. common in petroleum. Condensed or polycyclic naphthenes contain rings in which two or more ODD-PREDOMINANCE (OEP): Refers to the carbon atoms are shared. Tetracyclic and pentacyclic phenomenon that n-alkanes* with an odd number of naphthenes contained four and five rings, respec- carbon atoms predominate over those with an even tively, fused together. number of carbon atoms. Also called Carbon prefer- ence index (CPI)." In general, n-alkanes in the NAPHTHENE INDEX (NI): A maturity index; the sum molecular weight* range of Cz.5 to C35 are taken into of the percentages of one- and two-ring naphthenes consideration. Sediments showing odd-predomi- in the 420°470"C(788"-878"F) isoparaffin-naphthene nance are considered to be immature." Follows this concentrate of petroleum or of rock extracts. equation: NAPHTHENES: A term often used by petroleum chemists to indicate the cycloalkanes* occurring in Ci + 6Ci+2+ Ci+*(-l)i+' petroleum. OEP = + 4Ci+3 NAPHTHENIC ACIDS: The organic acids that are found in abundance in naphthenic crudes and in OIL DEADLINE: See hydrocarbon deadline. associated waters. OIL FLOOR: The maturity VR* of 1.30 % R,* of NAPHTHENIC CRUDE OILS: Nonwaxy crudes with reservoir or associated sediments above which

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OIL GENERATION WINDOW: The range of depths, ORGANIC METAMORPHISM: A colloquial expres- temperatures, maturities, or less commonly, times sion for metamorphism of organic matter. It during which oil generation was or is occurring in a comprises all physical and chemical alteration particular area. processes after the death of an organism during sedi- mentation and in the subsurface. Two phases are OIL PRESERVATION WlNDOW: The range of depths, distinguished: (a) a biochemical phase, which is temperatures, or maturities at which oil is thermally conversion of organic matter mainly influenced by stable in a particular area. microbial processes in the shallow subsurface, and (b) a geochemical phase, which is conversion OIL SHALE: A sapropelite* containing a variable primarily influenced by thermal processes leading to amount of kerogen* (from 10 to 67%) which on products of increased thermal stability and ulti- destructive distillation*yields shale oil.* The term is mately to methane and graphitic carbon. Organic a well-known misnomer because the rock is not metamorphism is in general limited to subsurface really a shale nor does it contain oil. The shaly temperatures of less than about 250°C (-500°F). appearance comes from the foliated arrangement of the organic matter within the mineral matrix. In ORGANIC NETWORK: Term used for the continuous principal, oil shale can be considered a rich oil source network of organic material as it occurs in source rock.* See also Caustobiolite.* An oil shale rocks. containing more than 67% kerogen (or less than 33% ash*) is classified as sapropelic coal.* OVERCOOKED MATURE: Synonym for postmature. See Mature.* OIL SHOW ANALYZER: An instrument that performs both TOC* measurement and Rock-Eva1 pyrolysis* OVERMATURE: Hydrocarbon generation has already in a single operation. occurred. The term usually refers to oil generation.

OIL SOURCE ROCK: A kerogenous* rock capable of OXIDATION: Loss of electrons by an atom, ion, or generating and expelling petroleum* in the past, the molecule during a chemical reaction. present, and/or the future. Depending on the maturity, one can distinguish immature*, mature,* : A molecule, atom, or ion that and postmature* oil source rocks. (Shell Oil Co. promotes oxidation in some other material. The prefers the term potential for immature oil source oxidizing agent is itself reduced during the reaction. rock.) An oil source rock is also always a gas source See also Reducing agent.* rock.* See also Caustobiolite.* OXYGEN INDEX: The amount of CO2 produced from OIL WINDOW: See Oil generation window* and Oil kerogen during Rock-Eval* pyrolysis.* Oxygen preservation window.' index is measured as mg COz/g TOC and is supposed to be related to the oxygen content of the OLEFINS: A class of unsaturated hydrocarbons of the kerogen. See also Hydrogen index.* general formula C,Hz,. These are not normally found in more than trace quantities in crude oils. See OXYGEN-MINIMUM LAYER: Layer of water within also Alkanes.* which the dissolved oxygen content is lower than in the over- and underlying water layers. It is caused OM: Abbreviation for organic matter. by excessive demand for oxygen by decaying organic matter falling from the photic zone above. OML See Oxygen-minimum layer.* OZOKERITE: A native mineral wax, yellow to dark- ORGANIC: (1) A chemical compound containing one brown in color, composed of the higher members or more carbon atoms. However, carbonates and (C22 to C29) of the CnHzn+2 (paraffin*) and C,H2, metal carbides are not considered organic. (2) (naphthene*) series. Ozokerite is believed to be a Originating in or derived from an organism. shallow alteration product of a paraffinic oil. See Paraffin wax.* ORGANIC CARBON: Synonym for noncarbonate carbon.* The carbon that is left in a sediment after PACKED COLUMN: A relatively large-diameter gas removal of soluble organic matter (by extraction) (see chromatographic*column that is packed with a solid

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/books/book/chapter-pdf/3837691/9781629811208_backmatter.pdf by guest on 24 September 2021 material upon which the stationary phase is coated. PER MIL: Parts per thousand, written as %o. Used in See also Capillary column.* expressing the difference in isotope contents between a sample and the standard. PAH: Abbreviation for polycyclic aromatic hydro- carbon. PETROGENIC GAS: A gas associated with petroleum or derived from crude oil by diagenetic processes as PALYNOMORPHS: A term embracing pollen* and distinguished from biogenic processes as distin- spores* (sporomorphs*)and also including dinoflag- guished from biogenic gas produced by the action of ellates and acritarchs. Their light translucency is bacteria on organic matter in relatively shallow used in palynology as a rough indicator of coalifica- sediments. tion*. PETROLEUM: Liquid naphthabitumen* composed PARAFFIN DIRT: A yellow-brown, gummy, soil mainly of hydrocarbons,* along with varying organic matter composed of nitrogenous-humic- amounts of other soluble compounds containing not cellulosic remains of plant material heavily impreg- only carbon and hydrogen but also sulfur, oxygen, nated with fungi, yeasts, actinomyces, and bacteria. and nitrogen atoms. Includes crude oil and conden- The word parafin in this term is a misnomer since sate. See also Caustobiolite.* this substance contains less than 3% lipid material. The waxy appearance is caused by living and dead PETROLEUM WAX: See Paraffin wax." microbial cells. Paraffin dirt tends to accumulate in moist soils hear hydrocarbon seeps. PETROLIFEROUS: Referring to rocks containing or yielding petroleum. PARAFFINIC CRUDE OILS: Waxy crudes with low naphthene content. PHENOL: A group of organic compounds containing a hydroxyl (OH) group attached to an aromatic ring. n-PARAFFIN INDEX (R29): A maturity index; the ratio The simplest member of the phenol family. of the concentration of n-C29 to an average of the concentrations of n-C2s and n-CN in a rock extract or PHOTIC ZONE: The depth range within which photo- in an oil. synthesis occurs in marine or lake waters. The thickness of the photic zone is seldom greater than PARAFFIN-NAPHTHENE (P-N) HYDRO-CARBONS: 200 m (660 ft), and is limited by light penetration, The mixture of saturated hydrocarbons including which in turn is limited by turbidity. both paraffin* (nonring) and naphthene* (ringed or cyclic) structures; these often are separated as one PHYTANE (PH): An isoprenoid* isoalkane* with 20 fraction in liquid chromatography.* carbon atoms, having the following structure:

PARAFFINS: See Alkanes.* c- c-c-c-C-C-C-c-c-C-c-c-c-C- C-C I I I I n-PARAFFINS: See n-Alkanes.* C C C C

PARAFFIN WAX: Solid, waxy material made up PHYTOL: An isoprenoid* unsaturated* alcohol* with mainly of n-paraffins with 17 or more carbon atoms 20 carbon atoms, having the following structure: per molecule. Includes (a) petroleum wax (derived from petroleum); (b) mineral wax (naturally occurring naphthabitumens,' e.g., ozokerite,' hatch- etite, and scheerite) (see also Caustobiolite*);and (c) montan wax (consisting mainly of long-chain alcohols, acids, and esters extracted from peat,* PHYTOPLANKTON: Unicellular photosynthetic lignite, etc.). organisms that mainly live in marine or lacustrine waters. They are responsible for approximately half PDB: Belemnites from the Cretaceous PeeDee of the annual photosynthetic productivity on the Formation of South Carolina. PDB is the standard earth. They are also called algae and include coccol- for comparing carbon isotope ratios.* ithophorids, diatoms, and dinoflagellates.

PEAT: The lowest rank of humic coal* (some PITCH: Undistilled residue from the thermal treatment researchers exclude peat from coal rank* and call it a of organic matter (destructive distillation,* precursor of coal). pyrolysis,' etc.); generally of viscous to solid consis-

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PLANKTON: All aquatic organisms freely floating or PRIMARY MIGRATION: The movement of oil and gas drifting in the water, as opposed to necton (which out of fine-grained source rocks into permeable propels itself) and benthos (which is attached to or reservoir rocks. crawls on the basin floor). Although the term includes organisms such as seaweed, most plank- PRISTANE (PR): An isoprenoid* isoalkane* with 19 tonic organisms are microscopic. Phytoplankton is carbon atoms and of the following structure: plant plankton and zooplankton is animal plankton.

PNA ANALYSIS: The determination of relative amounts of paraffins, naphthenes, and aromatics in an oil or in fractions of a crude oil. This method is applied mainly to gasoline fractions as a means of classifying crude oils. PRODUCTION INDEX: See Transformation ratio.* PROGRAMMED TEMPERATURE CHROMATO- POLLEN: The individual grains or microorganisms produced in the male apparatus in the flowers of GRAPHY (PTC): Gas chromatography carried out higher (seed) plants; usually a fine yellow dust. See beginning at a low temperature and progressing to also Sporomorphs.* higher temperatures according to a predetermined temperature program. See also Gas chromatograph.* POLYCYCLIC: Having many rings in its chemical structure. PROTEINS: Naturally occurring complex condensation products of amino acids* with the following basic : A chemical reaction that arrangement: produces very large molecules by a process of repeti- tive addition of small molecules. Polymerization processes always lead to a broad mixture of macro- molecules with different molecular weights.

POLYMERS: Large molecules consisting of many small Proteins are essential constituents of all living cells. subunits. Biopolymers* have regular structures, They are readily broken down by degradation whereas geopolyrners* have irregular unique struc- processes. tures formed from a wide variety of subunits. PROXIMATE ANALYSIS: The determination by PORPHYRINS: A group of organic compounds, standard methods of moisture, volatile matter,* fixed generally red. The two most important types are the carbon* (by difference), and ash* in coal. For all low- DPEP (or phyllo) type and the MEP (or etio) type. rank coals, the determination of the calorific value* The first type is derived from chlorophyll,* whereas should also be added. See also Ultimate analysis.* the second type can form from DPEP by further thermal metamorphism or from hemin (blood PSEUDO ACTIVATION ENERGY: A parameter used pigment). In crude oils they generally are bound to to describe the average activation energy of a system vanadium and nickel (porphyrin/vanadium or consisting of numerous different chemical reactions. porphyrin/nickel complexes). In sediments they See also Activation energy.* may occur metal free (free porphyrins) or bound to iron. PTC: See Programmed temperature chromato-graphy.*

POSSIBLE SOURCE ROCK: See Source rock.* PYCNOCLINE: A sharp density discontinuity between water layers caused either by thermal stratification POSTMATURE: See Mature.* (thermocline) or salinity differences (halocline).

POTENTIAL SOURCE ROCK: See Source rock.* PYROBITUMEN: A term not recommended for use because it is a confusing nongenetic name covering POUR POm The temperature at which crude oil will some insoluble asphaltites* (asphaltic pyrobitumen),

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PYROLYSIS: (1) Decomposition of organic matter by PYROLYTIC GAS RATIOS: The gas ratios of ethane, heating in the absence of oxygen. This process is the , propane, propylene, isobutane, and n- basis for several methods of source rock analysis butane relative to methane obtained by pyrolysis of (CR/CT,pyrolysis-GSC,* Rock-Eval* pyrolysis, etc.). organic matter. It allows the determination of the (2) Destructive distillation,* nearly identical with type of organic matter. definition (I), although generally not carried out in a completely oxygen-free atmosphere. Applied to R: Chemical designation for rectus (right), which coals and oil shales (e.g., Fischer assay*), but also to indicates the relative positions of the four groups sedimentary rocks (e.g., pyrolysis-fluorescence,* bonded to a carbon atom. There is not necessarily a pyrolysis-sniffing,* test tube pyrolysis, and correspondence between the R,S system and the X,B pyrolysis-colorimetry*). system.

