Review Article ISSN: 2277-8713 Ogbonna JDN , IJPRBS, 2013; Volume 2(1 ): 148-167 IJPRBS

EVALUATION OF SIX HERBAL USED IN THE TREATMENT OF MA LARIA IN SOUTH -EASTERN NIGERIA: A REVIEW.

OGBONNA JDN¹*, INYA -AGHA SI 3, KENECHUKWU FC 1, MOMOH MA 1, CHIME SA 2, ATTAMA AA 1

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1. Drug Delivery Research Unit, Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, 410001, Enugu State, Nigeria. 2. Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Industrial Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, 410001, Enugu State, Nigeria. 3. Department of Pharmacognosy and Environmental Medicine, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, 410001, Enugu State, Nigeria.

Abstract Accepted Date:

30/01/2013 The work was aimed at review ing six herbal plants used in treating malaria in South-Eastern, Nigeria. Malaria caused by Publish Date: parasite of the genus Plasmodium , is one of the leading 27/02/2013 infectious diseases in many tropical regions, including Nigeria Keywords where transmission occurs all year round. Th e high cost of malaria treatment has left poor masses of Nigeria heavily reliant Malaria, on traditional practitioners and medicinal plants as remedies Picralima nitida, Terminalia catappa, against fever and other symptoms of malaria. The use of some Newbouldia laevis, herbs in South-Eastern, Nigeria was x-rayed in this review work boonei, and the methods of their formulations were extensively Plasmodium falciparum. discussed. It was ascertained from other works carried out that in some cases the herbal remedies were more potent than Corresponding Author orthodox medicines when administered for malaria treatment. Mr. Ogbonna JDN

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Review Article ISSN: 2277-8713 Ogbonna JDN, IJPRBS, 2013; Volume 2(1): 148-167 IJPRBS INTRODUCTION alternative therapy in order to combat the

Medical treatment has shifted to being less scourge. This need has further been invasive and more prophylactic and highlighted by the current recommendation alternative sources for new therapeutic of artemisinin (a product) based molecules are being investigated (Yoko and combination therapies. Artemisinin, Hideki, 2004). Clinical studies of herbal obtained from Artemisia annua , and medicine as complementary and alternative quinine, obtained from Cinchona species, medicine (CAM) have been re-evaluated are proven instances of compounds derived and demonstrate supportive evidence for from plants with anti-malarial potential. their empirical efficacy (Pitter and Ernst, Plant preparations have a very special 2000; Akase et al, 2003; Xu et al, 2003). The characteristic that distinguishes them from herbal drug preparation in its entirety is chemical drugs: a single plant may contain a regarded as the active substance and the great number of bioactive phytocompounds constituents are either of known and a combination of plants even more. therapeutic activity or are chemically This complexity is one of the most defined substances or group of substances important challenges to phytoscientists generally accepted to contribute attempting to identify a single bioactive substantially to the therapeutic activity of phytocompound or chemical group in the the drug (Wickramasinghe, 2006). Malaria enormous universe that comprise single has continued to cause deaths and ill health crude extract (Ricardo, 2006). Many plant on a large scale, especially among the highly genera were found to be used either as vulnerable groups, young children and alone or in combination with each other for pregnant women in tropical countries. In the treatment of malaria. Malaria is an Africa, it causes more than one million infectious disease caused by a parasite deaths every year, and in Nigeria, the transmitted to humans by mosquitoes. infection rate has been described as Plasmodium falciparum causes malaria with holoendemic, with more than 75 per cent of immense public health and economic children aged between five and nine years problems in most developing countries and infected (Sade, 2010) and there is need for for many years these problems have been

