INSECTICIDE RESISTANCE AND RESISTANCE MANAGEMENT Concentration–Response and Residual Activity of Insecticides to Control Herpetogramma phaeopteralis (: ) in St. Augustinegrass

1 2 1 NASTARAN TOFANGSAZI, RON H. CHERRY, RICHARD C. BEESON, JR., AND STEVEN P. ARTHURS1,3 Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jee/article/108/2/730/781136 by guest on 28 September 2021

J. Econ. Entomol. 108(2): 730–735 (2015); DOI: 10.1093/jee/tov012 ABSTRACT Tropical sod webworm, Herpetogramma phaeopteralis Guene´e, is an important pest of warm-season turfgrass in the Gulf Coast states of the United States, the Caribbean Islands, and Central America. Current control recommendations rely on topical application of insecticides against caterpil- lars. The objective of this study was to generate resistance baseline data of H. phaeopteralis to six insecti- cide classes. Residual activity of clothianidin, chlorantraniliprole, and bifenthrin was also compared under field conditions in Central Florida. Chlorantraniliprole was the most toxic compound tested (LC50 value of 4.5 ppm), followed by acephate (8.6 ppm), spinosad (31.1 ppm), clothianidin (46.6 ppm), bifen- thrin (283 ppm) and Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki, (342 ppm). In field tests, all compounds at label rates were effective (94% mortality of larvae exposed to fresh residues). However, a more rapid decline in ac- tivity of clothianidin and bifenthrin was observed compared with chlorantraniliprole. Clothianidin had no statistically detectable activity after 4 wk post-application in spring and the fall, and bifenthrin had no detectable activity after 3 wk in the spring and the fall. However, chlorantraniliprole maintained signifi- cant activity (84% mortality) compared with other treatments throughout the 5-wk study period. This study provides new information regarding the relative toxicities and persistence of current insecticides used for H. phaeopteralis and other turfgrass caterpillars.

KEY WORDS median lethal concentration, resistance baseline, chlorantraniliprole, turf

St. Augustinegrass, Stenotaphrum secundatum (Walter) fall (September through November; Cherry and Wilson Kuntze, and bermudagrass, Cynodon spp., are the 2005). Populations decline over the winter and increase most widely used turfgrasses in Florida lawns and golf slightly beginning in spring (March through May). In courses, respectively (Trenholm and Unruh 2004). the more northern regions of Florida, peak of flight ac- Tropical sod webworm, Herpetogramma phaeopteralis tivity was reported in October and November (Kerr (Guene´e), is a serious pest of both grasses (Kerr 1955). 1955). Females lay eggs on grass blades and eggs hatch All other major warm-season turfgrass including centi- within 4 d at 25C(Tofangsazi et al. 2012). Young lar- pedegrass [Eremochloa ophiuroides (Munro.) Hackel], vae (first through fourth instars) feed on adaxial side of seashore paspalum (Paspalum vaginitium Swartz), car- grass blades and their injury is often overlooked (Kerr petgrass (Axonopus spp.), zoysiagrass (Zoysia japonica 1955). Older larvae (fifth and sixth instars) remove en- Steudel and Zoysia matrella L.), and bahiagrass (Paspa- tire grass blades causing brownish mown patches lum notatum Fluegge´) are also subject to infestation by that allow weed ingress (N. Tofangsazi, personal H. phaeopteralis (Reinert 1983). H. phaeopteralis oc- observations). curs from South Carolina to Florida, west to Texas in Successful turf pest management requires incorpo- North America, the Caribbean, and south through rating insecticides because of the aesthetic nature of Central America (Brandenburg and Freeman 2012; turfgrass and high standards demanded by users, Heppner 2003). growers, and turfgrass managers (Brandenburg and In southern Florida, H. phaeopteralis adults are ac- Freeman 2012, Held and Potter 2012). Lawn caterpil- tive year-round, with significantly higher numbers in lars including H. phaeopteralis larvae have traditionally been managed with broad-spectrum insecticides; those used historically on Florida lawns include carbaryl, chlorpyrifos, diazinon, ethoprop, methomyl, trichlorfon, pirimiphos-methyl, isazofos, isofenphos, fonofos, and 1 Department of Entomology and Nematology, Mid Florida Research toxaphene (Reinert 1983). Reinert, in 1973 and 1983, and Education Center, University of Florida, Apopka, FL 32703. evaluated carbaryl, chlorpyrifos, bendiocarb, and etho- 2 Department of Entomology and Nematology, Everglades Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Belle Glade, FL 33430. prop against H. phaeopteralis larvae. However, to date, 3 Corresponding author, e-mail: [email protected]. these insecticides have been canceled or restricted

