A Combined Approach of Experiments and Modelling for the Implementation of Freshwater Copepods in Ecological Risk Assessment

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A Combined Approach of Experiments and Modelling for the Implementation of Freshwater Copepods in Ecological Risk Assessment A Combined Approach of Experiments and Modelling for the Implementation of Freshwater Copepods in Ecological Risk Assessment Von der Fakultät für Mathematik, Informatik und Naturwissenschaften der RWTH Aachen University zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades eines Doktors der Naturwissenschaften genehmigte Dissertation vorgelegt von Devdutt Kulkarni, M.Sc. aus Pune, Indien Berichter: Universitätsprofessor Dr. Andreas Schäffer Prof. Dr. ir. Paul van den Brink Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 27. Februar 2014 Diese Dissertation ist auf den Internetseiten der Hochschulbibliothek online verfügbar. “Prediction is very difficult, especially if it's about the future.” Niels Bohr Erklärung Ich versichere, dass ich diese Doktorarbeit selbständig und nur unter Verwendung der angegebenen Hilfsmittel angefertigt habe. Weiterhin versichere ich, die aus benutzten Quellen wörtlich oder inhaltlich entnommenen Stellen als solche kenntlich gemacht zu haben. Devdutt Kulkarni Aachen, am 28. Februar 2014 Zusammenfassung Standardisierte Testrichtlinien, wie sie in der ökologischen Risikobewertung von Chemikalien verwendet werden, stehen nur für eine relativ kleine Gruppe von Arten zur Verfügung. Zum Beispiel wird der Wasserfloh Daphnia magna in den meisten Fällen als einzige repräsentative Art für Süßwasserinvertebraten gefordert. Dies erfolgt unter der Annahme, dass solche Tests mit Standardarten in Kombination mit relativ großen Extrapolationsfaktoren auch die Arten im Freiland ausreichend schützen. Standardtestarten werden in der Regel wegen ihrer intrinsischen Empfindlichkeit, ihrer Verfügbarkeit bzw. Zuchtfähigkeit im Labor und ihre Eignung für die Tests ausgewählt. Die zu schützenden Arten im Freiland können jedoch ganz andere Eigenschaften in Bezug auf Lebensdaten und Verhalten haben, die neben der physiologischen Empfindlichkeit die Vulnerabilität gegenüber Chemikalien bestimmen. Die Variabilität in der physiologischen Empfindlichkeit der verschiedenen Arten kann durch die Prüfung zusätzlicher Arten im Labor und die Ableitung von Empfindlichkeitsverteilungen adressiert werden, während die ökologische Empfindlichkeit mit Populations- oder Lebensgemeinschaftsstudien, z.B. in Mesokosmen, oder mit Hilfe ökologischer Modellierung untersucht werden kann. Ruderfußkrebse (Copepoda) spielen als Fressfeinde von kleinerem Zooplankton und als Futter für Fische eine wichtige Rolle beim Transfer von Stoffen und Energie in der aquatischen Nahrungskette. Aufgrund ihres komplexen Lebenszyklus sind Copepoden potenziell ökologisch vulnerable Organismen und daher als ökologische Indikatoren des Risikos einer chemischen Belastung geeignet. Zwar wird zur Zeit eine OECD Prüfrichtlinie für eine marine Copepodenart entwickelt, in der Risikoabschätzung für Binnengewässer werden Copepoden jedoch bisher, mit Ausnahme von Mesokosmosstudien, nur selten betrachtet. Vor diesem Hintergrund liefert die vorliegende Arbeit die Grundlagen eines kombinierten Ansatzes von Laborexperimenten und Populationsmodellierung, um Süßwassercopepoden besser in der Risikoanalyse von Chemikalien, insbesondere Zusammenfassung Pflanzenschutzmitteln, berücksichtigen zu können. Zunächst wurde eine erschöpfende Literaturrecherche durchgeführt, in der Mesocyclops leuckarti als eine Copepodenart identifiziert wurde, die einen guten Kompromiss zwischen ökologischer Vulnerabilität aufgrund ihres komplexen Lebenszyklus und Praktikabilität ökotoxikologischer Tests darstellt. Die Eignung der ausgewählten Art für die Haltung im Labor wurde durch die Etablierung eines stabilen Laborkultur gezeigt. Die Durchführung von ökotoxikologischen Tests und die intrinsische Empfindlichkeit wurden in Akuttests mit der Beispielsubstanz Triphenylzinn (TPT) demonstriert. Die Experimente zeigten, dass Mesocyclops leuckarti gegenüber TPT empfindlich ist, wobei die Nauplien empfindlicher als die Adulttiere waren. Darüber hinaus wurden verschiedene Experimente durchgeführt, um für M. leuckarti Lebensdaten zu Nahrungsaufnahme, Entwicklung, Reproduktion und Überleben für verschiedene Futterarten und Futtermengen zu erhalten. Diese Daten dienten als Grundlage für die Entwicklung eines Individuen-basierten Populationsmodells (IBM), mit dem von Effekten auf Organismusebene auf die für die Risikoabschätzung relevantere Ebene der Population extrapoliert werden kann. Als Beispiel wurden die Toxikokinetik und Toxikodynamik von TPT mit Hilfe des „General Unified Threshold Models of Survival“ (GUTS) beschrieben. Die Kombination von GUTS mit dem Populationsmodell erlaubt die mechanistische Modellierung der Auswirkungen von für Pflanzenschutzmittel typischen zeitvariablen