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Review Article ISSN: 2277-8713 Ogbonna JDN, IJPRBS, 2013; Volume 2(1): 148-167 IJPRBS intensified by the emergence and spread of the developing economies where poorest of resistance to the currently available poor do not have access to unaffordable antimalarial drugs. Herbs for malaria work costly treatment (Amit et al, 2009).Ideally, in diverse ways. Some contain chemicals new drugs for uncomplicated P. falciparum that interact with your immune system to malaria should be efficacious against drug- kill the Plasmodium parasite. Malaria was resistant strains, provide cure within a ranked the 8th highest contributor to the reasonable time (ideally three days or less) disability adjusted life years (DALY) leading to ensure good compliance, be safe, be to almost 3 % of DALY globally (WHO, suitable for small children and pregnant 2002). This pandemic affects poorest of women, have appropriate formulations for population residing in 107 countries (Hay et oral use and above all, be affordable al, 2004). Clinical manifestations can include (Ridley, 2002; Nwaka and Ridley, 2003). fever, chills, prostration and anaemia. However, Nigerian researchers have also Severe disease can include delirium, developed herbal cures for malaria that can metabolic acidosis, cerebral malaria and take care of resistant strains. They have multi-organ system failure, coma and death produced potent anti-malaria cocktails from may ensue. Blood-stage infection also local plants. This may possibly explain the generates sexual-stage parasites reported use of both together with (gametocytes) that are infectious for other plant parts by herbalists for malaria mosquitoes, leading to fertilization and treatment in Nigeria. According to (Uhegbu genetic recombination in the mosquito et al, 2009) on Comparative Anti-malarial midgut. This is followed by production of effects of Sulphadoxine/Pyrimethamine (SP) haploid sporozoite forms that invade the and aqueous extracts of Carica Papaya, salivary glands and are subsequently Magnifera Indica in Mice there were transmitted back to humans (David et al, consistency with reported anti-malarial 2004). The torment due to morbidity, activity of these plants.. According to debility and loss of productive man hours is (Oparaocha and Okorie, 2009) aqueous colossal. Vicious cycle of malaria and extracts of the stem bark, fruit pericarp, poverty continues in its most severe form in seeds and leaves of Pentaclethra

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Review Article ISSN: 2277-8713 Ogbonna JDN, IJPRBS, 2013; Volume 2(1): 148-167 IJPRBS macrophylla Benth.; the leaves of or dipped with a cloth and wringed out and Phyllanthus niruri L and the leaves of thereafter applied to the affected part(s) of Euphorbia hirta L. were tested for anti- the body externally especially in swollen plasmodial activity using albino mice. These and inflammatory conditions). (e) Powders studies inferred that extracts of these herbs (barks of woody trees, roots, berries, can be used by local communities of South leaves, seeds of plant are ground to fine Eastern Nigeria to treat malaria. Modern powders or triturate which in turn are Herbalists have several ways of preparing dissolved into hot or cold water, cream, their herbal therapies before dispensing corn-pap, hot gin, soup, lime juice, honey, them to patients. grape juice and shea-butter). The powders are also licked whole and can be placed on These methods are: (a) Decoction (in this open sores to enhance healing. This system approach parts of medicinal plants (leaves, has a wide range of uses in natural medical barks, roots, flowers, seeds etc) are boiled therapeutics). together in water for some minutes and allowed to steep for sometimes before Resistance to anti-malarial drugs is caused filtering). The mixture is administered orally by the ability of the parasite to survive or or for bathing a patient especially in febrile multiply in the presence of the anti-malarial conditions. (b) Infusion (the aerial parts of drug concentrations that normally destroy medicinal plants – flowers, stem, barks etc the parasite or control their multiplication are normally extracted through infusion (WHO, 2005). The resistance to older and with water), here the herbs are not boiled affordable anti-malarial drugs has been but a boiled water is poured into these implicated as the key factor leading to the herbs and covered for some minutes in increasing rate of morbidity and mortality form of tea and is taken orally. (c) Tinctures from malaria (WHO, 2003a). Quality control (it is a system whereby alcoholic solution of herbal drugs has traditionally been based like hot gin is used to extract the active on appearance and today microscopic ingredient or properties or properties of evaluation is indispensable in the initial medicinal herbs). (d) Fermentation (herbs identification of herbs as well as in prepared by infusion or decoction is soaked identifying small fragments of crude or