PYROLYSIS-COLORIMETRY: The analytical technique R,: Vitrinite reflectance measured in air. This of test tube pyrolysis of a rock followed by the deter- technique is used mainly by Soviet workers. Charts mination of the color of the dissolved tarry exist that convert R, values to &.* compounds produced by the pyrolysis. Like pyrolysis-fluorescence? this method provide a raid &: Vitrinite reflectance*measured in oil immersion. identification of pyrolyzable organic matter of a rock. It is developed for field use. RANK: See Coal rank.'

PYROLYSIS-FID: The analytical technique of RANK CORRELATION: A mathematical method in programmed temperature pyrolysis* followed by use for correlating oils and extracts or different oils. flame ionization detection (FID)*of the hydrocarbon It is based upon the ranking of the hydrocarbons in products. The pyrolysis temperature at which the fraction boiling between 30" and 120°C (86" and maximum generation of hydrocarbons occurs 248°F) according to their quantities. It results in the provides an indication of maturity. rank correlation coefficient, which expresses the degree of correlation. The value of this coefficient is PYROLYSIS-FLUORESCENCE: The analytical essentially limited to the range -1 to +l; the closer to technique of test tube pyrolysis of rock followed by +1, the better the correlation. the fluorometric determination of the fluorescing compounds produced by the pyrolysis. This method REDUCING AGENT: An atom, molecule, or ion that provides a rapid indication of the thermally available promotes reduction of another substance. The oil of a rock. reducing agent is itself oxidized in the process.

PYROLYSIS-GSC: The analytical technique of pyrolysis REDUCTION: The gain of electrons by an atom, followed by gas-solid chromatography (GSC) as a molecule, or ion during a chemical reaction. See also means of determining the pyrolysis temperature at Oxidation.* which maximum ethane generation occurs. This provides an indication of maturity for organic matter REFLECTANCE: See Vitrinite reflectance.* having reached a maturity value of VR/E* 1.32 or more. REMIGRATION: The movement of hydrocarbons from an existing trap into a new one or to the surface due PYROLYSIS-MS: The analytical technique of to changes in physical conditions and/or tectonic programmed temperature pyrolysis followed by mobilization. mass spectrometric* determination of some of the products. This provides an indication of both type RESIDUUM: The residue obtained from the distillation and maturity of organic matter. of crude oil* after all fractions, including lubricating oils? have been taken off. PYROLYSIS-SNIFFING (PF): The analytical technique of rapid, high-temperature pyrolysis of rock sample RESIN. Petroleum resins are the fraction of residuum* followed by the semiquantitative detection of the that is insoluble in liquid propane but soluble in total hydrocarbon gases produced. The detection is normal pentane. Plant resins are terpenoids* ranging accomplished by means of a flame ionization in molecular size from sesquiterpenes (CIS)to detector.* A laboratory method for the rapid tetraterpenes (C40). They contain the olefinic double

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ROCK-EVAL: An instrument for carrying out pyrolysis SAPROPELIC ORGANIC MATTER: The decomposi- of rocks and sediments. The Rock-Eva1 is in tion and polymerization products of high-lipid common use throughout the oil industry. organic materials, such as spores and planktonic Information on both kerogen type and maturity can algae deposited in subaquatic muds (marine or be obtained with it. lacustrine) under predominantly anaerobic condi- tions. RSRA: Abbreviation for rapid source rock analysis. See Pyrolysis-fluorescence,* Pyrolysis-sniffing,* and SAPROPELITE: Synonym for liptobiolite. A keroge- Pyrolysis-colorimetry.* nous* sediment. See also Caustobiolite.*

S: Chemical designation for sinister (left), which SATURATED: A term applied to any compounds in indicates the relative positions of the four groups which all carbon-carbon bonds are single bonds. bonded to a carbon atom. There is not necessarily a correspondence between the R,S system and the X,B SATURATES: Saturated hydrocarbons. A general term system. including normal and branched alkanes* and cycloalkanes (paraffins* and naphthenes*). Saturates SO: Thermally extracted hydrocarbons obtained during are the nonaromatic hydrocarbon fraction of an oil. Rock-Eva1 analysis mainly consisting of gas molecules. This system is only used on the Rock- SCLEROTINITE: A coal maceral* of the inertinite* Eval oil analyzer. group formed by fungal tissue, chiefly sclerotia.

SI: Thermally extracted hydrocarbons obtained during SCI: Spore color index. Color scale from 1 to 10 for Rock-Eva1 analysis prior to the onset of true measuring changes in spore color for maturity pyrolysis. These hydrocarbons are roughly similar measurements (CITCO system). to bitumen or EOM. See also Sz.* SECONDARY MIGRATION: The movement of fluids Sz: Hydrocarbons generated by kerogen decomposition within the permeable rocks that eventually leads to during Rock- Eval pyrolysis. See also SI.* the segregation of oil and gas into accumulations in certain parts of these rocks. S3: Carbon dioxide released by kerogen decomposition during Rock-Eva1 pyrolysis. SEMIANTHRACITE: See Coal rank.*

S4: Residual carbon obtained by combustion of the SEMIFUSINITE: A coal maceral* of the inertinite* remaining carbon after pyrolysis (Rock-Eval* with group, a constituent intermediate between vitrinite* TOC* module). and fusinite*, showing well-defined woody structure. The term merofisinite has been proposed SAPROPEL: From the Greek sapros, meaning rotten. as an improvement. Unconsolidated aquatic sedimentary deposit rich in lipid organic matter derived chiefly from phyto- SHALE OIL: Oil obtained by the destructive distilla- plankton and putrefied under reducing conditions. tion* of oil shale*. It can be compared with the peat stage of humic coals. When consolidated it forms kerogenous rocks SILL: The point in a restricted basin through which the or sapropelite.* deepest waters enter into the basin.

