Current Biotica 5(4): 522-540, 2012 ISSN 0973-4031

Bioprospecting the renewable forest resources: An overview

N. Senthilkumar* and S. Murugesan Institute of Forest Genetics & Tree Breeding, R.S. Puram, Coimbatore-641 002, Tamil Nadu, India *E-mail:[email protected]

Tropical deforestation is considered the convention on Biological diversity, and an essential factor in global biodiversity, in today this has manifested as the potential for view of the vast majority of terrestrial major benefits in terms of commercially species occurring in tropical moist forests. valuable and useful biochemical resources. The challenge of biodiversity management and conservation is to sustain ecosystem The exploration of wild plants and functions that generate ecosystem services for commercially valuable and enabling maintenance of resilience of biochemical resources is "Bioprospecting" = ecosystem to change. By ecological Biodiversity prospecting. The main focus of functioning we mean those basic processes Bioprospecting was developed in late 1980’s of ecosystem such as nutrient cycling, further strengthened by Convention on biological productivity, as well as ability of Biological Diversity (CBD). This has ecosystem to recover from external stresses. manifested itself globally as the potential for Although substantial biodiversity loss occur major benefits which has caused substantial due to forest clearing and degradation, such growth in the industry. practices as establishment of plantation and secondary forests can restore a significant Terrestrial and marine animals, plants, amount of biodiversity. Large scale losses of and microorganisms produce tropical forests have caused increasing numerous secondary metabolites. Some are concern, besides the ecological and for self-defense, symbiosis, sexual attraction, economic implication of these changes. In or to fulfill a variety of other purpose. this connection bioprospecting tends to be Bioassay-directed isolation, purification and an effective process enabling a better structure elucidation resulted in several appreciation of the availability of wild plants natural products from plants and microbe with and animals as commercials vulnerable and potential agricultural, forestry and other important biochemical resources. Needless biological application. India is one of 12- therefore to emphasize that in human mega biodiversity centers having about 10% welfare, biodiversity conservation, of the world’s biodiversity wealth, which is ecological sustainability and economic distributed across 16 agro-climatic zones. Out viability are intricately linked. In view of the of 17,000 species of higher plants reported to ecological impacts of overall biodiversity occur within India, 7500 are known to have loss the need for bioprospecting has become medicinal uses (Shiva, 1996). Today, natural essential resulting in the manifestation of products (and their derivatives and analogs) global biodiversity in terms of exploration of still represent over 50% of all drugs in wild plants and animals for their utilitarian clinical use, with higher plant-derived value. Needless to indicate that the main natural products representing 25% of the focus on bioprospecting was developed in total. The World Health Organization the late 1980’s and further strengthened by estimates that 80% of the people in

______522 www.currentbiotica.com Current Biotica 5(4): 522-540, 2012 ISSN 0973-4031 developing countries of the world rely on Indonesia (Ohashi et al ., 1994). The traditional medicine for their primary health presence of a new constituent, p-Menth-1- care, and about 85% of traditional medicine en-3beta, 5beta-diol and anthraquinones involves the use of plant extracts. This from leaf oil and heartwood of A. marmelos means that about 3.5 to 4 billion people in respectively were detected (Garg et al ., the world rely on plants as sources of drugs. 1995). The chemical transformation and 13 This proportion of medicinal plants is the –C NMR isolation of three alkaloidal amides highest known in any other country against belonging to Cinnamide class from the the existing flora of that country (Kala et al ., leaves of bael were reported (Shweta et al ., 2006). The Charak Samhita , an age-old 2005). written document on herbal therapy, reports on the production of 340 herbal drugs for Natural Resources in India are curing various diseases (Prajapati, 2003). already recognized as a leader and an Currently, about 25% of drugs are derived important contributor to world’s from plants and many others are synthetic bioeconomy with its research in the area of analogues built on prototype compounds forest bioproducts (e.g. antioxidants and isolated from plant species in modern therapeutics). Naturally-occurring chemicals pharmacopoeia (Rao et al ., 2004). A. (antioxidants) extracted from forest plants marmelos Corr. (Rutaceae) commonly (trees, herbs, shrub, etc.) form the known as bael, is one of the most useful foundation for a broad range of forest medicinal plants in Indian Ayurvedic bioproducts and are required in large Medicine. Different parts of the plant have volumes for commercial production of been used in the treatment of diarrhea, bioproducts. dysenteries and diabetes mellitus (Nadkarni, 1976). In fact, as per document (1500 B.C.), Bioprospecting associated with forest no drug has been longer or better known by resources the inhabitants of India than the bael (Chemexcil, 1992). A. marmelos is used in The focus of bioprospecting in India indigenous systems of medicine in India, will be on discovering antioxidants because China, Burma and Srilanka (Kirtikar et al ., of their ability to help prevent, halt and 1935). On this account the plant is considered repair damage from diseases that are to be extremely auspicious. The leaves in triggered by overactive internal defense particular are venerated highly and have been reactions in our bodies. Antioxidants used in indigenous systems of medicine and naturally occurring in many plants found in are found to possess many medicinal qualities Indian forests could form the basis of new (Dymock et al ., 1890). A.marmelos is therapies for many diseases. variously reported to possess analgesic, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory properties, Renewable forest resources and pharmacological, and phytochemical studies renewableness on roots of A. marmelos have been carried out (Pitre et al ., 1987).The roots are used in A wide range of renewable resources ethnomedicine as an anti-diarrhoeitic, and as such as timber and fibre from trees, lac from an antidote to snake venom. Four isomeric lac-producing insects, starch and other lignan-glucosides were isolated from the polysaccharides from the plants are bark of A. marmelos. The bark of A. available from the forest. There is a constant marmelos has been used to treat diabetes in availability of resources such as grasses,