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Review Article ISSN: 2277-8713 Ogbonna JDN, IJPRBS, 2013; Volume 2(1): 148-167 IJPRBS powdered herbs and detection of foreign methods are able to yield quantitative matters and adulterants. A primary visual results by determining growth inhibition evaluation, which seldom needs more than indices, minimal inhibitory concentrations, a simple magnifying lens, can be used to or minimal lethal concentrations (Kalemba ensure that the plant is of the required and Kunicka, 2003). Antiprotozoal screening species and that the right part of the plant has been carried out using methods is being used. At other times, microscopic analogous to those used for antibacterial analysis is needed to determine the correct assessment. Typically, Plasmodium species and/or that the correct part of the falciparun berghi , Entamoeba histolytica or species is present. Animal matters such as Giardia lamblia trophozoites are inoculated insects and invisible microbial contaminants into test-tubes containing medicinal plant which can produce toxins are also among extracts. After incubation, samples of the the potential contaminants of herbal tubes are taken and tested for cell viability medicines ((WHO, 2003b); WHO, 2004; using trypan blue dye exclusion or EMEA, 2002)]. Macroscopic examination tetrazolium salt metabolism assay methods can easily be employed to determine the (Meckes et al, 1999). presence of foreign matter, although Herbs are still marketed without sufficient microscopy is indispensable in certain research but evidence must always be special cases (for example, starch shown to consumers to support claims of deliberately added to “dilute” the plant products (Moundipa et al, 2005; Ziesel, material). Furthermore, when foreign 1999; Petrovick et al, 1999). More clinical matter consists, for example, of a chemical studies are needed and doctors, along with residue, Thin Layer Chromotography is other health professionals, should work often needed to detect the contaminants towards untangling this herbal maze. (WHO, 1998; WHO, 1999; AOAC, 2005). Standards should be developed for each Many plants have been used to treat or natural health product and the same prevent diseases and screening of extracts regulatory standards that apply to of these plants for activity is relatively manufactured pharmaceuticals should uncomplicated. Agar or broth dilution apply equally to herbal products as well.

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Review Article ISSN: 2277-8713 Ogbonna JDN, IJPRBS, 2013; Volume 2(1): 148-167 IJPRBS Unlike conventional drugs, herbal products component and involved a number of are not regulated for purity and potency complex procedural methods in their and this could cause adverse effects and preparation including some unhygienic drug interactions (Jowel, 1999). Herbal processes and cultural or religious rituals); manufacturing processes should be refined vagueness in therapeutic claims (in their in order to improve the purity, safety and eagerness to impress the users and the quality of products and the herbal industry general public, the traditional practitioner needs to follow strict guidelines as herbal often make sweeping claims about the products are now classified as medicines. effectiveness of their preparations). Also Manufacturers and producers tend to resist there is the problem of instability in the these laws because such laws will increase preparations; most of the preparations are cost, which will have to be passed on to prepared on requirement and are intended consumers and thus the appeal or herbal to be used within a short time, thus no drugs might then be lost. preservatives are normally used to improve keeping quality which makes their Just as retinopathy and hyperpigmentation standardization meaningless. of the retina are caused by chloroquine administration which is an orthodox Toxicity in herbal medicine may be due to medicine, herbal traditional medicines have (1) accidents due to a mistake in botanical a lot of criticisms. The problems associated identification, (2) accidental ingestion of with standardization are: secrecy of the cardiotonic plants, (3) inappropriate ingredients (in most cases, the ingredients combinations, including the use of of traditional medicine are not known as potentially toxic plants, (4) or plants that they are kept secret by their practitioner, interfere with conventional who is often uncooperative and guards his pharmacological therapy, such as plants recipe very closely); absence of legal control containing coumarinic derivatives, a high over production of herbal products (in the content of tyramine, estrogenic past there is no legal control over the compounds, plants causing irritation and production of drugs); the complex nature of allergic problems, plant containing the preparation (the preparations are multi- photosensitive compounds etc (Rates,

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Review Article ISSN: 2277-8713 Ogbonna JDN, IJPRBS, 2013; Volume 2(1): 148-167 IJPRBS 2001; Thomson, 2000; Stewart and Common names: Neem, margrose (E) Steenkamp, 2000; Wojcikowski et al, 2004; Nigerian names Goldman, 2001). Recent scientific research has demonstrated that many traditionally Igbo: Oguru akam, obisikeosiso used herbal medicines are potentially toxic Hausa: Dogo’nyaro and some are even mutagenic and carcinogenic (Shimmer et al, 1988; Yoruba: Aforo oyinbo Schimmer et al, 1994; De SaFerrira and Geographical distribution Vargas, 1999). It is found in every part of South-Eastern, ANTI-MALARIA PLANTS IN USE Nigeria. It exists in colonies and originated

Azadirachta indica from India.