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SIMILARITY COEFFICIENT: A mathematical resulting fluorescence, as well as the wavelength of quantity, based on the composition of selected C6 the light that causes fluorescence, are important in and C7 hydrocarbons, to indicate the degree of corre- this determination. lation between crude oil and source rock hydrocar- bons or between hydrocarbons from different groups SPECTROSCOPY: Various techniques for analyzing of crude oils. Its value is essentially positive but samples by looking at a range of energies (wave- lower than 1. The closer to 1, the better the correla- lengths) given off or absorbed, or by observing a tion. range of ions produced, as in mass spectrometry.*

SINGLE BOND: A chemical bond in which two SPORE: The reproductive cell of the lower plants electrons are shared. Most bonds are single bonds. including fungi, mosses, and ferns, with a wall extremely resistant to acidic destruction. SOM: Structureless organic matter. Bacterially degraded organic matter and/or bacterial remains SPORE DARKENING: See TAI* and SCL* forming a cloudlike mass of organic matter. SPORINITE: A coal maceral* of the exinite* group SORPTION CAPACITY: The capacity to hold hydro- formed from spore exines flattened parallel to strati- carbons, both liquid and/or gaseous. fication.

SOURCE ROCK: A rock that has generated and given SPOROMORPHS: Group term for recent or fossilized up hydrocarbons during diagenesis and compaction, spores* and pollen,* of particular importance for thus satisfying one of the four requirements for coalification studies. petroleum accumulation ( i.e., source, reservoir, trap, and preservation). A source rock has realized the STERANES: Tetracyclic saturated hydrocarbons* potential of a "potential source rock" that contains derived from the steroids* present in all organisms. chemical precursors of hydrocarbons but must expe- They are useful in determining maturity and the rience adequate thermal exposure to generate these type of organic matter and can be of value in oil hydrocarbons. If used without a prefix, oil source typing and oil correlation. rock is generally meant. See Oil source rock* and Gas source rock.* STEREOCHEMISTRY: The spatial arrangement of atoms in a molecule. SOUR CRUDE: A crude oil containing objectionable amounts of hydrogen sulfide and mercaptans.* STEROIDS: Condensed cyclic products of plant and animal origin with one ring of five carbon atoms and SOUR GAS: Natural gas that contains objectionable three rings of six carbon atoms, thus showing the amounts of hydrogen sulfide and mercaptans.* following carbon skeleton: SOXHLET: A device used for extracting bitumen from rock samples. Its design allows clean solvent to reflux continually through the powdered rock sample while the extracted bitumen is accumulating in the reserve plot.

SOXHLET EXTRACTION: A method which involves a piece of glassware that repetitively soaks a sample with portions of freshly distilled solvent and collects the extracts by periodically syphoning the sample compartment to a heated reservoir, from which the STEROLS: Steroids* containing an alcohol* group solvent is distilled back into the sample compart- (-OH). ment. STRATIFICATION: Development of nonmixing water SPECTROFLUORESCENCE: A method of involving layers of different densities as a result of temperature an analytical instrument in which certain organic or salinity differences. compounds (particularly aromatic hydrocarbons and NSOs*) are determined by their response upon STRIPPING: The removal, generally by a current of exposure to monochromatic (single color or wave- gas, of certain constituents from rocks and chromato- length) light; both the intensity and color of the graphic columns.

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/books/book/chapter-pdf/3837691/9781629811208_backmatter.pdf by guest on 24 September 2021 Glossa y of Terms Applicable to Petroleum Geochemist y 183 SUBBITUMINOUS COAL: Glossy black coal interme- Terpenoids include hydrocarbons, alcohols, and diate between brown coal* and bituminous coal* acids. Among the common terpanes (hydro- with a transition into the latter. See also Coal rank.* carbons) are the hopanes* (pentacyclic triterpanes*).

SURFACE PROSPECTING: An exploration survey TERTIARY MIGRATION. The movement of an oil or method in which surface or near-surface phenomena gas accumulation to a different part of the reservoir are measured. These phenomena should be either rock. directly or indirectly attributable to oil or gas seeping from below. In the most common method, surface or TEXTINlTE: Consists of plant cell walls; both isolated near-surface soil or sediment samples are analyzed occurrences of intact individual cells and also cell for gaseous or other light hydrocarbons or other tissues which are ungelified. Variable form, presumed secondary products (iodine, radioactivity, sometimes torn or deformed. The primary struc- etc.) of petroleum seepage. Alternately, hydrocarbon tures of the cell walls (layers, pits, intercellular detectors or scintillation (radioactivity) detectors are spaces, etc.) still clearly visible. Yellow-yellowish moved along roads or flown on a grid over an area brown to reddish brown color in transmitted light. looking for "anomalies." THERMAL ALTERATION INDEX (TAI): A matura- SWEET CRUDE: A crude oil containing negligible tion color index for the particular organic matter of amounts of hydrogen sulfide and mercaptans.* sedimentary rocks. The index indicates the degree of thermal alteration that the organic matter has SWEET GAS: A natural gas containing negligible undergone. As proposed by Staplin (1969), the index amounts of hydrogen sulfide and mercaptans.* numbers 1 to 5 include color changes from yellow to brown to black, representing immature, mature, and SYNGENETIC: As applied to the organic matter in a metamorphosed facies of organic matter. sedimentary basin, syngenetic has been used to include mainly the insoluble organic matter of fine- THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY: The material constant of grained sediments (e.g., of coals,* oil shales,* and a given rock defined as the amount of calorific units (cal) which passes in a unit time (sec) the square unit source rocks). See also Epigenetic.* (cm2)of a body of unit thickness (cm). Together with TAI: See Thermal alteration index." the heat flow,* it defines the geothermal gradient.*

TAR: Condensates from the thermal treatment THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY DETECTOR (TCD): (destructive distillation,* pyrolysis,* etc.) of organic Instrument used to detect hydrocarbons as they materials; generally of liquid consistency; mainly emerge from a gas chromatograph.' soluble in carbon disulfide; comparatively volatile at high temperatures. Includes shale oil* and coal tar THERMAL CRACKING: The conversion of organic (see also Pitch*). Incorrectly used in term tar sand.* compounds to smaller molecules by purely thermal processes. In refineries, thermal cracking is used to TAR SAND: Generally used but actually incorrect term convert heavy oils to lighter and more valuable for a sand or sandstone containing heavy crude oil or products by means of heat alone (primarily by a free- asphalt. radical process).