______523 www.currentbiotica.com Current Biotica 5(4): 522-540, 2012 ISSN 0973-4031 seeds, shrubs and other plants with find uses in medicine, industry, and medicinal value for our use. These resources agriculture. Some of the compounds that we are replenished in the next season by the have discovered in endophytic microbes are quick propagation of the plant species by taxol, cryptocin, cryptocandin, and ambuic vegetative growth or from the seeds and are acid (Strobel, 2002). hence available for use in the following year. Bioprospecting the renewable forest resources Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are plants or plant parts that have perceived Currently, the commercial source of economic or consumption value sufficient to podophyllotoxin is the rhizomes and roots of encourage their collection and removal from Podophyllum emodi Wall., Berberidaceae the forest for utilization within the (syn. P. hexandrum Royle), an endangered household or marketed or have social, species from the Himalayas (Foster, 1993). cultural or religious significance. These Recent findings concluded that the leaf include plants and plant materials used for blades of the North American mayapple ( P. food, fuel, storage and fodder, medicine, peltatum L.) may serve as an alternative cottage and wrapping materials, source of podophyllotoxin production, since biochemical, as well as animals, birds, leaves are renewable organs that store reptiles and fishes, for food and feather. lignans as glucopyranosides (Canel et al ., NTFPs which are harvested from within and 2001; Moraes et al ., 2002). on the edges of natural and disturbed forest, may be all or part of living or dead plants, Endophytic microbial products lichens, fungi, or other forest organisms. NTFPs come from a large variety of plant Cryptosporiopsis quercina is the parts and are formed into a diverse set of imperfect stage of Peziculacinnamomea , a products: leaves & twigs that may be fungus commonly associated with hardwood component of decorative arrangements, food species in was isolated as an endophyte from items such as fruits, fungi and juices, wood Tripterigeum wilfordii , a medicinal plant. carved or woven into pieces of art or C. quercina demonstrated excellent utilitarian objects and roots, leaves and bark antifungal activity against some important processed into herbal remedies or medicines human fungal pathogens - Candida albicans (Adepoju et al ., 2007). and Trichophyton spp causing diseases of skin and nails because of the presence of Higher plants are mostly hosts to one cryptocandin, (3-hydroxy-4-hydroxy methyl or more endophytic microbes. These proline) a known antimycotic compound. organisms reside in the tissues between and Cryptocin, a unique tetramic acid, is also among living plant cells. The opportunity of produced by C.quercina. This unusual finding new and interesting microorganisms compound possesses potent activity against within the myriad of the world's plants is Pyricularia oryzae as well as a number of great. In addition, in the case of a microbe other plant-pathogenic fungi. A newly being symbiotic, new and unusual organic described species of Pestalotiopsis , namely, substances may be discovered that Pestalotiopsis jesteri , produces jesterone contribute to the host–microbe relationship and hydroxy-jesterone, which exhibit while at the same time providing new and antifungal activity against a variety of plant- interesting bioactive compounds that may pathogenic fungi possess antibiotic activity.

______524 www.currentbiotica.com Current Biotica 5(4): 522-540, 2012 ISSN 0973-4031

Colletotrichum sp., isolated from Artemisia Immunosuppressive, antidiabetic, antiviral annua , produces bioactive metabolites that and insecticidal agents showed varied antimicrobial activity as well. A. annua is a traditional Chinese herb that is Immunosuppressive drugs are used well recognized for its synthesis of today to prevent allograft rejection in artemisinin (an antimalarial drug) and its transplant patients and in the future they ability to inhabit many geographically could be used to treat autoimmune diseases different areas. such a rheumatoid arthritis and insulin- dependent diabetes. The endophytic fungus Anticancer agents Fusarium subglutinans , isolated from T. wilfordii , produces the immunosuppressive Paclitaxel, (also produced by in order to be more predictive about which endophytic fungi) a highly functionalized higher plants to seek, study, and spend time diterpenoid, is found in each of the world’s isolating microfloral components. The yew ( Taxus ) species. The mode of action of fungus Tolypocladium inflatum , from which paclitaxel is to preclude tubulin molecules cyclosporine, a hugely beneficial from depolymerizing during the processes of immunosuppressant, was isolated. A cell division. This compound is the world’s nonpeptidal fungal metabolite was isolated first billion-dollar anticancer drug. Some of from an endophytic fungus ( Pseudomassaria the most commonly found endophytes of the sp.) collected from an African rainforest world’s yews are Pestalotiopsis spp. One of near Kinshasa in the Democratic Republic of the most commonly isolated endophytic the Congo. This compound acts as insulin species is P. microspora . An examination mimetic and, unlike insulin, is not destroyed of the endophytes of Taxus wallichiana in the digestive tract and may be given yielded P.microspora , and a preliminary orally. Two novel human cytomegalovirus monoclonal antibody test indicated that it protease inhibitors, cytonic acids A and B, might produce paclitaxel. A rubiaceous have been isolated from the solid-state plant, Maguireothamnus speciosus , yielded fermentation of the endophytic fungus a novel fungus, Seimatoantlerium tepuiense , Cytonaema sp. Several endophytes are that produces paclitaxel. known to have anti- properties. Nodulisporic acids, novel indole diterpenes Antioxidants that exhibit potent insecticidal properties. Nodulisporic compounds were isolated from Two compounds, pestacin and an endophyte, a Nodulisporium sp., from the isopestacin, have been obtained from plant Bontia daphnoides . Another culture fluids of P. microspora , an endophytic fungus, Muscodor vitigenus , endophyte isolated from a combretaceaous isolated from a liana ( Paullina plant, Terminalia morobensis , growing in paullinioides ), yields naphthalene as its the Sepik River drainage of Papua New major product. Naphthalene, the active Guinea. Both pestacin and isopestacin ingredient in common mothballs, is a widely display antimicrobial as well as antioxidant exploited insect repellant. A novel seco- activity. Isopestacin was suspected of trisnor -oleanane and seco - antioxidant activity based on its structural benzyltetrahydroisoquinoline, were isolated similarity to the flavonoids. from from Calophyllum gracilipes and Polyalthia insignis , respectively. Many substituted coumarins of potential against