Botanical description Description of plant It is a shady tree of about 25 m in height The name is derived from the Persian word and can reach up to 100 m high as shown in "azaddhirakt" which means "noble tree". Fig. 1. Neem tree is found in abundance in Kingdom: plantae tropical and semi-tropical regions. It has striped and dark brown fissured bark with a Division: magnoliophyta strong odour and characteristic bitter taste. Class: magniliopsida The leaves are pinnate or alternate in arrangement with ovoid fruit containing Order: sapindales one seed and yellow when ripe. The Family: meliaceae morphological parts used are the leaves, fruit, bark, root and seed. The season of Genus: azadirachta collection is usually wet and the plant is Species: azadirachta indica collected from cultivated or wild plant. The

Scientific/Botanical Name: Azadirachta condition of collection of the plant parts for indica use is usually fresh (leaves, barks) at any time of the day.

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Review Article ISSN: 2277-8713 Ogbonna JDN, IJPRBS, 2013; Volume 2(1): 148-167 IJPRBS Method of extraction and preparation of contents of the products (Su and Mulla, Neem 1998; WHO, 2003b). Neem-based products The tender parts of the branches are cut are relatively safe towards non-target biota, and the leaves with other parts are washed with only minimal risk of direct adverse thoroughly and put inside a pot (metal or effects on aquatic macro invertebrates clay) after the size must have been reduced resulting from contamination of water with knife. About 4 L of water are then bodies with neem-based insecticides added and the content boiled for about 30 (Kreutzweiser, 1997; Stark, 2001; Goektepe min. It is then allowed to cool for some time et al, 2004). In addition, the products are and filtration is done with a muslin cloth. less likely to induce resistance due to their The filtrate which is the drug product is multiple modes of action on insects (Mulla administered orally with a glass cup once and Su, 1999). Research on neem products three times daily, more water is added to for the control of arthropods of medical and continue extraction if the extracts reduces. veterinary importance has been ongoing for The drug extract can sometimes be used as some time and various studies have focused anti-inflammatory, anti-spasmodic and as on the culicine species Culex tarsalis and insecticidal agents. Other medical situations Culex quinquefaciatus (Mulla and Su, 1999; in which Neem can be used are liver Segar and Sehgal, 1996) , besides Aedes ailments, gastric ulcers, constipation, aegypti (Monzon et al, 1994; Boschitz and urinary tract conditions, fever, skin Grunewald, 1994; el-Shazly and el- problems etc. Sharnoubi, 2000). There have also been studies that assessed the larvicidal potential Neem products have been shown to exhibit of neem products on anophelines, notably a wide range of effects that are potentially Anopheles culicifacies , An. arabiensis , An. useful for malaria control and include gambiae and Anopheles stephensi (Ziba, antifeedancy (Tanaka et al, 1986), ovicidal 1995; Nathan et al, 2005). activity, insect growth regulation [WHO, 2003b; WHO, 2004) and repellency Alstonia boonei (Lucantoni et al, 2006). These effects are Botanical description frequently attributed to the azadirachtin

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Review Article ISSN: 2277-8713 Ogbonna JDN, IJPRBS, 2013; Volume 2(1): 148-167 IJPRBS Kingdom: plantae plant part (the fresh leaves) is usually done either in the morning or evening. Unranked: angiosperms Method of extraction and preparation of Unranked: Alstonia boonei Unranked: The fresh barks and leaves are cut with knife, washed thoroughly and put inside a Order: pot containing about 2 L of water. The pot Family: content is allowed to boil for 30 minutes and left to cool for 10 min after which the Genus: alstonia content of the pot is filtered using a muslin Species: boonei cloth. The drug filtrate is taken two glassfuls

Scientific/botanical name: Alstonia boonei three times daily in feverish conditions to treat malaria. Alstonia boonei also finds Common names: emien usage in the following ailments Nigeria names hypertension, fever, rheumatism, lactation stimulant, parasites, snakebite, arrow Igbo: Egbu poison etc. Geographical distribution Terminalia catappa The tree is widely distributed in every part of South-Eastern, Nigeria. Botanical description