TCD: See Thermal conductivity detector.* THERMOCLlNE: See Pycnocline.*

TELINITE: The coal maceral* of the vitrinite* group THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY: Chroma- which shows clearly defined cell structure. tography carried out on a thin layer of stationary phase spread out on a flat plate. The mixture to be TERPANES: Ten-carbon hydrocarbons containing two separated is placed in a spot on one edge of the plate. isoprene* units. The plate is then placed in a vertical position, with the spot at the bottom, in a shallow tray of solvent TERPENOIDS: Naturally occurring compounds (both (the mobile phase). Upward movement of the cyclic and noncyclic) constructed from two or more solvent and mixture is by capillary action. branched five-carbon isoprene units: TIME-TEMPERATURE INDEX (TTI): Index of maturity calculated using Lopatin's method.*

TOC: content, in weight percent

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of dry rock or sediment. UNSATURATED: A term applied to compounds in which two or more carbon atoms are held together TORBANITE: Synonym for boghead coal.* by double bonds (i.e., aromatics* and olefins*).

TRACE ELEMENTS: Elements present in minor UPWELLING: The vertical movement of subsurface amount in the earth's crust, essentially all elements marine or lake waters to the surface. Upwelling except the eight abundant rock-forming elements (0, occurs where surface waters are moved aside by Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, K, and Mg). In petroleum water and wind currents. Nutrients are brought into geochemistry, vanadium, nickel, and molybdenum the photic zone by upwelling, and photosynthetic are of special interest. productivity is greatly enhanced.

TRANS: Arrangement in which two groups attached to UREA ADDUCTION: A method for separating n- a molecule are on opposite sides. See also Cis.* alkanes from branched and cyclic hydrocarbons, similar in principle to molecular sieving.* TRANSFORMATION OF OIL: Changes in the chemical composition of oil after expulsion from its UV: Abbreviation for ultraviolet. source rock. These changes can occur by physical, thermal, and/or bacterial processes. VAN KREVELEN DIAGRAM: A diagram developed by the coal scientist Van Krevelen in which the TRANSFORMATION RATIO: The ratio SI/(SI + S2) atomic H/C ratio of a coal is plotted against its derived from Rock-Eval* pyrolysis. High transfor- atomic O/C ratio. The diagram distinguishes coals mation ratios supposedly indicate either the occur- according to the combined effects of type of organic rence of catagenesis* or contamination by migrated matter and rank (maturity*). Van Krevelen diagrams fluids or drilling additives. Low ratios indicate have also been adopted in modified form (hydrogen either immaturity or extreme overmaturity. index* versus oxygen index) for interpreting pyrolysis data of kerogens* TRIS: Prefix meaning three. VISCOSITY INDEX (VI): A series of number ranging TRITERPANES: Polycyclic (mostly pentacyclic) from 0 to 100 that indicate the rate of change of isoprenoid* hydrocarbons composed of three viscosity with temperature. A VI of 100 indicates a terpane* units. They are useful in maturity determi- small change in viscosity between temperatures of nations and in interpretations of depositional envi- 38" and 99°C (100" and 210°F), whereas a VI of 0 ronments as well as in oil typing and correlation. indicates a large change.

TRITERPENOIDS: Biological precursors for triter- VITRAIN: The lithotype* of humic coal* designating panes.* the macroscopically recognizable, very bright bands or lenses, usually several millimeters thick. TRUE LAYER DOM (TL DOM): See DOM.* VITRINITE: (1) Telecollinite, or normal vitrinite. The TTI: See Time-temperature index * group of nonfluorescent coal macerals* derived from woody and cortical tissue, comprising collinite* and TTPF: Abbreviation for test tube pyrolysis-fluores- telinite* (and in low rank coals also gelinite* and cence. See Pyrolysis-fluorescence.* detrinite*). For the petroleum geologist, this is the most important maceral group because its chemical ULMINITE: Partly or totally gelified plant cell walls in analysis and reflectivity measurements are the best isolated occurrences of individual cells and cell scales for the determination of coal rank,* DOM,* or tissues. Variable in size and shape. Cell lumens maturity.* (2) Desmocollinite, or a hydrogen-rich wholly or partly closed, cell walls swollen, shrinkage variety of vitrinite, assumed to be a prescursor of gas fissures typical, original cell walls no longer and oil. Shows weak fluorescence. The hydrogen- preserved. Yellow to reddish brown color in trans- rich character is caused by finely distributed, subrni- mitted light, fluorescence weak. croscopic liptinites from synsedimentary bacterial transformation of organic matter. Should not be ULTIMATE ANALYSIS: Elementary chemical analysis. used for vitrinite reflectance* measurements. In the case of coal,* the determination of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen,, and ash.* See VITRINITE: Synonym for microvitrain, the rnicrolitho- also Proximate analysis.* type* of hurnic coal* consisting principally (at least

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/books/book/chapter-pdf/3837691/9781629811208_backmatter.pdf by guest on 24 September 2021 Glossay of Terms Applicable to Petroleum Geochemisty 185 95%) of vitrinite.* It is the most abundant constituent distinguishable. of humic coal. See also Coal structure.* In WAX: Plant or animal wax; a mixture of oxygen- petroleum geology, it is of particular importance containing molecules (esters) derived from long- because the best scale for coal rank,* maturity,* or chain fatty acids and alcohols with an even number DOM* is based on it. of carbon atoms. See also Lipids* and Paraffin wax.* VITRINlTE REFLECTANCE (VR): Measurement of the WET GAS (HYDROCARBONS): Natural gas* that amount of light that is reflected by vitrinite (defini- tion 1) used as maturity scale. See also R*and %.* contains condensible (liquid) hydrocarbon constituents; also, in cuttings gas analysis, this term VOLATILE MATTER: Those products, exclusive of is used to describe gases that contain greater than moisture, given off by a coal as gas and vapor, about 5% ethane and heavier hydrocarbons; above according to ASTM method D121-30. 25% they are considered to be significantly wet and to indicate that any contiguous reservoirs should VOLATILES: A colloquial term used to indicate the contain oil rather than gas. The natural gas liquid compounds boiling up to about 200"-250°C vapors amount to 4 L or more per 100 m3 (20.3 gal (392"-482"F), which occur in crude oils or in per 1000 ft3). sediments. WURTZILITE: A massive, black or light brown elastic VR/E: Equivalent vitrinite reflectance is the maturity asphaltite* resisting the usual organic solvents, measured by means other than vitrinite reflectance having brilliant luster, conchoidal fracture, 1.05-1.07 but expressed in vitrinite reflectance units. specific gravity, 2-25% fixed carbon, and light brown WATER WASHING: The removal of the more soluble streak; is infusible and decomposes before melting. components (light hydrocarbons and aromatics*) of oil by dissolution in waters that are in contact with ZOOPLANKTON: Tiny unicellular animals that feed the oil. Water washing often occurs in conjunction on phytoplankton for their source of energy. They with biodegradation,* and their effects are not easily are not photosynthetic organisms.