VC The Authors 2015. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Entomological Society of America. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please email: [email protected] April 2015 TOFANGSAZI ET AL.: INSECTICIDE EFFICACY AGAINST H. phaeopteralis 731 following the Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA) of (164.9, 82.5, 41.2, 20.6, and 10.3 ppm), chlorantranili- 1996. Information is not available on toxicity of newer prole (35.9, 17.9, 8.9, 4.5, and 2.2 ppm), B. thuringien- insecticides and formulations to control H. phaeoptera- sis (1327, 663, 333, 166, and 83 ppm), bifenthrin lis larvae. (706.5, 353.2, 176.2, 88.3, and 44.1 ppm), spinosad Currently, at least 11 turfgrass pests have developed (97.7, 48.8, 24.4, 12.2, and 6.1 ppm), and acephate insecticide resistance in the United States, although fall (37.9, 7.6, 3.8, 2.5, and 1.9 ppm) that were used to armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith), is the establish concentration–response curves. For each only lepidopteran turf pest with documented resistance tested insecticide, 500 ml per serial dilution (plus to organophosphate, carbamate, and pyrethroid com- 0.5ml/liter of Tween 80% for B. thuringiensis contact pounds (Silcox and Vittum 2012). The ability of H. insecticides, spinosad and bifenthrin, and water con- phaeopteralis to develop resistance is of concern be- trols) were sprayed on 20-cm-diameter pots of

cause of its multiple generations per year and overlap- Palmetto St. Augustinegrass. Applications were made Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jee/article/108/2/730/781136 by guest on 28 September 2021 ping life stages, especially in Florida, where lawn and with a spray booth (DeVries Research, Hollandale, sod farms are treated with insecticides 6 to 12 times an- MN) fitted with fan nozzle, calibrated to deliver the nually (unpublished data). It is thus important to plan equivalent of 2,037 liter/ha (218 gallon/A) at a pressure and implement insecticide resistance management of 207 kPa. strategies for controlling this pest before field control After 24 h, St. Augustinegrass stolons containing failure is encountered. fresh shoots were cut from the pots and placed individ- Resistance monitoring programs require establishing ually into Petri dishes (8.5 cm in diameter) containing resistance baselines and survey for statistically signifi- 6 ml of water agar covered with filter paper to maintain cant shifts in lethal concentrations values (LC50; Cook humidity. Five replicates were set up for each treat- et al. 2004). These are normally established through ment, with four medium-sized H. phaeopteralis placed laboratory bioassays, which should be initiated when inside each Petri dish. All Petri dishes were kept in an frequency of resistant individual are low or before a incubator at 25 6 1C, 70% relative humidity, and a product is widely used to develop historical reference photoperiod of 14:10 (L: D) h. Dead individuals values (Cook et al. 2004, Hardke et al. 2011). In addi- tion, environmental factors such as ultraviolet (UV) (defined as no response to prodding) and moribund light, temperature, rainfall, plant metabolism, and mi- individuals (defined by uncontrolled twitching croorganisms influence patterns and rates of degrada- and other abnormal movements) were reported after tion under field environments (de Urzedo et al. 2007, 72 h. Initial experiments indicated that moribund larvae Hulbert et al. 2011). Understanding residual properties after this time did not recover from insecticide expo- of insecticides under field conditions might prevent un- sure. Thus, moribund individuals were considered necessary insecticide reapplication and associated costs. dead for analyses. The bioassay was replicated three Thus, objectives of this study were to estimate resis- times (i.e., 60 larvae per treatment concentration). tance baselines and lethal activity range of insecticide Larval mortality was pooled for a given concentrations classes, and to determine relative effectiveness of and subjected to analysis of variance (PROC PROBIT a field-aged residue of these insecticides against on log10 concentrations to estimate LC50 and LC90 val- H. phaeopteralis larvae. ues, SAS Institute 2012, Cary, NC). Significant differ- ences were based on nonoverlapping 95% CIs (Finney 1971). Materials and Methods Field Studies. Experiments were conducted to measure residual control of insecticides with different and Insecticides. Medium-sized (third and modes of action, i.e., chlorantraniliprole, clothianidin, fourth instar) H. phaeopteralis used in the experiments and bifenthrin, against medium-sized (third and fourth were obtained from a colony maintained since 2011 on instar) H. phaeopteralis. Experiments were conducted potted St. Augustinegrass ‘Palmetto’ inside greenhouse on ‘Floratam’ St. Augustinegrass plots maintained at rearing cages (60 by 60 by 60 cm) covered with nylon Mid-Florida Research and Education Center, Apopka, mesh. New grass was provided every few days as FL. Individual grass plots were 3 by 3 m and fitted needed, and emerging were moved to new cages with six pop-up sprinklers providing uniform irrigation. and fed 5% v/v honey–water. Formulated insecticidal All plots received the same mowing, irrigation, and fer- compounds were obtained from commercial sources tilization regimes. Mowing height was 10 cm. Sta- (Table 1). Green 12-2-8 fertilizer (Purcell Industries, Sylacauga, Laboratory Bioassays. Initial bioassays were con- AL) was applied at 1.04 kg/92.9 m2 (2.3 lb/1,000 ft2) ducted to select insecticide concentrations that cause prior to fall experiments and 2 wk following spring 10 to 99% mortality to estimate LC50, as suggested by regrowth in April and May. Irrigation was based on an Robertson et al. (1984). A stock solution of each formu- “as-needed” schedule when 90% of cumulative refer- lated insecticide was prepared at a concentration that ence evapotranspiration exceeded 19 mm, calculated reflected field-recommended concentration (FRC), from an adjacent weather station (Campbell Scientific except for acephate (one-tenth of FRC used as a stock Inc., Logon, UT; Allen et al. 1989). Rainfall occurring solution; Table 1). Subsequently, aliquots were taken between irrigation events was subtracted from the run- from each stock solution and diluted with distilled ning evapotranspiration total. Environmental data were water to prepare five concentrations of clothianidin reported from Florida Automated Weather Network 732 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY Vol. 108, no. 2