Description of plant Kingdom: plantae The tree is of about 30 m tall. Fig. 2 showed Subkingdom: tracheobionta that it has broad leaves and the plant normally sheds the leaves during the dry Superdivision: spermatophyta season. The morphological parts used are Division: magnoliophyta always the bark and leaves. The plant part can either be collected in dry or wet season Class: magnoliopsida from the wild plant. The collection of the Subclass: rosidae

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Review Article ISSN: 2277-8713 Ogbonna JDN, IJPRBS, 2013; Volume 2(1): 148-167 IJPRBS Order: myrtales semi-deciduous tree of coastal areas throughout the warm tropics that grows Family: combretaceae best in moist tropical climates. The tree is Genus: terminalia L well adapted to sandy and rocky coasts and flourishes on oolitic limestone. The species Species: Terminalia catappa L. loses its leaves twice a year in most areas, Common name: Indian almond with a brilliant red-and-yellow display of leaf colour before doing so. The wig are Nigeria names young foliage velvety with hairy glabrous. Igbo: edo The fruit are fleshy and un-winged, having

Geographical distribution the usual type of . The The tree is popularly cultivated as a shady morphological parts used are fruits, hard plant in some homes in South-Eastern, edible nut and leaves. The plant parts are Nigeria. usually collected during wet season from the cultivated plant. The condition of Description of plant collection of the leaves is fresh mostly in Terminalia catappa is tall a deciduous and the night or morning. Apart from its use as erect tree reaching 15-25 m high, the trunk anti-malaria herbs, most homes use it as is 1.0 -1.5 m in diameter, often buttressed shady tree. at the base as shown in Fig. 3. Whorls of nearly horizontal, slightly ascending Method of extraction and preparation branches spaced 1-2 m apart in tiers or Terminalia catappa storey up the trunk. The pagoda-like habit The leaves of T. catappa contain many becomes less noticeable as the branches hydrolysable tannins, such as punicalagin, elongate and droop at the tips. Bark grey- punicalin, terflavins, A and B tergallagin, brown, rough with age. The leaves alternate tercatain, chebulagic acid, geraniin, granatin with short petioles, spirally clustered at the B, and corilagin, but no caffeine (Oparaocha branch tips, 15-36 cm long, 8-24 cm wide, and Okorie, 2009). The leaves are combined dark green above, paler beneath, leathery with other components of the plants and and glossy. T. catappa is a conspicuous, boiled. The contents are allowed inside the

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Review Article ISSN: 2277-8713 Ogbonna JDN, IJPRBS, 2013; Volume 2(1): 148-167 IJPRBS pot and glass cups are used to scoop the Common names: Pawpaw (E), Papayer (F) extract and administered orally once two Nigeria names times daily for malaria therapy. The leaves have many medicinal uses including Igbo: mabimabi, okworo-beke diaphoretic, anti-indigestion and anti- Urhobo: eto dysentery. An infusion of the young leaves or scraped bark is occasionally taken as a Geographical distribution portion for treating mouth infections in The tree is found everywhere in South- Tonga and Samoa and is used in the Cook Eastern, Nigeria. It originated from Central Islands to bathe fractures. Young leaves are America. used in the Philippines to cure headache Description of plant and colic. The bark is used as an astringent Papaya, Carica papaya L., is one of the in dysentery and thrush. major fruit crops cultivated in tropical and

Carica papaya sub-tropical zones. Worldwide over 6.8 Botanical description million tonnes (Mt) of fruit were produced in 2004 on about 389,990 Ha, of this Kingdom: plantae volume, 47 % was produced in Central and

Division: magnoliophyta South America (mainly in Brazil), 30 % in Asia and 20 % in Africa. Fig. 4 showed that Class: magniliopsida it is a shrub of about 4-5 m high with Order: brassicales swollen straight trunk and branches out without explicit design. Papaya is a fast- Family: caricaceae growing, semi-woody tropical herb. The Genus: carica stem is single, straight and hollow and contains prominent leaf scars. Papaya Species: papaya exhibits strong apical dominance rarely Scientific/botanical name: Carica papaya branching unless the apical meristem is removed or damaged. Palmately-lobed Family name: Caricaceae or Papayaceae leaves, usually large are arranged spirally.