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Van Wagoner, J. C., H. W. Posarnentier, R. M. Mitchum, Welte, D. H., and M. A. Yiikler, 1981, Petroleum origin P. R. Vail, J. F. Sarg, T. S. Loutit, and J. Hardenbohl, and accumulation in basin evolution-A quantitative 1988, An overview of the fundamentals of sequence mode: American Association Petroleum Geologists stratigraphy and key definitions, in Wilgus, C., Bulletin, v. 65, p. 1387-1396. Hastings, B., Ross, C. Posamentier, H., Van Wagoner, J., and Kendall, C. G. St. C, eds., Sea-Level Changes: Welte, D. H., and M. A. Yiikler, 1984, Petroleum origin An Integrated Approach: Society of Economic and accumulation in basin evolution-A quantitative Paleontologists and Mineralogists Special model, in G. Demaison, and R. J. Murris, eds., Publication 42, p. 39-45. Petroleum Geochemistry and Basin Evaluation: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Waples, D. W., 1980, Time and temperature in Memoir 35. petroleum formation: Application of Lopatin's Welte, D. H., H. Kratochvil, J. Rullkotter, H. Ladwein, method to petroleum exploration: American and R. G. Schaefer, 1982, Organic geochemistry of Association Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 64, p. crude oils from the Vienna Basin and an assessment

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of their origin: Chemical Geology, v. 35, p. 33-68. the development of the Magnus field: Society of Whelm, J. K., J. M. Hunt, J. Jasper, and A. Huc, 1984, Petroleum Engineers, SPE No. 18353. Migration of C1-C8 hydrocarbons in marine sediments, in P. A. Schenck, J. de Leeuw, and G. W. Wood, D. A., 1988, Relationships between thermal M. Lijmbach, eds., Advances in Organic maturity indices calculated using Arrhenius Geochemistry 1983: Pergamon Press, Oxford, p. 683- equation and Lopatin method: Implications for 694. petroleum exploration: American Association Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 72, p. 115-134. Williams, J. A., 1974, Application of oil correlation and source rock data to exploration in the Williston basin: Yalcin, M. N., and D. H. Welte, 1987, 3-D computer- American Association of Petroleum Geologists aided basin modelling of the Cambay Basin: A case Bulletin, v. 58, p. 1243-1252. history of hydrocarbon generation: Proceedings of the First Conference of Petroleum Geochemistry and Williams, J. A., M. Bjoroy, D. L. Dolcater, and J. C. Exploration, Balkema, Nederlands. Winters, 1986, Biodegradation in South Texas Eocene oils-Effects on aromatics and biomarkers, in Yeh, H. W., and S. Epstein, 1981, Hydrogen and carbon Advances in Organic Geochemistry 1985: Organic isotopes of petroleum and related organic matter: Geochemistry, v. 10, p. 451-461. Geochimica et Cosmochirnica Acta, v. 45, p. 753-762.

Winter, A., 1987, Percolative aspects of petroleum Yiikler, M. A., 1987, How essential is quantitative basin migration, in B. Doligez, ed., Migration of modelling in petroleum exploration?, in Proceedings Hydrocarbons in Sedimentary Basins: Editions of the 7th Biannual Petroleum Congress of Turkey: Technip, Paris, p. 237-256. Turkish Association of Petroleum Geologists, p. 392- 404. Winters, J. C., and J. A. Williams,, 1969, Microbiological alteration of crude oil in the reservoir, in Symposium Yiikler, M. A., and D. H. Welte, 1980, A 3-dimensional on Petroleum Transformation in the Geological deterministic dynamic model to determine geologic Environment: American Chemical Society, Division history and hydrocarbon generation and of Petroleum Chemistry, New York, Sept. 7-12, accumulation in a sedimentary basin, in Fossil Fuels, Preprints 14, v. 4, p. E22-E31. Hydrocarbons C2, 26th International Geological Congress,: Editions Technics, Paris, p. 271-285. Winters, J. C., J. A. Williams, and M. D Lewan., 1983, A laboratory study of petroleum generation by Zumberge, J. E., 1987, Prediction of source rock hydrous pyrolysis, in M. Bjoroy, ed., Advances in characteristics based on terpane biomarkers in crude Organic Geochemistry 1981: John Wiley, London, p. oils: A multivariate statistical approach: Geochimica 524-533. et Cosmochirnica Acta, v. 51, p. 1625-1637.

Wold, S., 1976, Pattern recognition by means of disjoint Zumberge, J. E., S. E. Palmer, and C. J. Schiefelbein, principal models: Pattern Recognition, v. 8, p. 127- 1984, Kinetics of sterane and hopane epimerization: 139. Simulation by hydrous pyrolysis (abs.): Geological Society of America, 97th Annual Meeting Abstracts Wood, A. R. O., 1988, Reservoir simulation applied to with Programs, v. 16, p. 706.

