The Alien Flora of Kashmir Himalaya
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Biol Invasions (2007) 9:269–292 DOI 10.1007/s10530-006-9032-6 ORIGINAL PAPER The alien flora of Kashmir Himalaya Anzar Ahmad Khuroo Æ Irfan Rashid Æ Zafar Reshi Æ G. H. Dar Æ B. A. Wafai Received: 1 May 2006 / Accepted: 2 June 2006 / Published online: 14 November 2006 Ó Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2006 Abstract Compilation of alien flora from phy- and Chenopodiacae (71%) show higher percent- togeographically distinct regions is of immediate age of aliens relative to their total number of relevance not only for better understanding the plant species in the region. Most of the alien plant patterns of plant invasion but also for explicating species (38%) trace their origin to Europe, fol- the processes promoting invasion at local, lowed by Asia (27%) and Africa (15%). Present regional or global scales. Despite being at higher study also reports, for the first time, occurrence of risk of invasion by plants because of its European seven plant species in this region. Each alien plant colonial past, south Asia has received very little species is provided with information on the origin, attention in respect of characterization of its alien habit, mode/purpose of introduction, current flora. This paucity of baseline data necessitated invasion status, altitudinal range and the primary compilation of the first catalogue of alien flora published source. from the Kashmir Himalaya—a phytogeographi- cally distinct south Asian region nestled in the Keywords Plant invasion Æ Alien flora Æ northwestern folds of Himalayan biodiversity Invasive plants Æ Kashmir Himalaya hotspot. Total alien flora of the region is repre- sented by 571 plant species, belonging to 352 genera and 104 families. It constitutes a relatively Introduction higher (29%) proportion of the total flora of the region. Families with largest number of alien Globalisation of the Earth’s biota, due to drastic representatives are Poaceae (60 species), Aster- breaching of the biogeographic barriers that iso- aceae (54 species), and Brassicaceae (30 species). lated continental biotas for millions of years, is However, families such as Amaranthaceae (83%) transforming local and regional floras and faunas (Davis 2003). Such biotic homogenisation is a result of increasing global trade and transport & A. A. Khuroo Æ I. Rashid Æ Z. Reshi ( ) Æ because of which the number of plant and animal B. A. Wafai Department of Botany, University of Kashmir, species translocated by humans, either deliber- Srinagar 190006 J&K, India ately or by accident, has drastically increased e-mail: [email protected] (Drake et al. 1989; Williamson 1996; Mack et al. 2000; Kowarik 2003; Perrings et al. 2005) and G. H. Dar Centre of Plant Taxonomy, University of Kashmir, such invasions have the potential of altering the Srinagar, J&K, India composition of the Earth’s biodiversity (Vitousek 123 270 Biol Invasions (2007) 9:269–292 et al. 1996; Mack et al. 2000). Besides ethical and and invasibility (Crawley et al. 1995; Lonsdale aesthetic concerns, the altered biodiversity can 1999). Infact, the problem of plant invasion needs severely impair the life-sustaining ecosystem global coordination for its effective monitoring goods and services which in turn can adversely and management (McNeely et al. 2001; Simberl- jeopardize the human welfare (Kaiser 1999). off et al. 2005). Although a belated beginning has Habitat destruction, an inevitable consequence of been made in the compilation of alien floras the modern land use, renders ecosystems vulner- (Rejmanek and Randall 1994; Weber 2003; Kuhn able to invasion by the species that are trans- et al. 2004) but no such activity is visible as yet in ported intentionally or unintentionally by humans the developing world where incidently most of the (Moore 2000). In fact, biological invasion by biodiversity exists (Richardson 2004)exceptfor aliens has been widely recognized as the second works of Li and Xie (2002), Pallewatta et al. (2003), greatest threat (after direct habitat destruction) to Wu et al. (2004a), Liu et al. (2005). Such studies in the global biodiversity (Drake et al. 1989). the south Asian region are of particular importance Though addressed by Charles Elton in his seminal because of its past history of European colonization treatise way back in 1958 yet the public and (di Castri 1989; Crosby 1993). Also, the region has scientific concern about biological invasion is a three entries of Western Ghats, Indo-Burma and recent phenomenon. With the fast wave of glob- Himalayas on the global list of biodiversity hot- alization sweeping the nations and increased spots (Mittermeier et al. 2005), and studies on movement of goods and people around the world, plant invasion in the Indian subcontinent are need Elton’s prophecy of an imminent ecological of the hour (Sharma et al. 2005). explosion of invasive species has almost come Kashmir Himalaya, a picturesque south Asian true (Moore 2004). In fact, the economic global- region, is located in the northwestern extreme of ization is aiding and abetting