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Review Article ISSN: 2277-8713 Ogbonna JDN, IJPRBS, 2013; Volume 2(1): 148-167 IJPRBS Carica papaya has remarkable foliar scars; mixture it is assumed that the extraction is the leaves for the most part are petiolated complete and boiling is stop instantly. From with extremely divided lamina. It is the content in the pot two glass cups are deocious with female feet having sessile on taken orally twice daily without filtration of the trunk and male stock with flowers the content to treat malaria. Carica papaya borne by large loose panicles. The fruits can still be used in the following sickness vary in size and colour, green when unripe hypertension, digestive problems, stomach but pulp yellow or red when ripe with a pain, diuretic, malaria, parasites etc. faintly aromatic odor and sweet taste. The The inhibition of â-lactamase activity by plant contains copious white latex. Fruit is Carica papaya (papain) has been berry, oblong ovate in shape, dark green demonstrated (Zhao et al, 2002; Cole, 1979; becoming yellowish on ripening with Yam et al, 1998). numerous seeds on parietal placenta. The epicarp is leathery and the mesocarp is The extracted product apart from being unidentified. The fruit is about 15-22 cm used in malaria therapy is used to treat long and 7-11 m broad. The morphological amoebicide, antihelmintics and as a parts used are fruits and leaves which are carminative in our local villages and towns. collected in rainy/wet season from the wild Papayas are susceptible to the papaya or cultivated plant. The collection of the ringspot virus, which causes premature fresh or dry leaves can be done at any time molting and malformation of the leaves of the day. (Ridley, 2002). Genetically altered plants that have some of the virus's DNA Method of extraction and preparation of incorporated into the DNA of the plant are Carica papaya resistant to the virus (Ridley, 2002). The The leaves are mixed with guava leaves, papaya is also susceptible to the fruit fly, a lime leaves and lemon grass. They are then small wasp-like insect that lays its eggs in put inside a pot and the mixture is boiled young fruit. though the leaves do not have to soften so Picralima nitida much. On noticing the coffee colour of the Botanical description

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Review Article ISSN: 2277-8713 Ogbonna JDN, IJPRBS, 2013; Volume 2(1): 148-167 IJPRBS Kingdom: plantae season of the year from the cultivated plant. The freshly parts are collected at any Division: not found time of the day for treatment of malaria Class: not found and sometimes used as antihypertensive medicine. Order: not found

Method of extraction and preparation of Family: apocynaceae Picralima nitida Genus: picralima The exudates of stems are collected and the fruit content is scooped out and the empty Species: nitida shell filled with palm wine. The wine will Common name(s): soak the shell and absorbed the bitter

Nigeria names principle inside the shell. The mixture formed after absorption is taken three Igbo: Osu-igwe times daily with a glassful of it to treat Yoruba: Erin malaria. Apart from malaria, it can also be used for hypertension, stomach pain, liver Geographical distribution problems, pneumonia, sleeping sickness, It is mostly found in Abakiliki and Calabar yellow fever etc. axis of the South-Eastern, Nigeria. A new indole alkaloid, picranitine, has been Description of plant isolated from the seeds of Picralima nitida , along with five known indole alkaloids It is a small bushy tree about 40 ft high with picratidine, akuammine, large glossy leatherly leaves, conspicuous pseudoakuammine, akuammicine and white flowers and large orange colored akuammidine previously identified from the fruits as depicted in Fig. 5. The wood is same source. A method of preparing yellowish and hard, the seed being substantially purified alkaloids from seeds, embedded in pulp. The parts used for stems, uit-rind and bark of a plant selected treatment are the leaves, seed, fruits and from Picralima nitida, for use in the barks which can be collected at every

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Review Article ISSN: 2277-8713 Ogbonna JDN, IJPRBS, 2013; Volume 2(1): 148-167 IJPRBS treatment of protozoal diseases (Xiamen, It is found around grooves and slurries. It is 2012). readily recognized by its twisted trunk, short branches and gnarled twigs. It usually Newbouldia laeves has toothed leaflets, purple and white Botanical description flowers as seen in Fig. 6. The tree is about 30 ft high of a full mature one. Kingdom: plantae Morphological parts for malaria treatment Division: not found are seeds and leaves which are collected in dry season usually January-February period. Class: not found It is most often collected in the morning Order: not found from cultivated and wild plants. Condition