Table 1. Insecticide tested for control of H. phaeopteralis

Chemical class Active ingredient Trade name Rate/ha (A)a a.i./ha Company Neonicotinoids Clothianidin Arena 50 WDG 672 g (9.6 oz) 336 g Valent USA Corp., Walnut Creek, CA Ryanodine receptor Chlorantraniliprole Acelepryn 140 ml (2 fl.oz) 26 ml DuPont Professional Products, modulator Wilmington, DE Organophosphate Acephate Acephate 75 SP 1.49 kg (1.33 lbs) 1.12 kg Valent U.S.A. Corp., Walnut Creek, CA Pyrethroid Bifenthrin Talstar P 573 ml (7.84 fl.oz) 45 ml FMC Corp., Princeton, NJ Professional Spinosyn Spinosad Conserve SC 795 ml (10.9 fl.oz) 92 ml Dow AgroSciences, LLC, Indianapolis, IN Biological insecticide B. t. kurstaki DiPel DF 1.12 kg (1 lb) 605 g Valent BioSciences Corporation, Libertyville, IL a Product rate within label recommendation for turf caterpillars. Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jee/article/108/2/730/781136 by guest on 28 September 2021

Apopka station located on Web site http://fawn.ifas.ufl. insecticides except for B. thuringiensis and bifenthrin, edu/. suggesting that neither material was effective in the The experiment was a repeated measures design. laboratory test. There was a significant two-way interac- Plotswerereplicatedfivetimes.Eachplotwasassigned tion between treatment and concentration (F ¼ 1.84; four subplots (1 by 1 m) and treatments (three insecti- df ¼ 15; P ¼ 0.03), indicating a variable larval response cides plus controls) were randomized within each to different insecticides. The cumulative proportion block. Buffer rows (100 cm) separated each subplot. data representing dead, moribund, and live larvae after Insecticide treatments were applied within label rate 72 h exposure to different insecticide concentrations for clothianidin (350 g a.i./ha), chlorantraniliprole revealed shallower concentration–response for chloran- (26.9 ml a.i./ha), and bifenthrin (45ml a.i./ha). Applica- traniliprole and steepest for spinosad and clothianidin tions were made using a CO2 backpack sprayer (R&D over the tested range (Fig. 1 and Table 2). Sprayers, Opelousas, LA) calibrated to deliver 2,037 Residual Efficacy Under Field Conditions. In liter/ha (218 gallon/A). Larvae for the bioassay were residual efficacy field assays, all insecticide-treated placed in field cages consisting of metal cylinders plots initially had significantly fewer H. phaeopteralis (17.8 cm in diameter by 15.2 cm in height) inserted into surviving compared with control plots during spring the ground in each subplot. Each week, 15 third- and and fall experiments (Tables 3 and 4). All compounds fourth-instar H. phaeopteralis were released into each at label rates were effective ( 94% mortality of larvae metal cylinder (20 microplots), which were covered exposed to fresh residues after 1 wk). Control mortality with nylon mesh on top to prevent escape. Each metal based on number of live recovered larvae was relatively cylinder was destructively sampled and larval survivor- high, possibly in part because not all larvae could be ship was recorded by the end of each week. Experi- reliably recovered from field cages after 1 wk. However, ments continued for 5 wk under similar procedures. larval mortality was clearly affected by insecticide field Plots were