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Longitudinal Study of Declarative and Procedural Memory in Primary Schoolaged Children

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Longitudinal Study of Declarative and Procedural Memory in Primary Schoolaged Children Australian Journal of Psychology, Vol. 62, No. 3, September 2010, pp. 139–148. Longitudinal study of declarative and procedural memory in primary school-aged children JARRAD LUM1, EVAN KIDD2,3, SARAH DAVIS3, & GINA CONTI-RAMSDEN3 1School of Psychology, Deakin University, 2School of Psychological Science, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia and 3School of Psychological Science, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom Abstract This study examined the development of declarative and procedural memory longitudinally in primary school-aged children. At present, although there is a general consensus that age-related improvements during this period can be found for declarative memory, there are conflicting data on the developmental trajectory of the procedural memory system. At Time 1 children aged around 5½ years were presented with measures of declarative and procedural memory. The tasks were then administered 12 months later. Performance on the declarative memory task was found to improve at a faster rate in comparison to the procedural memory task. The findings of the study support the view that multiple memory systems reach functional maturity at different points in development. Key words: Declarative memory, memory development, procedural memory Much research has accumulated supporting the view execution of a motor skill or exposure to a particular of multiple memory systems (Squire, 2004). A stimulus sequence. Evidence suggests that the pro- number of taxonomies have been forwarded that cedural memory system is mediated by the basal attempt to describe the functional and neurological ganglia and cerebellum (Gabrieli, 1998). correlates of each memory system (e.g., Graf & Developmentalists have been interested in the Schacter, 1987; Squire, Knowlton, & Musen, 1993). maturation of multiple memory systems. Early One model distinguishes between declarative and theories made developmental conclusions from procedural memory (Squire & Zola, 1996). Func- observations of adult clinical populations (Schacter tionally, declarative memory is involved in the explicit & Moscovitch, 1984). In many of these cases acquisition, retention and retrieval of information for memory impairments were observed with declarative personal events (in the case of episodic memory) or but not procedural memory (e.g., Cohen & Squire, facts (in the case of semantic memory). The 1980). The apparent robustness of the procedural declarative memory system achieves this through memory system led to the proposal that it may linking different representations (Mayes, Montaldi, & mature earlier than declarative memory (Reber, Migo, 2007). Learning through this system is rapid, 1992). More recently, neurodevelopmental studies can occur following a single exposure, and is undertaken with infants and children suggested that primarily supported by the medial temporal lobes declarative and procedural memory systems develop (Squire, Stark, & Clark, 2004). The procedural according to different developmental timetables memory system is involved in the acquisition and (Bauer, 2007; Schacter & Moscovitch, 1984). retrieval of habits, motor and cognitive skills (Packard Supporting this claim are research findings into & Knowlton, 2002). Unlike declarative memory, pre- and postnatal brain development that suggest information learnt via this system does not require regional differences in neurogenesis, cell migration, conscious awareness. Learning through this system is synaptogenesis, myelination and synaptic pruning typically slower and achieved through repeated (e.g., Lenroot & Giedd, 2006; Sowell, Thompson, & Correspondence: Dr J. Lum, School of Psychology, Deakin University, Level 3, 27 Brougham Street, Geelong, Vic. 3217, Australia. E-mail: [email protected] ISSN 0004-9530 print/ISSN 1742-9536 online ª The Australian Psychological Society Ltd Published by Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/00049530903150547 140 J. Lum et al. Toga, 2004). In general terms, the maturation of information had been learnt it would be expected subcortical and cerebellum structures precedes that RTs should continue to decrease as participants occipital, temporal and frontal lobes (Anderson & become more proficient at responding to the visual Lajoie, 1996). Because procedural memory is stimulus. mediated by structures that mature first, it has been If it is the case that procedural memory matures suggested that this system may reach adult-like levels relatively earlier it would be expected that age-related of functioning early in development (Bauer, 2007). differences should not be observed on SRT tasks. To Regional differences in brain development have also date, the results have been mixed. Studies by been found to extend into childhood and adoles- Meulemans, van der Linden, and Perruchet (1988) cence. Large-scale studies utilising magnetic reso- and Thomas and Nelson (2001) reported non- nance imaging have found that the temporal lobe, significant differences on SRT tasks between groups which is implicated in declarative memory, exhibits a of children and adults. Meulemans et al. examined curvilinear developmental trend between the ages of procedural learning in two groups of children (aged 6 4 and 22 years, with size increasing until around 16 and 7 years) and one group of adults (aged 18–27 years. In contrast, the caudate, which is one of the years). The participants in the Thomas and Nelson structures that comprise the basal ganglia and study were groups of children aged 4, 7, and 10 supports procedural memory, exhibits a relatively years. The key comparison of interest was whether stable development that peaks in size between the RTs collected from sequenced and random blocks ages of 7½ and 10 years (Giedd et al., 1999; Lenroot were comparable across different age groups. In both & Giedd, 2006). studies the magnitude of the difference between Behavioural studies of declarative memory func- repeating and random sequences was found to be tioning in children have generally been consistent comparable across all groups. Thus it seems that all with the neurological data. In general terms, most groups learnt the sequence with equal levels of studies have reported that older children perform proficiency. This occurred even though none of the better on tests of declarative memory than younger children in the studies were able to explicitly recall children (e.g., Kramer, Delis, Kaplan, O’Donnell, & the sequence. Age-related differences in procedural Prifitera, 1997). Discrepant findings, however, have memory, however, were reported by Thomas et al. been observed in relation to behavioural studies of (2004). That study compared children aged between procedural memory. At the heart of the debate are 7 and 11 years and adults aged between 23 and 33 concerns as to whether age-related differences exist years on an SRT task. Both groups were faster to for this memory system. If it is the case that respond to sequenced blocks in comparison to procedural memory matures early in development, random blocks. The magnitude of difference, how- then age-related differences should not be observed ever, between sequenced and random blocks was on tasks that purport to measure this system. Tests of larger for the adults than the children. These results this hypothesis have been mixed, with studies were interpreted to suggest age-related differences in reporting either the presence or absence of age- procedural memory. related difference in procedural or other forms of At present there are no longitudinal data available implicit memory (e.g., Mayberry, Taylor, & O’Brien- on procedural memory development; the develop- Malone, 1995; Vinter & Perruchet, 2000). ment of this memory system has been inferred from Serial reaction time (SRT) paradigms have been cross-sectional designs. Subsequently, rather than used to study procedural memory development in being able to study change in memory functioning, children. In SRT tasks, participants are seated in questions concerning procedural memory develop- front of a computer screen. A visual stimulus then ment have been addressed on the basis of whether a repeatedly appears in one of four designated spatial statistically significant difference between two or locations. The participant’s sole instruction is to more age groups has been observed. This type of press the corresponding button on a four-button method and analysis has inherent constraints that response panel. Unbeknown to the participant, on need to be considered when making inferences about some blocks the visual stimulus follows a sequence development. In particular, when statistically sig- and on others presentation is random (e.g., Nissen & nificant differences have been observed between Bullemer, 1987). Reaction times (RTs) are the groups of different ages, it needs to be shown that primary dependent variable of interest in SRT tasks. the independent variable was the primary source of In cases in which procedural memory has developed, variance and not any other extraneous variable that RTs decrease as participants respond to the repeat- correlates with group membership. The clearest case ing sequences. An increase in RTs, however, is in which this might be a problem occurs when observed when the stimulus appears randomly. This comparing children and adults on SRT tasks. Given increase in RTs is considered to indicate implicit that children differ from adults not only neurologi- learning of the sequence. This is because if no cally, but also with respect to cognitive, social, and Procedural and
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