______525 www.currentbiotica.com Current Biotica 5(4): 522-540, 2012 ISSN 0973-4031

HIV protease activity were isolated 1818. Digitoxin is used in the treatment of Calophyllum plants including Calophyllum congestive heart failure and other cardiac teysmannii . disorders. Digitalis lanata , the woolly Drugs of plant origin foxglove, is cultivated commercially as a source of digoxin, a cardiotonic used for the Here are a few plants and plant same purposes as digitoxin. An Indian ingredients used in many conventional named M. Manal discovered that elephants drugs. Senna alexandrina , a shrubby in captivity were often fed a particular type perennial, was introduced as a laxative. of root reputed to produce a calming effect. Preparations of the plant and its cathartic Intrigued, Manal brought samples of the pods are still widely used today in popular plant back to India, where he conducted tests brands of drugstore laxatives. Mentha (mint) on its properties. The plant, Rauwolfia species are the natural sources of menthol, serpentina , named after famous 16th century an aromatic alcohol which is also known as German physician and explorer Leonhart peppermint camphor. Menthol is an active Rauwolf, demonstrated both tranquilizing ingredient in topical preparations. and anti-hypertensive properties. These Peppermint oil, which can still be found in effects were due to the presence of the drugstores, is a centuries-old remedy. alkaloid reserpine. In 1934 Serpina, the Gaultheria procumbens , or wintergreen, is a world's first-ever anti-hypertensive drug, source of methylsalicylate, which is widely was launched. Today reserpine is used both used in topical ointments and liniments. as an antihypertensive and as a sedative to relieve some types of psychiatric disorders. Papaver somniferum , the opium Ecuadorian Cinchona pubescens , a fast- poppy, yields a sap of narcotic opium, from growing evergreen, as well as other species which the potent pain killer morphine is of cinchona, stand among the greatest life- made. In the eighth century, Persian saving medicines of all time. According to caravans bore both opium and its methods of legend this plant was brought to light in the euphoric use to India and China. In 1546 a 1620's when Ecuadorean physician Juan del French naturalist named Belon drew Vega used a Quichua native remedy known European attention to widespread opium as "quina bark" on the Countess of abuse among Turks. Opium dens Chinchon, wife of the Viceroy of Peru, who proliferated in Europe throughout the had contracted malaria, a potentially fatal 1800's, while the opium trade became an disease caused by a protazoan in the enormous industry. Simultaneously, opium stomach of the female Anopheles mosquito. and its products heroin and morphine The Countess recovered, and "quina bark" established themselves among drug users became known as "Countess bark." Word of and in the field of medicine. Both uses the cure spread, and cinchona was continue to this day. In modern medicine, popularized by an apothecary's assistant morphine and its analogues remain named Robert Talbor in the late 1660's. unsurpassed pain killers. Digitalis purpurea , Over the next 150 years a huge trade in the purple foxglove, is a popular garden cinchona bark developed. In the early 19th plant cultivated as a source of digitoxin, a century, the Dutch established cinchona cardiac drug. The plant was recommended plantations in Java. In 1820, quinine was for medicinal purposes in the seventeenth isolated from cinchona, and a successful century, and has appeared in the French treatment for malaria was established. Today Pharmacopoeia since its first printing in cinchona is cultivated in several tropical

______526 www.currentbiotica.com Current Biotica 5(4): 522-540, 2012 ISSN 0973-4031 regions, and the approximately 10,000 tons Today there are approximately 1000 of bark harvested annually yields 500 tons natural product crude plant extracts and 800 of quinine and related alkaloids quinidine, purified compounds library is available in cinchonine, and cinchonidine. A novel seco- the world and many of which are novel trisnor -oleanane and seco - natural products and possess antioxidant benzyltetrahydroisoquinoline, were isolated properties. There are about 18,000 known from from Calophyllum gracilipes and species of plants in India, medical Polyalthia insignis , respectively. Many implications of a large number them is still substituted coumarins of potential against mystery. There are at least 120 distinct HIV protease activity were isolated chemical substances derived from plants that Calophyllum plants including Calophyllum are considered as important drugs currently teysmannii . in use in one or more countries in the world. Few of them are listed below in Table 1.

Table 1: List of drugs, their property and plant source

S.No. Drug/Chemical Type of plant Action/Clinical Use Plant Source 1. Allyl Annual weed Rubefacient Brassica nigra L. isothiocyanate 2. Picrotoxin Climber Analeptic Anamirta cocculus (L.) Wight & Arn., 3. Qulsqualic acid Creeper Anthelmintic Quisqualis indica Linn. 4. Caffeine Evergreen CNS stimulant Camellia sinensis (L.) shrub Kuntze 5. Ajmalicine Herb Circulatory Disorders Rauvolfia serpentine (L.) Benth. ex Kurz 6. Andrographolide Herb Baccillary dysentery Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall. ex Nees 7. Bromelain Herb Anti-inflammatory, Ananas comosus (L.) proteolytic Merr. 8. Cissampeline Herb Skeletal muscle relaxant Cissampelos pareira L. 9. Codeine Herb Analgesic, antitussive Papaver somniferum L. 10. Menthol Herb Rubefacient Mentha species 11. Morphine Herb Analgesic Papaver somniferum L. 12. Neoandrographo- Herb Dysentery Andrographis paniculata lide (Burm.f.) Wall. ex Nees 13. Nicotine Herb Insecticide Nicotiana tabacum L. 14. Noscapine Herb Antitussive Papaver somniferum L. 15. Pachycarpine Herb Oxytocic Sophora pachycarpa C.Meyer 16. Papavarine Herb Smooth muscle relaxant Papaver somniferum L. 17. Rescinnamine Herb Antihypertensive, Rauvolfia serpentine (L.) tranquillizer Benth. ex Kurz

______527 www.currentbiotica.com Current Biotica 5(4): 522-540, 2012 ISSN 0973-4031

18. Reserpine Herb Antihypertensive, Rauvolfia serpentine (L.) tranquillizer Benth. ex Kurz 19. Scopolamine Herb Sedative Datura species 20. Silymarin Herb Antihepatotoxic Silybum marianum (L.)Gaertn 21. a- Herb Antiemetic, decrease Cannabis sativa L. Tetrahydrocanna- occular tension binol (THC) 22. Rotundine Herbaceous Analagesic, sedative, Stephania sinica Diels vine traquillizer 23. Tetrandrine Herbaceous Antihypertensive Stephania tetrandra S. vine Moore 24. Asiaticoside Herbaceous, Vulnerary Centella asiatica (L.) Annual Urban 25. L-Dopa Leguminous Anti-parkinsonism Mucuna sp 26. Glycyrrhizin Leguminous Sweetener, Addison's Glycyrrhiza glabra L. disease 27. Convallatoxin Rhizome Cardiotonic Convallaria majalis L. 28. Curcumin Rhizome Choleretic Curcuma longa Linnaeus 29. Deserpidine Shrub Antihypertensive, Rauvolfia canescens L. tranquillizer 30. Gossypol Shrub Male contraceptive Gossypium species 31. Stevioside Shrub Sweetner Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni. 32. Vasicine Shrub Cerebral stimulant Vinca minor L. 33. Vinblastine Shrub Antitumor, Antileukemic Catharanthus roseus (L.) agent G.Don 34. Vincristine Shrub Antitumor, Antileukemic Catharanthus roseus agent (L.) G.Don 35. Arecoline Tree Anthelmintic Areca catechu L. 36. Camphor Tree Rubefacient Cinnamomum camphora (L.) Sieb 37. Chymopapain Tree Proteolytic, mucolytic Carica papaya L. 38. Danthron Tree Laxative species 39. Glaucarubin Tree Amoebicide Simarouba glauca DC 40. Hesperidin Tree Capillary fragility Citrus species L. 41. Papain Tree Proteolytic, mucolytic Carica papaya L. 42. Rutin Tree Capillary fragility Citrus species L. 43. Sennosides A, B Tree Laxative Cassia species 44. Strychnine Tree CNS stimulant Strychnos nux-vomica L. 45. Theobromine Tree Diuretic, vasodilator Theobroma cacao L. 46. Theophylline Tree Diuretic, brochodilator Theobroma cacao and others