mowed prior to treatments but not during aging time differently, depending on material, with a evaluations. Studies were conducted in the fall of 2013 more rapid decline in the activity of clothianidin and (October and November) and repeated the following bifenthrin as compared with chlorantraniliprole. Clo- spring (April through June). On each occasion, a two- thianidin had no statistically detectable activity after factor (treatment and time) analysis was used to com- 4 wk in the spring and the fall, and bifenthrin had no pare larval mortality (PROC GLIMMIX) with means detectable activity after 3 wk in the spring and fall. separated through Tukey’s honestly significant differ- However, chlorantraniliprole maintained significant ence (HSD) tests at P < 0.05; SAS Institute 2012). activity ( 84% mortality) as compared with other Again, moribund individuals were considered as dead. treatments throughout the 5-wk study period. A gener- Larval mortality percentage was arcsine-transformed to alized linear mixed model (GLIMMIX) showed that normalize proportion data. overall larval mortality was affected by insecticide treat- ment (F ¼ 376.3; df ¼ 3; P < 0.0001), time (F ¼ 58.1; df ¼ 4; P < 0.0001), and a treatment and time interac- Results tion (F ¼ 10.3, df ¼ 12, P < 0.0001). Higher total rain- fall, maximum daytime temperature, and solar Laboratory Bioassays. Concentration that radiation (noon) were observed in spring as compared killed half of the H. phaeopteralis larvae (LC ppm) 50 with the fall test (i.e., 15.5 cm, 32.0C, and 723 w/m2 was calculated as a measure of toxicity for vs. 5.0 cm, 27.2C, and 506 w/m2). each tested insecticide (Table 2). Dose–response calculations indicated that the order of inherent toxicity was chlorantraniliprole > acephate > spinosad Discussion clothianidin > bifenthrin B. thuringiensis.TheLC90 values ranged from 30.6 ppm for chlorantraniliprole to All tested compounds showed potential for control- 3101 ppm for bifenthrin. The LC90 value of bifenthrin ling H. phaeopteralis. However, chlorantraniliprole, the was greater than other tested compounds. Compared first anthranilic diamide labeled for turf usage, was with recommended label concentrations, the LC90 val- consistently the most effective compound tested. It had ues derived in our study were lower for all tested the lowest LC50 values (4.5 ppm) in the laboratory and April 2015 TOFANGSAZI ET AL.: INSECTICIDE EFFICACY AGAINST H. phaeopteralis 733

Table 2. Toxicity of commercial insecticides to medium-sized (third and fourth instar) H. phaeopteralis after 72 h exposure in the laboratory

a b a b c Insecticide n Intercept 6 SE LC50 (CI )LC90 (CI ) FRC Clothianidin 60 0.1 6 0.3 46.6 (37.1–57.9) 251.2 (172.5–442.6) 330 Chlorantraniliprole 60 0.04 6 0.2 4.5 (3.3–5.8) 30.6 (21.3–53.9) 72 B. thuringiensis 60 0.2 6 0.5 342.0 (262.6–447.6) 304.1 (1795–7366) 550 Acephate 60 0.03 6 1.8 8.6 (6.9–10.9) 40.4 (27.2–72.3) 731 Spinosad 60 0.12 6 0.3 31.1 (26.3–37.2) 114.1 (85.9–170.5) 390 Bifenthrin 60 0.16 6 0.2 282.7 (202.3–444.4) 310.1 (1,479–11344) 281 a LC50,LC90 ¼ ppm product. b CI ¼ 95%CI. c Field recommended concentration ¼ ppm product. Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jee/article/108/2/730/781136 by guest on 28 September 2021

