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Geoethics: Theory, Principles, Problems NATALIYA NIKITINA GEOETHICS: THEORY, PRINCIPLES, PROBLEMS 2nd edition, revised and supplemented Moscow, 2016 UDC 17.02:001.5:55 BBK 26.3/87.75 N623 Nikitina N.K. Geoethics: theory, principles, problems. Monograph. 2nd edition, revised and supplemented. – M.: Geoinformmark, Ltd., 2016. – 256 p. ISBN 978-5-98877-061-9 The monograph contains the first systematic exposition of main provisions of the new scientific field of ethics – geoethics, analyzing its status and considering its place in the system of contemporary scientific knowledge. Particular attention is paid to the development of moral foundations of relations in the system of “human being – inanimate nature”, arising from the scientific research of the Earth and its mineral resources, practical geological exploration, mining and utilization of mineral resources, as well as from the use of mineral resources while constructing and operating the underground facilities not related to mining. For specialists of research institutes, university professors, employees of the administrative apparatus, legislative authorities, developers of a variety of programs, concepts and scenarios for the development and utilization of mineral resources, geologists and workers of the mining industry. Translated into English by Anna Berkutova, Anna Elyasova, Muhiddin Ganiev, Irina Tolmacheva. ISBN 978-5-98877-061-9 © N.K. Nikitina FOREWORD TO THE SECOND EDITION Publishing of the first edition of monography “Geoethics: theo- ry, principles, problems” in July 2012 has been objectively speaking predetermined. The monography was presented at a session dedicated to geotheics at the 34th International Geological Congress (Brisbane, Australia). Although the definition of geoethics has already been es- tablished in some dictionaries and encyclopaedias, as a science it only existed in a form of separate reports and theses. There were no con- solidated documents on this topic in Russian or other languages, and there were just very few scientists in the world, not more than 50 in total, researching geoethics. The situation has changed significantly within the last four years. First of all the definition of geoethics has been specified and broad- ened. Independent national geoethical societies and departments for geoethics under national geological societies have been established in many countries on all continents except Antarctica. On an interna- tional level these societies have been combined under the umbrella of two scientific associations: International Association for Geoethics – IAGETH (includes national organisations of 44 countries) and In- ternational Association for Promoting Geoethics – IAPG. Both organ- izations have been affiliated members of International Association of Geological Sciences – IUGS, since 2014. During the last four years (which may seem quite a short time) the amount of accumulated knowledge has increased, geoehical situ- ations, problems and dilemmas have been specified. New issues have been identified some of which are common for majority of countries, and others are specific to separate groups, communities and clusters of populations (NIMBY syndrome, feasibility of exploration of natural resources of the international seabed area, continental shelf, Arctic, Antarctic, other planets; fair distribution of profits from exploitation of natural resources, ethical dilemmas when predicting ever increasing catastrophical geological processes). When assessing effectiveness of 3 geological projects, it is necessary to apply not only usual economic criteria, such as profitability, commercial viability and profit margins – but also consider deep moral essence of the terms “subsoils”, “earth”, “natural resources”. More and more often in practice, when implementing any pro- jects related to subsoil use, it is needed to take into consideration es- sential features of mineral resources and its useful qualities: natural and geographical uneven distribution, exhaustibility, non-replenisha- bility, scarcity and resource ownership by current and future genera- tions. We need to use geoethical principles and specific instruments when making executive decisions around subsoil exploration and use in order to avoid social conflicts. The first edition of the monography was published in relatively small run (of just 300 copies) and only in Russian language, which significantly limited access to accumulated and systematised geoeth- ical knowledge. Exactly for this reason, the second modified and ex- tended edition is presented to the readers now in English language. Finally, I would like to thank a number of people that contributed to the successful completion of this book. I am grateful to Anna Ber- kutova (Commercial Director Deputy, PL Drilling Rigs, ZBO Drill Industries, Inc., Orenburg, Russia), Anna Elyasova (Regional Man- ager & Business Advisor, Startup Direct, London), Muhiddin Ganiev (Freelancer, Tadjikistan), Irina Tolmacheva (Director’s Assistant, En- ergy Institute, Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia) for tak- ing the time to translate the whole book in English. Also, many thanks to my husband Sergey Nikitin, who kindly read and helped editing this book. I must thank President of International Association for Geo- ethics, Prof. Jesus Martinez-Frias and Mr. Vladimir Smeliy for their continuous support of this project. 4 INTRODUCTION During the last two decades the idea of Vladimir Vernadsky, that “we live in a time, when human effect on planet Earth can be com- pared to the effect of geological forces” became reality. Natural evo- lutionary processes have become secondary. Not only human actions have an impact on planet Earth and the processes happening to it, but the scale of human impact has become enormous. Gigantic growth in population, fast speed of scientific and technical progress as well as industrial development have led to massive consumption growth and even increase in deficit of natural and mineral resources. Nowadays society is very much dependent on materials and energy extracted from mineral resources. At the same time we have realised how unique planet Earth is, the planet itself and its geological shells, and essential features of its mineral resources – exhaustibility, non-replenishability, scarcity and resource ownership by not only current but also future generations. In the context of globalisation and cyclical economic downturns general philosophical understanding of human relationship with ge- ological environment becomes increasingly important. It is essential to understand relationships between people in such areas as planetary research, exploration and use of planet Earth’s subsoils and minerals contained in them, mineral processing, protection of mineral resourc- es, efficient and ethical use of profits from exploitation of mineral re- sources, protection of biodiversity and prevention of inorganic pollu- tion of our planet. The most important part of philosophical knowledge – ethics, as the teaching of morality and moral foundations of social relation- ships – should play the main role here. Such key concepts as freedom of choice, fairness and responsibility, obligation and consciousness, contribution, integrity and humanity shall be the basis for addressing geological situations, problems and dilemmas. Geoethical ideas and ideals are aimed at spiritual development 5 of personality and are against self-destruction of civilization. Pro- gressing in our technological evolution we do not quite understand its limits. The real threat lies in continuous unjustified technological progress, for which more and more mineral resources are needed. Our planet will not be able to handle it. In order to avoid the catastrophe, we all need to change our attitude. Nowadays it is necessary to combine the efforts of the world ge- ological and philosophical communities to research and form a system of moral norms of human behaviour. It is important to define these norms for any social or professional activity, including those involv- ing specialists engaged in research, exploration and exploitation of mineral resources. We need to provide realistic and efficient support to civil society and government of each country in creating ethical and transparent practice of subsoil management, improving the effec- tiveness of subsoil research, regeneration of mineral reserve base, and making sure the mineral resources are being used taking into account their exhaustibility, scarcity and resource ownership by current and future generations. This document is the first attempt to summarise and conceptu- alise the knowledge that has been accumulated by still quite “young” discipline – geoethics. 6 CHAPTER 1 GEOETHICS – THE MODERN PHILOSOPHICAL BRANCH IN GEOSCIENCE 1.1 HISTORY OF GEOETHICS Different categories as differentiation principles can be consid- ered in development of models of promotion of geoethical awareness. As a form of social conscious, morality is traditionally considered a complex of norms that determine the responsibilities of humans in relation to the society, other people for a person (individual) is a mem- ber of the society. At each stage of its development, morality has been expanding the categories, which it belonged. For instance, the ethical rules of Ancient Greece did not apply to the slaves who were treated as human animals. By abolition of slavery, ethical categories were ap- plied to a human being and society. During the era of Enlightenment, the idea of the “kingdom of in- telligence” – a hypothetic future of the conditions of the society and its
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