______528 www.currentbiotica.com Current Biotica 5(4): 522-540, 2012 ISSN 0973-4031

Over 50% of the most common Plants with promising anti-infective activity prescription drugs originate from plants, animals, fungi and bacteria (Grifo et al ., Garcinia kola , bitter kola 1997) and over 60% of anti-cancer and anti- (Guttiferae), is found in moist forest and infective agents developed between 1984–95 grows as a medium size tree, up to 12 m are of natural origin (Cragg et al ., 1993, high. The seeds are used as purgative, Cragg et al ., 1997). Hence, the drug antiparasitic, antimicrobial. They relieve discovery process continues to rely cough. The constituents include— considerably on screening extracts or biflavonoids, xanthones and benzophenones compounds from natural sources. Currently, responsible for the antimicrobial properties commercial interest in finding novel genes of this plant. Aframomum melegueta for use in agriculture and in herbal (Zingiberaceae) Grains of Paradise, is a medicinal products is also high. In addition, spicy edible fruit that is cultivated and many, if not most, new drugs from natural occurs throughout the tropics. It is a products for agriculture and forestry are perennial herb. The medicinal uses include likely to come from countries that are high aphrodisiac, measles, and leprosy, taken for in biodiversity. In fact, the search for drugs excessive lactation and post partem and genes from natural sources holds the hemorrhage, purgative, galactogogue and potential to enhance the research and anthelmintic, and hemostatic agent due to commercial capacities of biodiversity-rich the constituents, the essential oils—such as countries. gingerol, shagaol, paradol (Iwu, 1993). An evergreen, aromatic tree Xylopia aethiopica , Developing nations must obtain Ethiopian Pepper (Abbibacceae), growing experience in the scientific, legal and up to 20 m high with peppery fruit. commercial aspects of bioprospecting before Medicinal uses of the plant are, as a them, along with industry, can effectively carminative, as a cough remedy, and as a exploit biodiversity and thereby obtain post partum tonic, lactation aid and other benefit. The tropics contain the most diverse biological uses (Smith et al ., 1996). Key habitats in the world, yet are increasingly constituents are diterpenic and xylopic acid. threatened with destruction. However, this In studies, the fruit as an extracts has been trend might be slowed if the economic value shown to be active as an antimicrobial of keeping a forest intact were greater than against gram positive and negative bacteria. that of destructive uses, such as logging or Though it has not been shown to be effective agriculture. One promising mechanism for against E. coli (Iwu, 1993). Xylopic acid has generating sustainable revenue from intact also demonstrated activity against Candida ecosystems is the commercialization of albicans (Boakye-Yiadom et al ., 1977). A drugs, genes or herbal medicinal products shrub, Cryptolepis sanguinolenta Lindl. derived from natural sources (Reid et al ., Schltr. (Periplocaceae), that grows in the 1993). If bioprospecting is to be embraced rainforest and the deciduous belt forest. Its by industry and biodiversity-rich nations as main medicinal are inflammatory a tool for economic development and conditions, malaria, hypertension, microbial conservation, it is imperative to produce infections and inflammatory conditions, successful examples quickly (Inamdar et al ., stomach aches colic (Iwu, 1993). Active 1999). principals identified are indo quinoline alkaloids. Studies show inhibition against

______529 www.currentbiotica.com Current Biotica 5(4): 522-540, 2012 ISSN 0973-4031 gram negative bacteria and yeast (Silva et Podophyllotoxin al ., 1996). Additionally studies have shown this plant to have bactericidal activity. Podophyllotoxin is a natural lignan Clinical studies have shown extracts of the that is currently being used as a precursor to plant were effective in parasitemia. Recent semi-synthetic anticancer drugs etoposide, in vitro study shows activity against bacteria teniposide, and etopophos. These specifically, enteric pathogens, most notably compounds have been used for the treatment E. coli (but also staphylococcus, C. coli , C. of lung and testicular cancers as well as jejuni , pseudomonous, salmonella, shigella, certain leukemias (Stahelin et al ., 1991, streptococcus, and vibrio) and some activity Imbert, 1998). In addition, podophyllotoxin against candida (Sawer et al ., 1995). It has is also the precursor to a new derivative shown histamine antagonism, hypotensive, CPH 82 that is being tested for rheumatoid and vasodilatory activities (Iwu, 1993). In arthritis in Europe and other derivatives for addition it has demonstrative the treatment of psoriasis and malaria antihyperglcyemic properties (Bierer et al ., (Leander et al ., 1988, Lerndels, 1996). 1998). Chasmanthera dependens Hoschst Podophyllotoxin preparations are also on the (Menispermaceae), a woody climber that market for dermatological use to treat grows wild in forest margins and savanna. genital warts (Beutner, 1996) and recently, The plant is cultivated. It is used medicinally immunostimulatory activities of for venereal disease, topically on sprained podophyllotoxin have been reported (Pugh joints and bruises and as a general tonic for et al ., 2001). Podophyllotoxin is extracted physical and nervous debilities. The from Podophyllum hexandrum Royle constituents include berberine type (Berberidaceae) a herbaceous, rhizomatous alkaloids, palmatine, colombamine, and species. The rhizomes of P. hexandrum jateorhizine. In a report about Nauclea yield cytotoxic lignan podophyllotoxin and latifolia Smith (Rubiaceae), a shrub or small resin due to which Podophyllum possesses spreading tree that is a widely distributed anti-tumour activity. Podophyllotoxin and savanna plant, it was found in the forest and podophyllin ( Podophyllum resin) are fringe tropical forest. Medicinal uses are due considered as active constituents in to the key constituents reported such as dermatologic products for therapy of genital indole-quinolizidine alkaloids and warts (Mishra et al ., 2005). Among the glycoalkaloids and sapponins (Lamidi et al ., plethora of physiological activities and 1995). There are studies showing the root potential medicinal and agricultural has antibacterial activity against gram applications, the antineoplastic and antiviral positive and negative bacteria and antifungal properties of podophyllotoxin congeners and activity (Iwu, 1993). It is most effective their derivatives are arguably the most against Corynebacterium diphtheriae , eminent from a pharmacological perspective Streptobacillis sp., Streptococcus sp., (Canel et al ., 2000). Leaves of Eastern red Neisseria sp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa , cedar ( Juniperus virginiana L. Salmonella sp. (Deeni et al ., 1991). Cupressaceae) have been reported to contain Araliopsis tabouensis (Rutaceae), is a large podophyllotoxin, a pharmaceutical evergreen tree. The bark infusion is drunk compound used to manufacture drugs for for gonorrhea (Irvine, 1961). Its major treatment of cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, constituents are alkaloids. Seven alkaloids genital warts, psoriasis, and multiple have been isolated from the root and stem sclerosis (Cushman et al ., 2003). Total bark (Fish et al ., 1976). synthesis of podophyllotoxin is an expensive