targeting; Larson et al. 2014). In contrast, although bifenthrin provided good short-term control in field tests, it was relatively ineffective in our laboratory tests. As Lepidoptera may be repelled by pyrethroid deposits (Hoy et al. 1990), we speculate that larvae may have avoided feeding on the treated grass in laboratory bioassays. Microbials historically constitute a tiny percentage ( < 0.1%) of insecticides used on turfgrass in the United States (Grewal 1999). The bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki is labeled for turfgrass caterpil- lars but tends not to be used because of its short activ- ity (deactivation by sunlight), narrow pest spectrum, and weak activity against later instars (Held and Potter 2012). In our study, B. t. kurstaki had relatively low activity against mid-sized larvae of H. phaeopteralis (LC50 ¼ 342 ppm) when compared with recommended field rates. Relatively better activity was observed with spinosad (LC50 ¼ 31.1 ppm), another microbial deriva- tive produced by fermentation of the soil bacterium Saccharopolyspora spinosa. Spinosad products are Fig. 1. Cumulative percentage mortality, moribund, and labeled for turf and effective against grass-feeding cat- survivorship of third- and fourth-instar H. phaeopteralis after erpillars and some other turf pests, but also have short 72 h exposure to different concentrations (ppm product) of tested insecticides. residual activity and use rates (Gosselin et al. 2009, Held and Potter 2012). We used medium-sized larvae in all our studies, as longest residual activity ( > 5 wk) in the field. Hardke feeding activity often becomes noticeable at this stage et al. (2011) evaluated baseline dose–mortality (Tofangsazi et al. 2014b). However, as reported else- responses for third-instar fall armyworm, where chlor- where (Yu 1983), larvae become more tolerant to insec- antraniliprole had the lowest LC50 values (0.068 ppm) ticides as they age or increase in size. The as compared with spinosad (0.557 ppm) and the pyr- interpretation and development of dose–mortality ethroid lambda-cyhalothrin (5.27 ppm). The relatively responses to insecticides should thus account for the lower values of Hardke et al. (2011) as compared with instar(s) against which they are tested. the present study may reflect the different formulations Several entomopathogenic nematodes are registered of insecticides and methodologies used in their studies. for turf pests, including caterpillars and white grubs. For example, their insecticide was incorporated into an Tofangsazi et al. (2014a) reported that a commercial artificial diet, which may have increased exposure to formulation of Steinernema carpocapsae was as effec- these stomach poisons and affected the LC50 values tive as clothianidin against large larvae of H. phaeopter- accordingly. alis in greenhouse tests. Nevertheless, owing to their The neonicotinoid clothianidin was also relatively cost and relative difficulty of use compared with chemi- effective against H. phaeopteralis in both laboratory cals, it is argued that the foreseeable use of microbial and field tests. Clothianidin has become widely used control products in turf will be restricted to niche mar- for control of caterpillars and other turf pests in Florida kets, such as organic lawn care, school grounds, and and elsewhere because of its broad spectrum systemic other sensitive areas (Held and Potter 2012). activity and low application rate (Elbert et al. 2008, Sil- Longer residual activity of turf insecticides might cox and Vittum 2008). Clothianidin is favored by many reduce application frequency needed to maintain sea- turf managers because of its ability to control both foli- sonal pest populations. Reinert (1983) screened 30 age and root-feeding pests simultaneously (multiple insecticides for controlling sod webworms, 734 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY Vol. 108, no. 2

Table 3. Mean ( 6 SEM) percentage mortality of H. phaeopteralis exposed to aged insecticide residues in field plots of St. Augustine- grass (spring experiment)

Treatments Weeks after treatment 1234 5 Clothianidin 97.3 6 0.1 aaAb 97.3 6 1.6 aA 70.6 6 3.4 bB 69.3 6 2.7 bB 53.3 6 4.7 bB Chlorantraniliprole 100 6 0.0 aA 98.6 6 1.3 aA 97.3 6 1.6 aA 97.3 6 1.6 aA 84 6 4.5 aB Bifenthrin 94.6 6 0.4 aA 81.3 6 0.7 bB 66.6 6 0.3 bBC 61.3 6 0.4bcCD 42 6 3.7 bD Control 50.6 6 4.9 bA 40.0 6 6.6 cA 46.6 6 3.0 cA 46.6 6 4.7cA 32 6 4.4 bA a Column means followed by the same lower case letter are not significantly different. b Row means followed by the same capital letter are not significantly different (P < 0.05, Tukey’s HSD). Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jee/article/108/2/730/781136 by guest on 28 September 2021