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Airspace gas saturated vs . aromatic fractions ...... 105 definition of ...... 97-98 water washing of ...... 47-54 logs for ...... 98 Cuttings gas, definition of ...... 97 Aromatic hydrocarbons Density logs biodegradation of ...... 50 and multilog approaches ...... 130- 132 gas chromatogram of ...... 10 1 organic matter and ...... 127- 128 Arrhenius equation ...... 56 Denver basin, vitrinite reflectance and resistivity for ...... 134 Arrhenius time-temperature index (TTI) ...... 58-60 Diffusion, of gas ...... 143 Basin modeling Disaggregate cuttings gas, technique of ...... 98-99 cross sections for ...... 68 Draupne Formation description of ...... 67-70 hydrocarbon generation in ...... 74, 75, 76 input concepts for ...... 69 isopach map of ...... 74 organization of study of ...... 66 type I1 kerogens in ...... 73 of Oseberg area ...... 65-85 Effusion, of gas ...... 142- 143 petroleum geochemistry in ...... 65-85 EOM carbon ...... 1 13- 1 14 predictions of ...... 78-82 Ethane, in soilgas ...... 146, 147 pyrolysis used in ...... 112 Exploration of secondary migration ...... 3031 geochemical ...... 89-95, 135- 139 Biodegradation in Mexico ...... 135- 139 and crude oil composition ...... 485 1 near-surface ...... 135139 141-158 during secondary migration ...... 35-36 soilgas geochemistry in ...... 14 1- 158 geological constaints for ...... 47-48 stable isotopes in ...... 103-106 physicochemical conditions for ...... 47-48 Expulsion mechanisms in reservoirs ...... 47-54 efficiency of ...... 19-21 Biomarkers by fracture generation ...... 17 in GCMS analysis ...... 100-102 by immiscible displacement ...... 17-21 in Oseberg area oil ...... 7981 modeling of ...... 60-61 in thermal maturation ...... 92 of petroleum ...... 13-14 Bitumen, definition of ...... 99 Flathead Valley (Montana), soilgas samples from ...... 147 Bitumen extract, technique of ...... 9100 Fluid flow, in mudstone ...... 28-29 Brent Group sandstones ...... 66-85 Fluid potential, in secondary migration ...... 23-24 temperature histories of ...... 84 Forties Field Bulk flow pyrolysis ...... 10112 bubble point pressures in ...... 43 Carbon isotopes reservoir and source kitchens in ...... 45 analysis of oils ...... 8 1-83 secondary migration... in ...... 42-45 in petroleum exploration ...... 103- 105 subsurface dens~tiesin ...... 45 Carrier bed, in secondary migration ...... 26-30 Fracture generation, and oil expulsion ...... 16-21 Chemical fossil ...... 100 Gamma logs Clarno area (Oregon), soilgas study at ...... 150, 155-158 and multilog approaches ...... 130- 132 Coal and organic matter ...... 128-129 and maturation parameters ...... 120 Gas vitrinite reflectance of ...... 1 19-121 characterization and correlation of ...... 94-95 Condensate gas ratio, variation in ...... 32 correlation coefficients of ...... 147 Convertible carbon ...... 1 13- 114 generated in Oseberg area ...... 73-75 Correlation geochemical prospecting for ...... 135-139 of gases ...... 94-95 kinetic model of generation of ...... 55-59 geochemical ...... 95 loss. by. diffusion ...... 143 of oils ...... 9 3-94 in soil ...... 141-158 sampling for ...... 95 Gas chromatography, in hydrocarbon evaluation ...... 97- 100 using isotopic composition ...... 103-106 Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, in hydrocarbon Crude oil evaluation...... 100- 102 analysis of ...... 99- 100 Gas exsolution, during secondary migration ...... 3 1-34 biodegradation of ...... 47-54 Gas-oil ratio characterization of ...... 93-94 in Oseberg area ...... 76 isotopic composition of ...... 103-106 saturated ...... 31

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GCMS. see Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry type 111 ...... 910. 110. 116 Generation type IV ...... 10, 110 kinetic models of ...... 55-59 Kinetic modeling and maturation parameters ...... 120 of petroleum generation ...... 55-59 mechanisms of ...... 56 of thermal maturation ...... 92-93 timing in Oseberg area ...... 75-76 Leco method. of TOC determination ...... 114 Geochemical logs. and organic matter ...... 130 Lineaments. at Railroad Valley ...... 153 Geochemical prospecting Logs recent advances in ...... 135- 139 of airspace gas ...... 98 using soilgas ...... 141-158 gamma ray ...... 128-129 Geochemical screening ...... 14 1 multilog approaches ...... 130- 132 Geochemistry neutron and density ...... 127- 128 in basin modeling ...... 65-85 pulsed neutron or geochemical ...... 130 and biodegradation...... 47-54 sonic and resistivity ...... 129- 130 changes during secondary migration ...... 35-38 wireline ...... 127- 134 of crude oil ...... 47 Lopatin method ...... 58967 and exploration methods ...... 89-95 Lost River (West Virginia). and near-surface prospecting ...... 135-139 soilgas study at ...... 148.149. 151-152 of organic matter ...... 9102 Magnus Field and pyrolysis techniques ...... 107- 112 bubble point pressure in ...... 45 of soilgas ...... 141-158 secondary migration in ...... 45-46 and stable isotopes ...... 103- 106 Mass balance model ...... 118 and TOC analvsis ...... 113-118 Maturation used in petroleum correlation ...... 95 assessment of ...... 89-93 and vitrinite reflectance ...... 119-125 kinetic modeling of ...... 55-59 and water washing ...... 47-54 parameters of ...... 120 Geochromatography resistivity log prediction of ...... 132-133 definition of ...... 35 36 and vitrinite reflectance ...... 1 19- 125 during secondary migration ...... 36-38 Mexico. geochelnical exploration in ...... 135-139 Gravity segregation. in petroleum traps ...... 39 Microseepage ...... 14 I- 158 Headspace gas. definition of ...... 97 Migration Heavy bitumens ...... 99 see also Primary migration; Secondary migration Hopanes...... 52 definition of ...... 59 Hydrocarbon conversion kinetics ...... 14-15 efficiency of ...... 34-35 Hydrocarbon generation. see Generation expulsion mechanisms of ...... 13-14 Hydrodynamic environments. modeling of ...... 59-63 in secondary migration ...... 2 26-27 in Oseberg area ...... 7778. 81 Hydrogen index. definition of ...... 109 rate of ...... 34-35 Hydrogen isotopes. in petroleum exploration ...... 105 from source to trap ...... 23-46 Hvdrostatic environments Mixing rates. in reservoirs ...... 41-42 forces acting in ...... 25 Modeling in secondary migration ...... 2 26 see also Basin modeling Hydrous pyrolysis of basins ...... 65-85 diagram of reaction vessel ...... 1 1 1 kinetic ...... 92-93 hydrocarbon evolution pathways in ...... 112 mass balance ...... 118 for organic matter characterization ...... 11 1-1 12 of maturation of petroleum ...... 55-59 Immiscible displacement. and oil expulsion...... 16-21 of migration of petroleum ...... 59-63 Inorganic matrix. primary migration and ...... 15- 16 of primary migration ...... 61 0.6 Isobutane. in soilgas ...... 154 of secondary migration ...... 61-63 Kerogen of source rocks ...... 14 isotopic composition of ...... 103-106 Molecular diffusion mixing. in reservoirs ...... 40-41 Rock-Eva1 pyrolysis of ...... 1 16-1 17 Mudstones. fluid flow in ...... 28-29 thermal maturity of ...... 119-125 Multiple discriminant function analysis ...... 137-139 Kerogen types Multivariate data analysis. of oils ...... 81 generation of ...... 57 n.Alkanes. in Oseberg area ...... 78-79 oil-generative properties of ...... 8- 12 Naphthenes ...... 49 organic carbon in ...... 1 17 Natural gas analysis. in Oseberg area ...... 81-82 by PY-GC ...... 109-110 Near-surface geochemical exploration TOC analysis of ...... 1 16 analysis of data of ...... 144- 147 type I ...... 9 109-1 10. 116 experimental methods of ...... 135-139 type I1 ...... 9 110. 116 soilgas used in ...... 141-158