______530 www.currentbiotica.com Current Biotica 5(4): 522-540, 2012 ISSN 0973-4031 process and availability of the compound nutritional analysis, only nimbocinol and from natural resources (Podophyllum spp azadiradione reduced the efficiency of and Juniperus virginiana ) is an important conversion of ingested food (ECI) in feeding issue for pharmaceutical companies that experiments, indicating toxicity rather than manufacture these drugs (Canel et al ., antifeedant effects (Koul et al ., 2004). 2000). Azadirachtin-A (Aza-A) was Plant/ plant products for pest management subjected to a variety of synthetic transformations and the antifeedant activity The effect of hexane extract of neem and toxicity of the azadirachtin derivatives seed kernel on the growth and reproductive were assessed against second instar larvae S. performance of S. litura was assessed by litura on castor leaves in comparison with feeding various doses of the extract to 1st- the crude material. A probable mechanism or 2nd-instar larvae. Significantly more for the base initiated fragmentation of the mortality was observed in the larval period diketocarbonate into a decalin fragment and than in the pre-pupal and pupal stages (Kaur a spiroketal moiety has been proposed. A et al ., 2001). combination of insect toxicity and antifeedancy of azadirachtin provides good The toxicity of neem formulations crop protection (Deota et al ., 2005). viz., Bioneem, Nimbicidine, Neemarin and Neemazal to S. litura infesting tobacco was The efficacy of neem and mustard determined under laboratory conditions. cakes as organic amendment, Econeem Larval mortality after 72 h of application of (neem formulation) as seed treatment and Neemarin at 1.5% resulted in the highest carbofuran as soil treatment was tested larval mortality followed by Neemazal, against M. incognita infesting lettuce. Neem Econeem, Bioneem and Nimbicidine. and mustard cakes and Eco neem when used Neemarin and Neemazal at all tested either singly or in combination with concentrations reduced pupation, whereas carbofuran at 10 and 20 mg/kg soil Econeem completely suppressed pupation, improved growth of lettuce and significantly resulting in half larvae and half pupae. decreased root galling, fecundity and final Application of Neemarin resulted in the nematode population (Pathak et al ., 2004). excretion by the larvae of greenish fluid and shrinking of the larvae. Bioneem and Nimbicidine application resulted in Nutritional, socio-economic and ecological deformed and under weight pupae, and values of entomophagy reduced longevity of males (Kumar et al., 2003). Entomophagy, is the habit of eating insects as food. Insects are traditional foods The biological activity of in some cultures in many parts of the world azadirachtin, nimbocinol, azadiradione and including Central and South America, salannin isolated from A. indica was Africa, Asia and Australia, but uncommon assessed alone and in combination against and even taboo in some societies. It is an age the cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera old practice and a well accepted socio- and cluster caterpillar, S. litura . cultural attribute among the local inhabitants Azadirachtin was the most active neem in various parts of India especially northeast allelochemical against both insect species. In India. Most of the edible insects are pests

______531 www.currentbiotica.com Current Biotica 5(4): 522-540, 2012 ISSN 0973-4031 and also have high nutritional qualities as efficient as pigs and broiler chicks, four constitute an important part of their daily times that of sheep, and six times higher diet. Research studies of the past and present than steers when losses in carcass trim and proved that edible insects are a good protein dressing percentage are counted. Protein supplement in the diet. Earlier studies production for human consumption would indicated that insects generally have higher be more effective and cost fewer resources food conversion efficiency than more than protein (Capineral, 2004). traditional meats. Need for linking entomophagy with food The nutritional analysis of some of security system and conservation the edible insects, such as Locusts (Schistocerca gregaria ) and crickets ( Acheta In a recent International workshop domesticus and Anabrus simplex ) proved sponsored by United Nations Food and this point (Das, 1945, Finke et al ., 1989). Agriculture Organisation on “Forest Insects The social, economic and nutritional value as Food: Humans Bite Back” covered three of edible insects is often overlooked. Over main themes: (1) edible forest insects as a 1,500 species of edible insects have been natural resource, (2) models of sustainable recorded in 300 ethnic groups from 113 insect management for food and other countries. In some ethnic groups, insects products, and (3) development potential for provide 5–10% of annual protein input as edible forest insects. It identified that there well as fats, calories, vitamins and minerals are major knowledge gaps in our (MacEvilly, 2000). The nutritional value of information on the extent of entomophagy fourteen species of edible insects in and was also considered a matter of high southwestern Nigeria, it was concluded that priority for documentation of indigenous because of the high nutritive value and knowledge. There are examples of ubiquitous presence, insects present a sustainable harvesting of edible insects potential sustainable food source for humans based on traditional ecological knowledge, (Banjo et al ., 2006). Eighty-three (83) edible such as the harvesting of maja and species are listed for the Eucadar, none of Gonimbrasia zambesina caterpillars by the them are a main dish but many of the insects Bisa people of northern Zambia (Mbata et are used to complement other animal protein al ., 2002). Edible insects provide an sources in the diet. The most common edible opportunity for insect conservation by insects belong to the orders Coleoptera and combining food security and forest Hymenoptera, which are consumed either in conservation issues (Vantomme et al ., 2004, the larval or adult stage (Onore, 1997). Senthilkumar et al ., 2008). In Mexico, the Similarly, in Thailand, over 50 species of grasshopper Sphenarium purpurascens is insects are edible and consumed throughout collected for sale as food, but it is also the year. The most popular are silk worm controlled by organophosphorous pupae, bamboo worms, locusts, beetles, insecticides. The effectiveness of control crickets, red ants, and other insects (Yhoung through the manual harvesting of this et al ., 1997). Insects generally have higher species was compared to chemical control. food conversion efficiency than more Although harvesting was less effective than traditional meats. When reared at 30°C or the insecticides, it still significantly reduced more, and fed a diet of equal quality to the numbers of the grasshopper and it generated diet used to rear conventional livestock, additional income source, reduced house crickets show a food conversion twice insecticide cost, and reduced chemical