Table 4. Mean ( 6 SEM) percentage mortality of H. phaeopteralis exposed to aged insecticide residues in field plots of St. Augustine- grass (fall experiment)

Treatments Weeks after treatment 1234 5 Clothianidin 97.3 6 1.6aaAb 93.3 6 0.2aA 58.6 6 0.1bB 64 6 0.09bB 45.3 6 0.1bB Chlorantraniliprole 97.3 6 1.7aA 100 6 0aA 90.6 6 0.2aA 94.6 6 0.1aA 94.6 6 0.2aB Bifenthrin 97.3 6 1.6aA 89.3 6 0.2bB 69.3 6 0.3bBC 46.6 6 0.2bcCD 52 6 0.2bD Control 29.3 6 8.0bA 48 6 5.7 cA 18.6 6 7.7cA 42.6 6 4.5cA 32 6 7.7bA a Column means followed by the same lower case letter are not significantly different. b Row means followed by the same capital letter are not significantly different (P < 0.05, Tukey’s HSD).

Herpetogramma spp., on ‘Tifway’ and ‘Tifgreen’ bermu- apparent adverse effects on any of the beneficial spe- dagrass, Cynodon spp. They reported that fonofos and cies. Moreover, chlorantraniliprole appears to have a chlorpyrifos provided partial residual control of the sec- synergistic or additive effect (similar to some neonicoti- ond generation, but experimental plots become rein- noids) with beneficial entomopathogenic nematodes fested 3 or 4 wk post-application. Both fonofos and used to control white grubs (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) chlorpyrifos (organophosphates) are classified as in turfgrass (Koppenho¨fer and Fuzy 2008). As many restricted insecticides for use on turf (Brandenburg turf managers practice multiple targeting insecticide and Freeman 2012). In our field study, only chlorantra- application to control foliage and root feeding turf pest niliprole provided residual control that might extend to simultaneously (Held and Potter 2012), a combination the second generation of H. phaeopteralis if used early of chlorantraniliprole with other low-risk insecticides in the season. This result is consistent with findings of including microbial materials, offers promise for con- Held and Potter (2012), who noted that chlorantranili- trol of caterpillars such as H. phaeopterali, along with prole has longer residual activity against caterpillars grubs and other important pests of turfgrass. than neonicotinoids. Environmental conditions affect the persistence of pesticides (Wackett 2007). Contact insecticides including pyrethroids may be more liable Acknowledgments to leaching and photodegradation through rainfall and We thank Luis F. Aristizabal, Robert Leckel, and Stephen UV-exposure as compared with systemic materials, Toomoth for technical assistance. Tofangsazi was financially which are taken up by the roots, stem, and leaves supported by the University of Florida College of Agriculture (Wackett 2007). Future research using high-perform- and Life Science and Center for Landscape Conservation and ance liquid chromatography would be useful to quan- Ecology. This work is reported under U.S. Department of tify the persistent nature of different insecticide Agriculture–National Institute of Food and Agriculture residue in the turf ecosystem. (USDA-NIFA) project numbers FLA-APO-5308 and FLA- Turf is habitat for a variety of nontarget ENH-005116. including natural enemies, decomposers, and pollina- tors (Bixby-Brosi and Potter 2012, Peck 2009 and Lar- References Cited son et al. 2013). Conserving beneficial species by selecting active ingredients that are less toxic against Bixby-Brosi, A. J., and D. A. Potter. 2012. Beneficial and in- nontarget organisms is needed for integrated turf pest nocuous invertebrates in turf. pp. 87–93. In R. L. Branden- management. Larson et al. (2014) indicated that label burg, and C. A. Prater (eds.), Handbook of turfgrass rate of clothianidin may intoxicate a range of beneficial pests. Entomological Society of America, Lanham, MD. species, including the ground beetle Harpalus pennsyl- Brandenburg, R. L., and C. P. Freeman. 2012. Handbook of Turfgrass Insect Pests, 2nd ed., 136 p. Entomological Society vanicus (DeGeer), black cutworm parasitoid Copido- of America, Lanham, MD. soma bakeri (Howard), and bumblebees Bombus Cherry,R.,andA.Wilson.2005.Flight activity of tropical sod impatiens (Cresson), foraging on treated white clover webworms (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). Fla. Entomol. 88: in weedy turf. In contrast, chlorantraniliprole had no 101–103. April 2015 TOFANGSAZI ET AL.: INSECTICIDE EFFICACY AGAINST H. phaeopteralis 735

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