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Neutron logs. organic matter and ...... 127- 128 location of ...... 65-67 North Sea migration and accumulation in ...... 77-78 basin modeling of ...... 65-85 n-alkanes in ...... 78-79 source rocks of ...... 70-73 natural gas in ...... 8 1-82 wireline logs and TOC of ...... 133 petroleum geology of ...... 65.67 Oil properties of produced hydrocarbons in ...... 78-82 characterization of ...... 92-93 reservoirs in ...... 82-84 correlation of ...... 94 sealing efficiency in ...... 76-77 expulsion of ...... 17-21 timing of hydrocarbon generation in ...... 75-76 fractional flow of ...... 18-19 volumes of generated oil and gas in ...... 73-75 generated vs . expelled ...... 17-8 19 Oxygen index, definition of ...... 109 generated in Oseberg area ...... 73-75 Paleoenvironments geochemical prospecting for ...... 135-139 and kerogen types ...... 8-10 kinetic model of generation of ...... 55-59 and organic facies ...... 10- 11 marine vs . nonmarine ...... 104 Paraffins ...... 49 permeability of vs . water ...... 18 Paris basin. TOC measurements for ...... 134 saturation of ...... 18-21 Patrick Draw (Wyoming). soilgas study at ...... 148- 149 Oil cracking ...... 57 Permeability Organic carbon of oil vs . water ...... 18 definition of ...... 1 13 and secondary migration ...... 27-29 in kerogen types ...... i 17 of source rocks ...... 16 Organic facies Petroleum alteration of ...... 7-8 characterization and correlation of ...... 92.95. 93-95 definition of ...... 7 filling and mixing in traps ...... 38-39 facies A ...... 10 geochemical techniques for ...... 97- 102 facies AB ...... 10 geochemistry and basin modeling ...... 65-85 facies B ...... 10 modeling of maturation of ...... 55-59 facies BC ...... 10 organic facies of ...... 3-11 facies C ...... 10-1 1 primary migration of ...... 13-22 facies CD ...... 11 source rocks of ...... 3-11 facies D ...... 1 1 Petroleum exploration. see Exploration geochemical characteristics of ...... 7. 10- 11 Pore pressure ...... 16 method of determination of ...... 7 Potential. see Source potential Van Krevelen diagram for ...... 8 Primary migration Organic geochemical prospecting ...... 135-139 definition of ...... 259 Organic matter expulsion mechanisms of ...... 13- 14 bitumen extract of ...... 9100 and hydrocarbon conversion ...... 14- 15 and density logs ...... 127-128 and inorganic matrix ...... 15-16 and gamma ray logs ...... 128- 129 modeling of ...... 6 0.61 geochemical techniques for ...... 97-102 and permeability of source rocks ...... 16 model of distribution of ...... 113-1 14 recognition of ...... 16-17 and neutron logs ...... 127-128 and source rocks ...... 14.15 predicting richness of ...... 130- 132 stress field of ...... 15-16 and pulsed neutron logs ...... 130 Pristane formation index ...... 110 pyrolysis characterization of ...... 107-1 12 Production index. definition of ...... 109 and resistivity logs ...... 129-130 Propane. in soilgas ...... 151,152 and sonic logs ...... 129-130 Pulsed neutron logs. organic matter and ...... 130 in source rocks ...... 89-90 PY.GC. see Pyrolysis-gas chromatography stable isotopes in ...... 103-106 Pyrolysis state of effective stress of ...... 15 diagrams of methods of ...... 108 TOC analysis of ...... 113-118 for organic matter characterization ...... 107-112 vitrinite reflectance characterization of ...... 119-125 Pyrolysis-gas chromatography. for organic matter wireline log responses for ...... 127-130 characterization...... 109-1 11 Organic richness contour mapping ...... 117- 1 18 Railroad Valley (Nevada) Oseberg Alpha structure lineaments at ...... 153 accumulation history of ...... 84-85 soilgas study at ...... 149.150. 153-154 gas cap in ...... 83 Reflectance analysis. see Vitrinite reflectance model predictions for ...... 78 Reservoirs Oseberg area biodegradation in ...... 47-54 basin modeling of ...... 65-85 density-driven overturning in ...... 39-40 cross section of ...... 68 filling sequence of ...... 38-39

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and thermal maturity effect ...... 1 16- 1 17 histograms of ...... 122 Townsend Valley (Montana). soilgas samples from ...... 147 Oseberg area values of ...... 67-70 Traps. filling and mixing in ...... 38-39 profiles of geological sequences ...... 123 Triterpanes ...... 52, 53 profiles of suppression ...... 124 Uinta basin. hydrocarbons in ...... 59 in thermal maturity assessments ...... 119-125 Van Krevelen diagram Water potentials. resulting from tilted sandstone ...... 28. 29 for Clarno area (Oregon) ...... 156 Water washing for organic facies ...... 8 and crude oil composition ...... 5 1-53 Viking Graben ...... 66-85 during secondary migration ...... 35-36 Viking Group geological constaints on ...... 47-48 facies of ...... 72 physicochemical conditions for ...... 47-48 hydrocarbon generation of ...... 7 1 in reservoirs ...... 47-54 as source rocks ...... 70-73 Western Canada basin. gas logs for ...... 98 total oil generated in ...... 75 Whole-rock vitrinite reflectance ...... 12 0. 121 Viscosity, of hydrocarbons ...... 20 Wireline logs Viscosity ratio to evaluate source rocks ...... 127-134 conversion index for ...... 19-21 future use of ...... 133- 134 and expulsion efficiency ...... 19-21 from Kimrneridge shale ...... 128- 129 Vitrinite reflectance response to organic matter ...... 127-130

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