______532 www.currentbiotica.com Current Biotica 5(4): 522-540, 2012 ISSN 0973-4031 runoff and contamination (Cerritosa et al ., commercial value as food and feed for live 2008). Wild harvest of insect pests in stock specially chicken and availability on established crop or horticultural systems demand in a sustainable manner. On a long may be more practical (Banjo et al ., 2006). run this may serve the twin purpose of insect Therefore, there is an urgent need to assess (natural resource) use as food (food products insect biodiversity as a whole and the role of and feed) and conservation. ethno-entomophagy in particular in conserving this valuable natural resource Like plants, insects also possess and the local traditional knowledge for medicinal properties that can be exploited posterity. It is also suggested that there is a for the benefits of human beings. Ample good scope to exploit this socio-cultural information is available on entomophagy attribute in finding ways to tackle the (use of insects as food). The use of insects as increased pest incidences as a consequence food by three tribes namely, Bodo, Dimasa of global climate change in the fragile and Sonowal Kachari in different parts of tropical forest ecosystems here and Assam and the use of nearly about eight elsewhere in the world under similar species of insects as food and medicine ecosystems. Mass collection of pest insects among the various tribes in the State of may not be for food but rather for Manipur in northeastern India have been production of food supplements or feed for studied earlier. A glimpse of this information livestock and also helps in maintaining is presented below in Table 2 (Senthilkumar healthy environment. There is also a scope et al ., 2008). to make an effort to increase their

______533 www.currentbiotica.com Current Biotica 5(4): 522-540, 2012 ISSN 0973-4031

Table 2: List of insects and their medicinal uses

Order and Stage of the S.No Insect used Medicinal uses family insect 1 Xysterocera globosa Oliv Coleoptera Larvae Antiseptic Cerambycidae 2 Balaninus c-album Heller Coleoptera Larvae Respiratory disorders Curculionidae 3 Cimex lectularis L. Hemiptera Adults Epilepsy, piles, Urinary Cimicidae disorder, snake bite and hair growth. Headaches, constipation, ulcers, arthritis to baldness 4 Hieroglyphus banian Orthoptera Nymphs and Liver disorders Fabricious Acrididae adults 5 Xylotrupes gideon Linn Coleoptera Larvae Scrofula and ulcer Scarabaeidae 6 Blatta orientalis Dictyoptera Adults Asthma and tuberculosis Linnaeus Blattidae 7 Acridium (= Agridium) Orthoptera Nymphs and Protein supplement malanocorne Linn. Acrididae adults 8 Zonabris pustulata L Coleoptera Larvae Problems in urino genital Meloidae system 9 Cyclopelta siccifolia Hemiptera Adult Paralysis Westw . Pentatomidae Parasitized by For infantile convulsions, 10 Pellis cicadae Fabricius Homoptera the fungus tetany and tetanus Cicadilidae Cordyceps soboliferea 11 Xylocopa violacea Hymenoptera By stings Arthritis (Linnaeus) Apidae 12 Vespa orientalis Linn Hymenoptera Larvae Arthritis Vespidae 13 Odontotermes feae Isoptera Adults Anemia and Weakness Wasmann. Odontotermitidae 14 Macrotermes gilvus Isoptera Nymphs Anemia and Weakness Hagen . Termitidae 15 Aeschna petalura Odonata Nymphs Anemia and Weakness Martein Aeschnidae 16 Antheraea assama Pupa Impotence Westw. 17 Pericyma cruegri Lepidoptera Stomach disorder Pupa (Butler) Noctuidae Stomach disorder Pupa 18 Antheraea roylei Moore Lepidoptera Spleen and stomach disorders Egg, 19 Apis mellifera Linn. Saturniidae larva, Hymenoptera pupa Apidae ______534 www.currentbiotica.com Current Biotica 5(4): 522-540, 2012 ISSN 0973-4031

CONCLUSION strongly cytotoxic 5,6- dihydroxyindole from Rhaphidophora korthalsii was isolated Forest products other than wood by bioassay guided fractionation. (minor forest products) such as food products (fruits, oil producing seeds, honey, In India Alocacia indica Sch ., mushrooms), fibers (bamboo, rattan), Asparagus officinalis DC., Chlorophytum rubber, gums, resins, waxes, tannins and comosum Linn ., Cordia myxa Roxb. , pharmaceutical and cosmetic and specialty Eulophia Ochreata Lindl., Momordica products also have a substantial contribution dioicia Roxb. , Portulaca oleracia Linn. and towards the economy of the world. In the Solanum indicum Linn. are the major future, biologically active plant derived sources of phenolic compounds in the chemicals can be expected to play an human diet having antioxidant property. increasingly significant role in commercial development of new products for regulating Bioprospecting has been an plant growth, insect and weed control, and important phenomenon of discovering new as drug entities and model compounds for products, over 800 plant species are drug synthesis. currently in use by the Indian herbal industry alone. Even though pharmaceutical Phytochemicals from wild plants firms and scientists are to continue to find remain the crucial source of lead for drug useful application of compounds from discovery. In spite of the ongoing debate nature, their research methods and regarding the fruitfulness of bioprospecting, application have changed. The economic a large number of firms such as Merck, value of the resources are enormous and Novartis, Glaxo, Sankyo, and Smith Kline benefiting not only the pharmaceutical Beecham are investing considerable amount company but also the host country and of resources in the search for drugs, indigenous people. With advancement in pesticides and related processes of study and molecular biology and availability of further demonstrating that the sophisticated diagnostic tools for screening, bioprospecting potential of biodiversity is it has become pretty effective for substantial. In its early stage, various forms pharmaceutical firms to conduct research of biodiversity like insects, algae and through bioprospecting. Discovery of microorganisms of different ecosystems several life saving drugs including anti- (e.g. grassland and marine) have been neoplastic, anti HIV and anti AIDS drugs in explored with considerable success. In recent past has renewed the interest of recent years, prospecting largely centered on pharmaceutical industries in bioprospecting. plants from the forest ecosystem. Flora Bioprospecting collaborations between especially forest flora found in nature has pharmaceutical companies and countries been in use for pharmaceutical and supplying raw materials offer not only the phytoceuticals purposes in different parts of revenue source but also opportunities for the world for centuries. Plants from the society for better education and employment family Annonaceae provide many cytotoxic avenues. and insecticidal compounds such as styrylpyrone derivatives, acetogenins and Therefore, future India’s aporphine derivatives. From among the bioprospecting research should focus on the folklore plants, vaguely referred to as for discovery of novel natural products possess treatment of neoplastic conditions, the antioxidant properties which will increase