Expositionsmustern auf die Populationsdynamik von M. leuckarti. Das kombinierte Modell wurde verwendet, um die Effekte von TPT auf M. leuckarti-Populationen unter verschiedenen Futterbedingungen zu analysieren. Modell-Simulationen zeigten, dass der Kannibalismus von Nauplien, die bereits durch TPT Exposition belastet waren, die synergistischen Effekte von abiotischen und biotischen Faktoren verstärkten und zu einer doppelten Belastung und einer höheren Anfälligkeit der Population führten im Vergleich zu Simulationen, in denen kein Kannibalismus stattfand. Weiterhin wurde mit Hilfe von Populationsmodellen die ökologische Empfindlichkeit von M. leuckarti gegenüber TPT mit Zusammenfassung der des Wasserflohs Daphnia magna und der der Büschelmücken Chaoborus chrystallinus verglichen. Dabei stellte sich heraus, dass die Populationsebene empfindlicher war als die Organismenebene. Weiterhin war die Empfindlichkeit der drei Arten auf der Populationsebene umgekehrt gereiht wie auf der Organismenebene. Auf der Populationsebene war C. crystallinus die empfindlichste Art und D. magna die unempfindlichste. Im Gegensatz zur Populationsebene war M. leuckarti auf Organismenebene weniger empfindlich als D. magna. Diese Arbeit belegt die Relevanz und Eignung von Copepoden für die ökologische Risikoanalyse von Chemikalien sowie die Bedeutung der Modellierung für die Extrapolation von auf Organismenebene gemessenen Effekten auf die Ebene der Population. Der hier verfolgte Ansatz, Laborexperimente und Modellierung für eine repräsentative vulnerable Art zu kombinieren, um mechanistisch auf Populationsebene und zwischen verschiedenen Expositionsmustern zu extrapolieren, kann auch auf andere Taxa angewendet werden, um für verfeinerte Risikoabschätzungen einen Satz an praktikablen Tests und Modellen für verschiedene Arten zu erhalten. Summary Standardized test guidelines used in ecological risk assessment (ERA) consider a relatively small set of test species. For instance in most standard risk assessments, Daphnia magna is the only required species representing freshwater invertebrates. This is done under the assumption that tests with such standard species in combination with relatively large assessment factors are protective for other species in the field. Standard test species are usually selected based on intrinsic sensitivity as well as practicability i.e. the ease of culturing them and conducting experiments in the laboratory. However, species in the field may employ variable life-history strategies which may have consequences concerning the ecological vulnerability of these species to toxicants. The variability in the intrinsic sensitivity of different species can be assessed by testing additional species and constructing species sensitivity distributions while ecological vulnerability can be addressed using community- level studies e.g. mesocosms and ecological modelling. Copepods are important animals in the aquatic food chain. They are predators of other plankton and act as prey for fish, consequently enabling the transfer of energy and substances though the food chain. Copepods, owing to their complex life-history strategies, are potentially vulnerable organisms and therefore, useful as ecological indicators of risk. For marine risk assessment, copepods are now being considered and an OECD test guideline for bottom-dwelling harpacticoid copepods is under way. However, in freshwater ecotoxicology, copepods are largely ignored except in mesocosm studies. To facilitate the consideration of freshwater copepods in higher- tier ERA there is a need for the development of robust test methods and models to facilitate extrapolation between environmental conditions, exposure patterns and species. Bearing this in mind, this thesis delivers the basics of a combined approach of laboratory experiments and modelling for better consideration of freshwater copepods in ERA. With a particular focus on plant protection products, an exhaustive literature review was carried out to identify a Summary representative species of freshwater copepods, which could be a good compromise between a potentially vulnerable relevant species, owing to its complex life-history strategies, as well as a good laboratory species based on the ease of rearing it in the laboratory. Consequently, the literature review revealed Mesocyclops leuckarti as a good representative species for freshwater copepods for ecotoxicological studies. The suitability of this selected species was demonstrated by establishing a stable laboratory culture. To demonstrate the intrinsic sensitivity of this species, a model chemical, triphenyltin (TPT), was used to conduct acute toxicity tests with this species in the laboratory. Laboratory toxicity experiments confirmed M. leuckarti to be sensitive to TPT with the naupliar stages showing a higher sensitivity compared to older stages. Furthermore, various experiments to study the life-cycle processes
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