Family: of collection before use is seed (dry) and leaves (fresh). Genus: newbouldia Method of extraction and preparation Species: laevis For stomach-ache and malaria; the leaves

Scientific/botanical name: Newbouldia are washed and given to the patient to laeves chew. The patient is later given a glassful of water to drink to wash down the leaves. Common name: not found For snakebite or scorpion bite; the leaves Nigeria names are plucked and squeezed to extract the Igbo: ogirisi/ari fluid content. The leaves are then used to scrub on the bite site (snake or scorpion) to Tiv: konkor relieve the pain. Efik: obat The study of the chemical constituents of Geographical distribution the roots of Newbouldia laevis It is found almost everywhere in secondary (Bignoniaceae) has resulted in the isolation forest of South-Eastern, Nigeria. and characterization of a naphthoquinone– anthraquinone coupled pigment named Description of plant

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Review Article ISSN: 2277-8713 Ogbonna JDN, IJPRBS, 2013; Volume 2(1): 148-167 IJPRBS newbouldiaquinone A whose antimalarial activity against P. falciparum in vitro shows moderate chemo suppression of parasitic growth and 14 other known compounds (apigenin, chrysoeriol, newbouldiaquinone, lapachol, 2-methylanthraquinone, 2- acetylfuro-1,4-naphthoquinone, 2,3- dimethoxy-1,4-benzoquinone, oleanolic Fig. 2. Diagram of Alstonia boonei plant acid, canthic acid, 2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)ethyl triacontanoate, newbouldiamide, 5,7- dihydroxydehydroiso-α-lapachone, β- sitosterol, and β-sitosterol glucopyranosid) (Kenneth et al, 2006).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are grateful to Mr Chijioke Onyeukwu of Department of Botany, University of Nigeria, Nsukka and Mr Ozioko Fig. 3. Diagram of Terminalia catappa tree of Bio-resources Conservation Research Centre, Aku Rd, Nsukka for the information provided on the plants used for the review work.

Fig . 4. Diagram of Carica papaya tree

Fig. 1. Diagram of Neem tree

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Review Article ISSN: 2277-8713 Ogbonna JDN, IJPRBS, 2013; Volume 2(1): 148-167 IJPRBS 3. Amit Kumar Banerjee, Neelima Arora & U.S.N. Murty. Structural model of the Plasmodium falciparum Thioredoxin reductase: a novel target for antimalarial drugs. J Vector Borne Dis.2009; 46: 171–183

4. Boschitz C, Grunewald J. The effect of Fig. 5. Diagram of P icralima nitida Neem Azal on Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae). Appl Parasitol. 1994; 35: 251- 256.

5. Cole, M. Inhibition of beta lactamases. (1979). In Beta Lacatamases, Hamilton- Miller, J.M.T., Smith, J.T. (2 nd ed). pp. 205– 290. Academic Press, London.

Fig. 6. Diagram of Newbouldia laevis 6. David A. Fidock, Philip J. Rosenthal, Simon L. Croft, Reto Brun and Solomon REFERENCES Nwaka .. antimalarial drug discovery: 1. AOAC. Official Methods of Analysis of efficacy models for compound screening. AOAC International, 18th edn. AOAC Drug discovery. 2004; 3: 509-520. International, Gaithersburg, MD, (2005). 7. De SaFerrira ICF, V.M. Ferrago Vargas : 2. Akase T, Akase T, Onodera S, Jobo T, Mutagenicity of medicinal plant extracts in. Matsushita R, Kaneto M and Tashiro S: A Salmonella/microsome assay. Phytotherapy comparative study of the usefulness of toki- Res. 1999 ; 13: 397 –400. shakuyaku-san and an oral iron preparation in the treatment of hypochromotic anaemia 8. El-Shazly MM, el-Sharnoubi ED: Toxicity in cases of uterine myoma. Yakugaku zasshi. of a neem ( Azadirachta indica ) insecticide 2003; 123:817-824. to certain aquatic organisms. J Egypt Soc Parasitol. 2000; 30: 221-231.

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