______535 www.currentbiotica.com Current Biotica 5(4): 522-540, 2012 ISSN 0973-4031 the potential discovery of viable compounds activities. J. Med. Chem 41: 894– for use in therapeutics from renewable forest 901. resources in partnership between academia and industry. We hope, this provides Boakye-Yiadom K N Fiagbe Ayim S 1977 information from such disparate scientific Antimicrobial properties of some fields as forestry, medicine, botany, and West African medicinal plants IV. economics to determine the economic Antimicrobial activity of xylopic potential of bioprospecting in India. The acid and other constituents of the cross-pollination of such knowledge will fruits of Xylopia aethiopica advance scientific awareness of (Annonaceae). Lloydia 40(6): 543– bioprospecting and provide several key 545. economic benefits. Canel C Dayan F E Ganzera M Rimando A Burandt C Khan I and Moraes R M REFERENCES 2001 High yield of podophyllotoxin from leaves of Podophyllum Adepoju A A and Salau A 2007 Sheu peltatum by in situ conversion of Economic valuation of Non-Timber podophylotoxin 4-O-8 -D Forest Products (NTFPs), Munich glucopyranoside. Planta Medica 67: Personal RePEc Archive, Paper No. 97–99. 2689. Canel C Moraes R M Dayan F E and Banjo A D Lawal O A . and Songonuga E A Ferreira D 2000 Molecules of 2006 The nutritional value of interest ‘podophyllotoxin’. fourteen species of edible insects in Phytochemistry 54: 115–120. southwestern Nigeria. African Journal of Biotechnology l5: 298- Capinera J L (editor) 2004 Encyclopedia of 301. Entomology.. Kluwer Academic Press, Dordrecht, The Netherlands. Beutner K R 1996 Podophyllotoxin in the 1-3, pp.2580. treatment of genital warts. In Sexually Transmitted Diseases: Cerritosa R and Cano-Santana C 2008 Advances and Treatment (E.P. Harvesting grasshoppers Sphenarium Eischmann ed.) 24: 112–232. purpurascens in Mexico for human consumption: a comparison with Bierer D D Fort C Mendez J Luo P Imbach insecticidal control for managing L Dubenko S Jolad R Gerber J pest outbreaks. Crop Prot 27 473– Litvak Q Lu P Zhang M Reed N 480. Waldeck R Bruening B Noamesi R Hector T Carlson and King S 1998 CHEMEXCIL 1992 Basic Chemicals, Ethnobotanical- directed discovery Pharmaceutical and Cosmetic Export of the antihyperglycemic properties Promotion Council Bombay India. of cryptolepine: Its isolation from Cryptolepis sanguinolenta , synthesis, and in vitro and and in vivo

______536 www.currentbiotica.com Current Biotica 5(4): 522-540, 2012 ISSN 0973-4031

Cragg G M Newman D J and Sander K M species when fed to rats. Journal of 1997 Natural Products in Drug Nutrition 119: 864-871. Discovery and Development. J. Nat prod 60: 52-60. Fish F I Meshal and Waterman P 1976 Minor alkaloids of Araliopsis Cragg G M Schepartz S A Suffness M and tabouensis . Planta Med 29: 310– Grever M R 1993 The taxol supply 317. crisis. New NCI policies for handling the large-scale production of novel Foster S 1993 Medicinal plant conservation natural product anticancer and anti- and genetic resources: Examples HIV agents. J. Nat. Prod 56: 1657- from the temperate Northern 1668. hemisphere. Acta Hort 330: 67–73.

Cushman K E Maqbool M Gerard P D Bedir Garg S N Siddiqui M S and Agarwal S K E Lata H and Moraes R M 2003 1995 P-menth-1-en-3beta,5beta-diol, Variation of podophyllotoxin in a new constituent of Aegle marmelos leaves of Eastern Red Cedar leaf oil. Journal Essential Oil (Juniperus virginiana). Planta Med Research 7 (3): 283-286. 69(5): 477-8. Grifo F Newman D Fairfield A S Das S 1945 Locust as food and manure. Bhattacharya B and Grupenhoff J T Indian Farming 6: 412. 1997 Chapter 6: The Origins of Prescription Drugs. In Biodiversity Deen, Y and Hussain H 1991 Screening for and Human Health , (Grifo, F. and J. antimicrobial activity and for Rosenthal Eds.), Washington, D.C., alkaloids of Nauclea latifolia . J. U.S.A.: Island Press, pp. 131-163. Ethnopharmacol 35: 91–96. Imbert T F 1998 Discovery of Deota P T and Upadhyay P R 2005 podophyllotoxins. Biochimie 80: Biological studies of azadirachtin 207–222. and its derivatives against polyphagous pest, Spodoptera litura . Inamdar A De Jode H Lindsay K and Cobb Natural-Product-Research 19(5): S 1999 Capitalizing on nature: 529-539. Protected area management. Science 283: 1856–1857. Dymock W C J Warden H and David H 1890 A history of principal drugs of Irvine F R 1961 The woody plants of Ghana. vegetable origin met within British Oxford University Press, London. India. Pharmocographica indica 1: pp.868. 277-279. Iwu M M 1993 Handbook of African Finke M D DeFoliart G R and Benevenga N Medicinal Plants. CRC Press inc, J 1989 Use of a four- parameter Florida. logistic model to evaluate the quality of the protein from three insect

______537 www.currentbiotica.com Current Biotica 5(4): 522-540, 2012 ISSN 0973-4031

Kala C P Dhyani P P and Saswan B S 2006 early rheumatoid arthritis. Developing the medicinal plants Rheumatology (Oxford) 39: 316. sector in northern India: Challenges and opportunities. J. Ethnobiol. MacEvilly C 2000 Bugs in the system. Ethnomed 2: 1-15. Nutrition Bulletin 25: 267–268.