the ‘biotic global- the Himalayan biodiversity hotspot. Himalayas ization’ of the world, sometimes infamously spanning over an area of 7,50,000 km2 harbour referred to as ‘biological pollution’, with cata- about 10,000 plant species; interestingly, the strophic economic and ecological ramifications Kashmir Himalaya alone contributes nearly 2,000 (McNeely 2001; Carey 2002; Gurevitch and (20%) of the plant species within just 2.15% Padilla 2004; Pimentel et al. 2005). Alarmed by (15,948 km2) of the total land area (Dar et al. the harmful fallout of alien invasive plants, efforts 2002). Being at the crossroads of the Eurasian and all over the world are directd at inventorizing the Palaeotropical bio-realms, the region has been a alien floras of different affected region at the crucible of floristic diversity. The breathtaking earliest possible (Clement and Foster 1994; Pysek landscape of this biodiversity rich region has et al. 2002) and the same demands active collab- attracted people of all walks of life, and also from oration between taxonomists and ecologists far off regions of the world. Due to its proximity (Pysek et al. 2004). with the erstwhile Silk route and promotion as a Authentic identification, documentation and global tourist destination, the region has wit- characterization of alien floras are of paramount nessed intentional or unintentional introduction importance for future studies that would help of varying floral elements from different phyto- formulate strategies for their managment. Par- geographical regions of the world which have ticularly important is to recognize natives and been supported by diverse bio-climates, broad aliens separately in the modern floras as the same elevation range and habitat heterogeneity. In fact, would enhance their utility, broaden their ‘clien- the region has been an important stopping point tele’ and solve, to a large extent, the problem of for the historical trade caravans starting from the ‘taxonomic inflation’ in the inventories of native far east Asia passing through the central Asia to plant biodiversity. In addition, comparison of reach the Mediterranean coast and vice versa alien flora of phytogeographically distinct regions (Kachroo 1995). Such anthropogenic influences is an indispensable methodological approach for along with wanton axing of virgin conifer forests, identifying the distinguishing patterns of invasion unregulated grazing of verdant alpine meadows, (Pysek 1998) and determinants of invasiveness pollution of freshwater ecosystems, burgeoning 123 Biol Invasions (2007) 9:269–292 271 urbanization, etc, have promoted invasion of sand and silt of lacustrine origin (de Terra 1934). these disturbed habitats by non-native species The valley is traversed by the river Jehlum and its (Oza 2003). tributaries which feed many world famous fresh- Taking note of the importance of studies on the water lakes, such as the Wular, Dal and Anchar alien plants (Pysek et al. 2004), particularly in lakes. Climate of the region, marked by well-de- areas of high anthropogenic interference, present fined seasonality, resembles that of mountainous study was aimed at compiling the first authentic and continental parts of the temperate latitudes,. catalogue of the alien flora of Kashmir Himalaya The temperature ranges from an average daily along with supplementation of each plant species maximum of 31°C and minimum of 15°C during with information on origin, habit, mode/purpose of summer to an average daily maximum of 4°C and introduction, invasion status, altitudinal range and minimum of – 4°C during winter. It receives an- the primary published source. Such baseline nual precipitation of about 1,050 mm, mostly in information would act as the foundation stone for the form of snow during the winter months. the advanced studies in the invasion ecology and Owing to the vast variety of edapho-climatic would serve a benchmark for furture assessment of and physiographic heterogeneity, the region har- extent of invasion in this biodiversity rich region. bours diverse habitats, including lakes, springs, swamps, marshes, rivers, cultivated fields, orch- ards, subalpine and alpine meadows, montane Materials and methods slopes and terraces, permanent glaciers, etc., which support equally diverse floristic elements Study area (Gupta 1982; Singh et al. 1998). Kashmir Himalaya, being located at the bio-geo- Methods graphically pivotal position, represents a unique biospheric unit in the northwestern Himalayas The present study is based on the database com- (Rodgers and Panwar 1988). The region has an piled by the authors after perusal of the available area of about 15,948 km2, with nearly 64% of the floristic literature dealing with the vascular flora total area being mountainous. Human population of Kashmir Himalaya and the information gath- of the region during the last decade of 1991–2001 ered by the authors from the field surveys con- increased from 4 million to 5.4 million, showing ducted during the last twenty years. Although the an explosive 35% decadal growth rate (Anony- first written record of floristic study from the mous 2002).