Kaur J J Rao D K Sehgal S S and Seth R Mbata K J Chidumayo E N and Lwatula C K 2001 Effect of hexane extract of M 2002 Traditional regulation of neem seed kernel on development edible caterpillar exploitation in the and reproductive behaviour of Kopa area of Mpika district in Spodoptera litura (Fabr.). Annals-of- northern Zambia. Journal of Insect Plant-Protection-Sciences 9(2): 171- Conservation 6: 115–130. 178. Mishra N Acharya R Gupta A P Singh B Kirtikar K R and Basu B D 1935 Indian Kaul V K and Ahuja P S 2005 A Medicinal plants. Vol. III, 2nd. ed. simple microanalytical technique for Basu, L.M., Alluhadad, India. pp. determination of podophyllotoxin in 1593- 2393. Podophyllum hexandrum roots by quantitative RP–HPLC and RP– Koul O Multani J S Goomber S Daniewski HPTLC. Current Science 88 (9): W M and Berlozecki S 2004 1372-1373. Activity of some nonazadirachtin limonoids from Azadirachta indica Moraes R M Bedir E Barrett H Burandt Jr C against lepidopteran larvae. Canel C and Khan I A 2002 Australian-Journal-of-Entomology Evaluation of Podophyllum peltatum 43(2): 189-195. accession for podophyllotoxin production. Planta Med 68: 341– Kumar R Mohan K and Upadhyay K D 2003 344. Toxic effect of some commercial neem formulations against tobacco Nadkarni A K 1976 Indian Materia Medica caterpillar, Spodoptera litura Fabr. 3rd ed., Popular Press Ltd., Mumbai, Farm-Science-Journal 12(1): 50-51. India, pp. 1308–1315.

Lamidi M Ollivier E Faure R Debrauwer L Ohashi K Watanabe H Okumura Y Uji T Nze-Ekekang L and Balansard G and Kitagawa I 1994 Indonesian 1995 Quinovic acid glycosides from medicinal plants. XII. Four isomeric Nauclea diderichii . Planta Med 61: lignan-glucosides from the bark of 280–281. Aegle marmelos (Rutaceae). Chemical and Pharmaceutical Leander K and Rosen B 1988 Medicinal Bulletin 42 (9): 1924-1926. uses for podophyllotoxin. U.S. patent, 4: 788, 216. Onore G 1997 A brief note on edible insects in Ecuador. Ecology of Food and Lerndal T and Svensson B 2000 A clinical Nutrition 36: 277-285. study of CPH 82 vs. methotrexate in

______538 www.currentbiotica.com Current Biotica 5(4): 522-540, 2012 ISSN 0973-4031

Pathak K N and Kumar M 2004 Eco- Senthilkumar N Nizara D Barthakur and friendly management of Lokeswara Rao M 2008 Meloidogyne incognita infecting Bioprospecting with reference to lettuce, Lactuca sativa Linn . Annals- Medicinal insects and tribes in India, of-Plant-Protection-Sciences 12(2) An overview. Indian Forester 134 373-376. (12): 1575 – 1591.

Pitre S and Srivastava S K 1987 Shiva M P 1996 Inventory of forestry Pharmacological, microbiological resources for sustainable and phytochemical studies on roots management and biodiversity of Aegle marmelos . Fitoterapia 58 conservation. Indus publishing (3): 194-197. company, New Delhi.

Prajapati N D Purohit S Sharma A K and Shweta S and Narender T 2005 Isolation, 13 Kumar T A 2003 Handbook of –C NMR and chemical medicinal plants. Agrobios Jodhpur. transformation of alkaloidal amides of Aegle marmelos . Chemistry, Pugh N Khan I Moraes R M and Pasco D Biology Interface : Synergistic New 2001 Podophyllotoxin lignans Frontiers, New Delhi, pp. 25-26. enhace Il- 1b but suppress TNF-a mRNA expression in LPS-treated Silva O Duarte A Cabrita J Pimentel M monocytes. Immunopharmacol. Diniz A and Gomes E 1996. Immunotoxicol 23: 83–95. Antimicrobial activity of Guinea- Bissau traditional remedies. J. Rao M R Palada M C and Becker B N 2004 Ethnopharmacol 50: 55–59. Medicinal and aromatic plants in agro-forestry systems. Agrofor Sys Smith G Clegg M Keen C and Grivetti L 61: 107-122. 1996 Mineral values of selected plant foods common to southern Reid W V Laird S A Gamez R Sittenfield A Burkina Faso and to Niamey, Niger, Janzen D H Gollin M G and Juma C West Africa. International J. Food 1993 Biodiversity prospecting: Sci. Nutr 47: 41–53. Using genetic resources for sustainable development, In A new Stähelin H F and Von Wartburg A V 1991 lease on life, (Reid,W.V., Laird, The chemical and biological route S.A., Gamez,R., Sittenfield, A., form podophyllotoxin glucoside to Janzen,D.H., Gollin, M.G. and Juma, etoposide: 9th Cain Memorial Award C. eds.), World resources, USA. Lecture. Cancer Res 51: 5–15.

Sawer I Berry M Brown M and Ford J 1995 Strobel G A 2002 Microbial gifts from rain The effect of Cryptolepine on the forests. Canadian Journal of Plant morphology and survival of Pathology 24(1): 14-20. Eschericia coli , Candida albicans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae . J. Appl. Bacteriol 79: 314–321.

______539 www.currentbiotica.com Current Biotica 5(4): 522-540, 2012 ISSN 0973-4031

Vantomme P Go¨hler D N’Deckere-Ziangba Yhoung- Aree J Puwastien P P and Attig G F 2004 Contribution of forest insects A 1997 Edible insects in Thailand: to food security and forest an unconventional protein source? conservation: the example of Ecology of Food and Nutrition 36: caterpillars in Central Africa. ODI 133-149. Wildl Policy Brief 3: 1–4. [MS received 26 November 2011; MS accepted 20 March 2012]

Disclaimer: Statements, information, scientific names, spellings, inferences, products, style, etc. mentioned in Current Biotica are attributed to the authors and do in no way imply endorsement/concurrence by Current Biotica . Queries related to articles should be directed to authors and not to editorial board.

______540 www.currentbiotica.com