Quick viewing(Text Mode)

08 Habitat Degradation BS

08 Habitat Degradation BS

Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black : State of Knowledge and Conservation Strategies

SECTION 8

Cetacean Habitat Loss and Degradation in the Black

Alexei Birkun, Jr.

Laboratory of Ecology and Experimental Pathology, S.I. Georgievsky Crimean State Medical University, Lenin Boulevard 5/7, Simferopol, 95006, - [email protected]

To be cited as: Birkun A., Jr. 2002. Cetacean habitat loss and degradation in the . In: G. Notarbartolo di Sciara (Ed.), Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas: state of knowledge and conservation strategies. A report to the ACCOBAMS Secretariat, Monaco, February 2002. Section 8, 19 p.

A Report to the ACCOBAMS Interim Secretariat Monaco, February 2002 With the financial support of Coopération Internationale pour l’Environnement et le Développement, Principauté de Monaco Introduction kilometres. Thus, only about one quarter (24- 27%) of the sea area has a depth of less than 200 Early symptoms of progressive deterioration metres. The shelf is slightly inclined offshore; its of the Black Sea environment were recorded at relief is composed of underwater valleys, the end of the 1960s (Zaitsev 1999). During canyons and terraces originated due to sediment, subsequent decades, the ecological situation in abrasive and tectonic activities. The continental the steadily changed from bad to worse slope is tight and steep, descending in some (Mee 1992, 1998, Zaitsev and Mamaev 1997, places at an angle of 20-30º. Pelitic muds cover Zaitsev 1998), and it is only now that the timid the slope and the deep-sea depression, whereas gleams of hope appear, suggesting gradual bottom pebbles, gravel, sand, silt and rocks are reduction of the environmental distress and common for shelf area. Earthquake epicenters are partial recovery of the marine ecosystems recorded in the seabed and coastal area on (Zaitsev 1998, Mee and Topping 1999). No one numerous occasions. There are few small islands essential cause of the Black Sea crisis is known, in the Black Sea; the biggest one and the most instead manifold human activities in the sea, distant from the mainland is the Zmeiny isle coastal territories and in the Black Sea basin are (0.18 square kilometre) located 35 kilometres off identified. shore. The Crimean peninsula (27,000 square kilometres) protrudes into the sea from the north. At the northeastern corner, the Black Sea is Natural features of the Black Sea environment connected to the Sea of by the Strait of and ecosystem , which is 41 kilometres long, 4-15 kilometres wide and up to 18 metres deep at its Geographical and hydrological peculiarities of south entrance. Shallow penetrates the Black Sea and contiguous water bodies have deep inland in the central section of the eastern been reviewed repeatedly by authors belonging to strait's shore represented by the different scientific schools and disciplines (e.g. of the . The opposite coast of the strait Leonov 1960, Sorokin 1982, Vylkanov et al. is formed by the which is a 1983, Zaitsev and Mamaev 1997, Kerestecioglu constituent part of the Crimea. Sandy Tuzla et al. 1998, Readman et al. 1999). Despite island at the mouth of Taman bay cuts the Kerch numerous factual contradictions, their general Strait across almost in half and into north (Azov attitude on natural features of that maritime area Sea) and south (Black Sea) portions. could be briefly summarized as follows. The is about 340 kilometres long and 135 kilometres wide with a surface area of Geographical properties 37-39 thousand square kilometres and a volume of only 320 cubic kilometres. It is the world's The Bla ck Sea is one of the most isolated shallowest sea with a maximum depth of 13-14 inland seas in the world (Fig. 8.1). It is situated metres in places. The Azov's seafloor, covered by between southeastern and Minor and silt and sand, has a generally flat relief. The sea is has a surface area of 420-436 thousand square trapezoid in shape, forming at the northeast the kilometres and a volume of 537-555 thousand Gulf of , a 140-kilometre-long creek cubic kilometres of water. The average depth is with a depth of 0-7 metres. The Arabat , a between 1,240 and 1,315 metres, though it 112-kilometre-long sand bar, borders the sea at reaches a maximum of 2,212 metres. From east the west. A series of prominent sandy spits is to west the sea measures 1,175 kilometres, and situated on the north coast of the sea. Along the the widest distance from north to south is over shoreline of both the Black and Azov Seas, 610 kilometres. The total length of the coastline mainly on their north and west coasts and in the is about 4,020-4,340 kilometres. The seafloor is of rivers, there are many salty and represented by the shelf, continental slope and brackish lakes and (limans), which are deep-sea depression. The shelf is significantly permanently or occasionally connected with the wide (up to 200-250 kilometres) in the sea through canals and scours perforating the northwestern part of the sea with a depth varying spits. The Sivash Lake, located just to the west of from zero to 160 metres. In other coastal areas the and extending longitudinally the shelf strip has a similar depth, but across almost the entire west coast of the Azov considerably less width, from 0.5 to 50

Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – 8.2 Sea, is the largest of shallow puddles and marshy There are two counter currents in the Kerch inlets linked to the sea. Strait: the surface current flowing from the Azov In the southwest, the Black Sea is connected Sea to the Black Sea (22-95 cubic kilometres of to the (and thus the Dardanelles water per year), and the lower one moving in the Strait and the Mediterranean) by the Bosphorus reverse direction (29-70 cubic kilometres per Strait which is over 30 kilometres long, 750- year). The outflow of Black Sea water through 3,700 metres wide and 37-124 metres deep in the the Bosphorus (the surface current of 227-612 midstream. The Sea of Marmara is about 280 cubic kilometres per year) is approximately twice kilometres long and nearly 80 kilometres wide. It as large as the inflow from the Sea of Marmara has a surface area of 11-12 thousand square (the lower current of 123-312 cubic kilometres kilometres and an average depth of 494 metres, per year). The horizontal circulation of Black Sea reaching a maximum of 1,355 metres in the superficial waters could be roughly described as centre. The sea contains several islands forming the two major ring streams rotating counter- two groups. The largest island is Marmara (129 clockwise in the western and eastern parts of the square kilometres) located in front of the entrance basin with a velocity from eight to 18 centimetres to the Dardanelles. per second (Fig. 8.2). The smaller counter- Over 300 rivers flow into the Black and Azov clockwise currents are also peculiar to the Seas including the second, third and fourth major northwestern shelf area as well as to the Azov European rivers, namely the Danube, and Marmara Seas. The vertical circulation in the and . Some rivers (Danube, Don, , Black Sea is extremely slow – it takes hundreds Kizilirmak and Yeshilirmak) form deltas before of years for the waters at the surface to be their confluence with the sea. The Danube delta replaced by near-bottom waters from the deep- (approx 5,920 square kilometres) is the largest sea depression. Daily tidal oscillations in the wetland in the subregion. According to different Black Sea do not exceed several centimetres. estimations, the total catchment area of the Black Severe storms accompanied by waves up to 5-6 Sea comes to 1,875-2,500 metres high occur most often in winter season. thousand square kilometres covering partially or As a result of huge inflow from rivers, the entirely the territories of 22 countries (Fig. 8.1). mean salinity of the Black Sea (18‰, i.e. 18 grammes of solid ingredients per one kilogramme of water) is less than a half that of the Hydrological peculiarities Mediterranean. It rises up to 21-27‰ at a depth below 300 metres, however it falls seasonally and The estimated annual volume of river even as low as 2-8‰ in some spots of the discharge entering the Black Sea fluctuates from northwestern area. The presence of a halocline at 294 to 480 cubic kilometres. Vast quantities of a depth of 100-200 metres is a distinctive silt are brought down by rivers (in particular, the hydrological feature of the Black Sea. Azov's Danube expels up to 52 million tonnes of waters are lower in salinity (11.7‰ on average), sediments per year) causing low transparency of being almost fresh (1-8‰) in the Gulf of coastal waters especially in the northwestern Taganrog. At the same time, the waters in the Black Sea area and in the Sea of Azov. Marmara Sea are more saline than in the Black Impressive figures of river run-off explain the Sea, averaging 22‰ at the surface with a gradual higher water level in the Black Sea in comparison increase of salinity closer to the bottom and with the neighbouring Sea of Marmara (the towards the Dardanelles. difference is 53 centimetres on average). The The range of water temperatures at the annual volume of atmospheric precipitations in surface of the Black Sea extends from –1.2ºC in the Black Sea area (119-300 cubic kilometres) is winter to +31ºC in summer with the mean annual usually lower than the volume of river inflow, level varying from 12ºC in the northwest to 16ºC but during the rainy season (autumn-winter) the in the southeast of the basin. The thermocline ratio becomes quite the contrary. The annual (7.2-8.6ºC) is situated at a depth between 50 and level of the evaporation in the Black Sea has been 150 metres. The waters below 500 metres have a calculated between 232 and 484 cubic kilometres. constant temperature of about 9ºC. During frosty Besides this the general water balance also winters the shallow waters with low salinity depends on the intensity of water exchange become coated with ice. That is more or less through the and Bosphorus. typical for the northwestern coastal area and for the Sea of Azov which sometimes (but not every

Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – 8.3 year) gets covered almost completely by ice up to 1,983 species of invertebrates, 168 species of 80-90 centimetres thick. Uncommon freeze-up fishes, and four species of mammals events have been recorded sporadically along the (Mordukhay-Boltovskoy 1972, Rass 1987, southwestern coast of the Black Sea and even in Petranu 1997, Komakhidze and Mazmanidi 1998, the Bosphorus. Konsulov 1998, Zaitsev and Alexandrov 1998, The Bla ck Sea is stratified into the superficial Öztürk 1999). Besides, the Black Sea is layer of oxygenated waters and the deeper abundant of a large variety of microscopic column of saturated by high hydrobionts (viruses, bacteria, fungi, microalgae, concentrations (0.2-9.6 milligrammes per one protozoans) including those which are still in litre of water) of dissolved hydrogen sulphide need of taxonomic examination. originating from archaic and actual redox Depending on the assumed origin of the processes and probable past geological species, the Black Sea indigenous biota is cataclysms. A boundary or, rather, a transitional classified into four groups (Zaitsev and Mamaev interlayer between those strata is relatively stable, 1997): it lies at a depth between 100 and 250 metres · Pontian (Caspian) relics that originated with some topographic, seasonal and annual fluctuations. Thus, about 87-90% of the Black from prehistoric brackish basins that used to exist where the Black Sea is now; Sea water volume forms a "dead" zone unfit for aerobic life and inhabited almost exclusively by · North-Atlantic or relics supposed- specific anaerobic bacteria. Consequently, only ly originating from cold seas; the upper 10-13% of the water mass represents · Mediterranean immigrants, representing the most suitable conditions for most marine the most numerous part of the Black organisms and, therefore, sustains biodiversity. Sea’s fauna (80% of the total number of This general view on the oxygen-dependent animal species); and stratification of Black Sea habitats does not · typically freshwater species - discharged necessarily hold entirely true. In particular, some to the sea from rivers. aerobic organisms (nematodes) were found in 1 bottom silt sampled at a depth of 600 and even Three species of cetaceans – the harbour 2,050 metres (Zaitsev et al. 1987, Zaitsev 1998). porpoise (Phocoena phocoena), the short-beaked Trotsyuk et al. (1988) have discovered a thin, 1- common dolphin (Delphinus delphis) and the 10 metres thick, layer of the oxygenated water common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) just over the seafloor at a depth of about 2,000 – and one species – the Mediterranean metres. monk seal (Monachus monachus) – crown the trophic pyramid of the Black Sea as top predators Biological diversity (with special reference to which have no natural enemies in this basin cetaceans) (Kleinenberg 1956, Geptner et al. 1976, Klinowska 1991, Jefferson et al. 1993). The Black Sea biodiversity is rather confined Harbor porpoises inhabit the waters of the in comparison, for instance, with the continental shelf around the entire perimeter of 2 , owing to the higher degree of the Black Sea . Seasonally they are common in geographical isolation of the Black Sea, its low the Sea of Azov and Kerch Strait (Zalkin 1940a, water salinity and cooler environment, as well as Kleinenberg 1956, Birkun and Krivokhizhin because of a large amount of anoxic waters 1998) as well as in the Sea of Marmara and Bos- enriched with poisonous hydrogen sulphide. As a phorus (Öztürk and Öztürk 1997). Perhaps, both result, most thermophilous, halophilous, bathypelagic and bathybenthic organisms 1 A fourth cetacean species – the (Balaenoptera acu- inherent to the Mediterranean are absent from torostrata) – occasionally visited the Black Sea in the remote past. In May 1880, one individual stranded alive and died on the shore the Black Sea. Nevertheless, the specific near Batumi, Georgia (Silantyev, 1903). Then, up to 1926, there biological productivity of the Black Sea is higher were 1-2 more cases when unidentified single “big whales” were observed in the Black Sea (Kleinenberg, 1956). Some bones of this than that estimated for the Mediterranean whale species (the first cervical vertebra, humerus and a part of rib) (Zenkevich 1963, Greze 1979, Zaitsev 1998). A were found by means of bottom trawling in the northwestern shelf total of 3,774 species of multicellular organisms area (Dulitsky 2001). It is supposed that rare visits of the minke whale to the Black Sea from the Mediterranean may be linked to its are enumerated in the lists of Black Sea flora and prey migration (Van Waerebeek et al., 1999). fauna (Zaitsev and Mamaev 1997), including 2 There are four recent records (three strandings and one sighting) of 1,619 species of fungi, algae and higher plants, single harbour porpoises in the north (Frantzis, 1997, Frantzis et al. 2001), which may be from the Black Sea population.

Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – 8.4 small seas are important breeding, calving and 1956), although no direct evidence was obtained feeding areas for the Black Sea population, which up to now. is isolated from the nearest one in the northeast- In the last three decades, Black Sea ern Atlantic. Usually harbour porpoises leave the biodiversity has been seriously damaged due to Azov Sea before winter and come back in spring, the human-associated degradation of the sea but sometimes early and rapid ice formation puts proper and its drainage basin. The species obstacles in the way of their migration causing composition of most marine communities was mass mortality events due to ice entrapment modified with the explosive expansion of some (Kleinenberg 1956, Birkun and Krivokhizhin organisms and the depression of many others 1997). Porpoises do not avoid waters with low (Petranu 1997, Komakhidze and Mazmanidi salinity and transparency; thus, they occur in 1998, Konsulov 1998, Zaitsev and Alexandrov shallow brackish bays and lagoons, and in the 1998, Öztürk 1999). The Mediterranean monk Danube, Dnieper and Don rivers quite far from seal has disappeared almost completely from the the sea (Zalkin 1940a, Kleinenberg 1956, Gept- Black and Marmara Seas. Solitary individuals ner et al. 1976, Selyunina 2001). can still be observed sporadically near the Similarly to the , the distribu- Anatolian coast (Kiraç and Savas 1996, Öztürk tion of common bottlenose dolphins can be found 1996, 1999) and, perhaps, in the Danube delta across the Black Sea shelf area (Kleinenberg (Zaitsev and Mamaev 1997), although there are 1956, Geptner et al. 1976), occasionally they also probably too few animals to allow for any occur far offshore (Morozova 1981). The pres- population recovery. Black Sea dolphins and ence of bottlenose dolphins in the Bosphorus, porpoises, drastically affected by commercial Marmara Sea and Dardanelles has been known direct killing continued till the early 1980s (see for a long time (Kleinenberg 1956) and con- Report Section 6), have also been exposed to firmed again recently (Öztürk and Öztürk 1997). modern anthropogenic threats which cause the These cetaceans are common also in the Kerch deterioration of habitats, the depletion of food Strait (Kleinenberg 1956, Birkun and Krivokhiz- resources and adversely impact cetacean hin 1998) and sometimes they visit the Sea of population health. Azov (Zalkin 1940b, Birkun et al. 1997). From early spring to late autumn, bottlenose dolphins form compact accumulations in the Kerch Strait Human impact on the Black Sea environment and the adjacent Black Sea waters (Kleinenberg 1956, Birkun and Krivokhizhin 1998). Annual The Black Sea is bordered by six riparian autumn migrations of several hundred animals countries - Ukraine to the north, to the follow from the east towards the south-west northeast, Georgia to the east, Turkey to the along the south coast of the Crimea (Birkun and south, and Bulgaria and Romania to the west Krivokhizhin 2000). (Fig. 8.2). The Sea of Azov and the Kerch Strait Common dolphin herds are distributed pre- are surrounded by Ukraine and Russia. The Sea dominantly offshore, in the middle part of the of Marmara, Bosphorus and Dardanelles are the Black Sea, and visit inshore waters following internal water bodies of Turkey. Most coastal seasonal aggregations and mass migrations of territories are densely populated and even over- small pelagic fishes, mainly sprat and populated especially during the summer season. (Zalkin 1940 b, Kleinenberg 1956, Geptner et al. According to different estimates, based on the na- 1976). These cetaceans avoid maritime areas tional census statistics, permanent human popula- with low water salinity; and this could be an - tion distributed along the Black Sea shores came vious reason why common dolphins do not occur to 16-20 millions in the 1990s, and an extra 4-12 in the Sea of Azov. However, they were ob- million per year were represented by tourists served occasionally in the Kerch Strait (Kleinen- (Petranu 1997, Zaitsev and Mamaev 1997, Bi- berg 1956, Geptner et al. 1976). Common dol- lyavsky et al. 1998, Kerestecioglu et al. 1998, phins occur also in the Marmara Sea and Bospho- Mazmanidi 1998, Öztürk 1999). However, these rus from February to November (Öztürk and Öz- figures do not include people inhabiting the türk 1997), and it is still a question, where do coasts of the Azov and Marmara Seas, as well as they come from. Cross-relations including both the citizens of Istanbul, the largest Black Sea ur- side movements between Black Sea and Mediter- ban agglomeration situated on both the European ranean populations seem to be possible (Van and Asian sides of the Bosphorus and containing Beneden 1892, Barabasch 1935, Kleinenberg the resident population of over 7.3 million people

Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – 8.5 (Kerestecioglu et al. 1998) and a great number of tries discharge their wastes directly to the sea migrants and visitors. Total population in the with inadequate or no treatment (Fig. 8.2). Black Sea catchment area is about 160-171 mil- Nevertheless, the rivers of the basin are lions, and the “living activities” of all these peo- responsible for most of the pollution (Tuncer et ple potentially affect the Black Sea environment al. 1998). They are strongly contaminated with (Mee 1992, Saving the Black Sea 1993, Readman industrial and mining wastes (Readman et al. et al. 1999) which is also influenced by atmos- 1999) and transfer a huge amount of nutrients pheric and other global environmental changes. that originate primarily from agriculture (Zaitsev and Mamaev 1997). The impacts of the diffuse Anthropogenic threats to cetacean habitats coastal, airborne and vessel-sourced pollution are the least investigated, but believed to be The Black Sea and contiguous waters are used significant. Irrespective of sources, for shipping, fishing, aquaculture, mineral explo i- anthropogenic pollution of the Black Sea is tation, tourism, recreation, military exercises and subdivided into: (a) contamination related to waste disposal (Vylkanov et al. 1983, Bilyavsky various chemical substances (nutrients, crude oil et al. 1998, Kerestecioglu et al. 1998, Tuncer et and petroleum products, persistent synthetic al. 1998). In addition, the seabed and the catch- pollutants and trace elements); (b) radioactive ment area are under permanent pressure from contamination; (c) pollution by solid wastes; and many other human activities, including urban de- (d) biological pollution including microbial velopment, industry, hydro- and nuclear energet- contamination and introduction of alien species ics, agriculture and land-improvement. At the of marine organisms (Table 8.1). Practically moment it seems impossible to prepare a com- nothing is known about the problem of acoustic prehensive assessment of all the anthropogenic (noise) pollution which may cause disturbance of threats affecting the habitats of the Black Sea ce- Black Sea cetaceans (see Report Section 14). taceans. However, principal groups of the threats are generally known and could be listed as fol- Nutrient pollution. In contrast to the Mediterra- lows: nean, the Black Sea is utterly polluted by organic matter and inorganic nutrients originating from · various kinds of pollution; agriculture (fertilizers), animal husbandry, do- · physical modification of the seabed, coasts mestic and industrial sewage and from other and rivers; and sources. The excessive loading of sea water with · irretrievable direct take of natural wealth in- nitrogen- and phosphorus-containing substances cluding the (over)exploitation of marine living is considered as a primary cause of the decline of resources. the shelf ecosystems (Zaitsev 1993, Mee and Some human-associated threats pertinent to Topping 1999) and even of the degradation of the the two latter groups are considered in the other Black Sea environment in general (Zaitsev and parts of this report (e.g., Report Sections 10 and Mamaev 1997). A large share of nutrients is con- 14). tributed to the sea by rivers. Some 58% of the dissolved total nitrogen and 66% of the dissolved Pollution total phosphorus come from the Danube (Zaitsev Human-associated contamination of the oxy- and Mamaev 1997). The peak of nutrient inputs genated water layer is considered as a primary has been observed in the 1970s and 1980s. The threat and the greatest environmental problem for latter authors, citing Garkavaya et al. (1989), the Black Sea (Mee 1992, 1998, Saving note that by the 1980s the rivers transported to the Black Sea 1993, Strategic Action Plan 1996, the Black Sea an annual average of 55,000 tonnes Black Sea Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of phosphates, 340,000 tonnes of nitrates and 1997, Mee and Topping 1999). The main 10,700,000 tonnes of organic matter. Four rivers sources of chronic seawater pollution are repre- running to the Azov Sea (Don, Kuban, Protoka sented by focal land-based outfalls, river run-off, and ) dicharge every year over 22,000 coastal nonpoint (diffuse) sources, atmospheric tonnes of total nitrogen and over 4,500 tonnes of fall-out, intentional and accidental inputs from total phosphorus (Black Sea Transboundary Di- vessels (Table 8.1). According to Mee (1992), the agnostic Analysis 1997). Detailed additional in- threat to the Black Sea from land-based sources formation on this kind of pollution is presented is potentially greater than in any other sea of the by Cociasu et al. (1999), Mikhailov (1999), and world. Many coastal municipalities and indus- Topping et al. (1999).

Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – 8.6 Enormous inputs of nutrients are causing the sewerage outfalls, harbour and industrial installa- eutrophication of coastal shallow waters mainly tions. Accidental and operational spillage of oil in the northwestern Black Sea shelf area and in and petroleum products from vessels contributes the Sea of Azov (Zaitsev 1993, 1998, 1999, to the pollution in both inshore and offshore ar- Petranu 1997, Zaitsev and Mamaev 1997). This eas. According to incomplete data presented in phenomenon includes the production of algal and the Black Sea Transboundary Diagnostic Analy- zooplanktonic blooms (population bursts of sis (1997), about 111 thousand tonnes of oil are dinoflagellates and some other microalgae, and discharged into the Black Sea every year. Thus, also protozoan Noctiluca miliaris and scypho- Danube’s outflow values (53,300 tonnes per zoan jelly-fish Aurelia aurita); decline of water year) amount to 50% of the estimated total an- transparency; oxygen deficiency in the near- nual load. Officially registered oil spills from ac- bottom water layer; disappearance of benthic cidents at the sea (136 tonnes per year on aver- phytocenoses at a depth of 10 metres and deeper; age) are relatively small in comparison with in- mass mortalities of benthic fishes and puts from other sources. Significant concentra- invertebrates with associated widespread decay tions of total petroleum hydrocarbons and prod- of their remains and seaweed residues. Fish mass ucts of oil degradation were detected in sea water mortality events have occurred in the Black Sea and sediments near the Danube delta, close to the since the late 1960s. Blooms of dinoflagellates ports of , Ilyichevsk, Varna, Kerch, have become annual events in summertime and Sochi, and in the Prebosphoric area autumn since the early 1970s. The areas of (Bayona et al. 1999, Mikhailov 1999, Readman eutrophication in the northwestern Black Sea et al. 1999) (Fig. 8.2). Those concentrations are (within Ukrainian, Romanian and Bulgarian roughly comparable to the values recorded in the waters) expanded from 3,500 square kilometres Mediterranean, although the levels of carcino- in 1973 to 40,000 squre kilometres in 1990 genic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the (Zaitsev 1993) with some reduction of affected Black Sea are lower than in the Mediterranean areas in the 1990s (Zaitsev 1998). Water hypoxia and other regional seas (Bayona et al. 1999, Re- and anoxia led to sharp depletion of valuable adman et al. 1999). bioresources and decline of biodiversity. It was Oil pollution induces deterioration of coastal estimated that between 1972 and 1990 about 60 marine ecosystems and affects the neuston million tonnes of bottom animals died in the superficial layer causing the elimination of eggs northwestern shelf area due to the lack of oxygen and larvae of mass pelagic fishes (Zaitsev and (Zaitsev 1992), and the variety of Mamaev 1997) which constitute a basic diet of macrozoobenthic species on the shelf near Black Sea cetaceans. Fatal experiments on toxic Danube delta fell from 70 in 1961 to 14 in 1994 and pathogenic effects of oil (mazout) were (Petranu 1997). conducted on several Black Sea harbour There has been no dedicated research porpoises in the military oceanarium of the concerning the impact of nutrient pollution on former Soviet Union (Lukina et al. 1996, Black Sea cetaceans. The presumed effects of Kavtsevich 2000). the eutrophication on cetaceans include the depletio n of food resources and the collapse of Persistent organic pollutants . Important synthe- the ecosystem in forage areas (both these effects tic pollutants are represented in the Black Sea by could be particularly stressful for harbour organohalogens: DDT and its derivatives (DDD, porpoises and bottlenose dolphins which DDE), polychlorinated biphenils (PCBs), hexa- consume benthic fishes). In addition, the chlorohexanes (HCHs), hexachlorobenzene “fertilized” water represents a suitable growth (HCB), chlordanes (CHLs), butyltin compounds medium for: (a) various bacteria potentially (BTs), heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide, aldrin, pathogenic for cetaceans, and (b) toxin-producing dieldrin, endrin, methoxychlor, and mirex which planktonic species – i.e. Gonyaulax polyedra, enter the sea mainly from agriculture, industry Prorocentrum micans and Noctiluca miliaris and municipal sewage (Table 8.1)3. Although (Zaitsev 1999) which could cause an accumulation of toxins in cetacean prey. 3 The input from ships sometimes may also be considerable. For instance, in 1976 in Odessa Bay there was an accident involving Oil pollution. Oil pollution in the Black Sea is the vessel “Mozdok” which was loaded with 600 tonnes of DDT concentrated predominantly in the coastal area and 200 tonnes of HCH (Mikhailov, 1999). Fortunately, most of the around stationary sources, such as river mouths, freight pre-packed in plastic bags was salvaged from the sunken boat .

Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – 8.7 there is no evidence of total or widespread con- Black Sea than in the Mediterranean (Windom et tamination of the sea by these substances (most al. 1999). The known hotspots of trace metal concentrations are comparable with those de- contamination are the outlets of Danube and Dni- tected in the Mediterranean), their levels in the ester rivers, the areas near Odessa, Sevastopol, sea water and sediments sampled in some coastal Yalta and Sochi cities, the Gulf of Taganrog, the areas (near Danube delta, Odessa, Sevastopol, Strait of Kerch and the Black Sea immediately Sochi, close to the Bosphorus and in the Kerch adjacent to the Bosphorus. Elevated concentra- Strait) appear to be quite high (Mikhailov 1999, tions of nickel were also found in the eastern part Readman et al. 1999). The latter publication pre- of the Turkish Black Sea. sents the ranking of organohalogen concentra- The concentrations of cadmium, chromium, tions in Black Sea surficial sediments as follows: copper, iron, lead, nickel, selenium, zinc, DDTs > HCHs > PCBs > HCB > cyclodienes. A mercury and some other microelements have similar ranking has been earlier reported for been studied in various tissues of over 100 Black Black Sea fishes and harbour porpoises (Tanabe Sea harbour porpoises, but only in five common et al. 1997 a). The low DDE/DDT values com- dolphins and 19 bottlenose dolphins (Table 8.2). bined with rela tively high concentrations indicate Generally, low-to-moderate levels of trace metal current, certainly illegal DDT usage around the contamination are peculiar to Black Sea harbour Black Sea (Readman et al. 1999) and, partic u- porpoises. For example, the concentrations of larly, in the Ukraine (Mikhailov 1999) and Tur- mercury are about one order of magnitude lower key (Tuncer et al. 1998). than in porpoises from the Persistent organic pollutants are lipophilic and (BLASDOL 1999, Joiris et al. 2001). Low lia ble to bioaccumulation in food webs attaining hepatic and renal concentrations of zinc were maximal concentrations in the fat of top predators detected in comparison with harbour porpoises including marine mammals. To date the from Belgian coast (Das et al. 2001). Harbour contamination of harbour porpoises is better porpoises from the Azov Sea seem to be more known than that of the two other Black Sea contaminated by trace elements than individuals cetacean species. (Table 8.2). Harbour porpoises sampled in the Black Sea (Glazov and Zhulidov appear to accumulate higher concentrations of 2001). DDTs, HCHs and HCB than the bottlenose and common dolphins (Birkun et al. 1992, 1993). Radioactive contamination. The principal They also accumulate PCBs (including toxic sources of radioactive pollution of the Black Sea coplanar congeners), CHLs, BTs, heptachlor, are: (a) past nuclear weapon tests, carried out in heptachlor epoxide, aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, the air in different points of the world in the methoxychlor and mirex (Tanabe et al. 1997 a, b, 1950s-1960s, and (b) the catastrophe, Madhusree et al. 1997, BLASDOL 1999). The occurred in the USSR in 1986 (Kulebakina 1992, contamination of Black Sea harbour porpoises by Polikarpov et al. 1992, Vakulovsky et al. 1994, DDTs and HCHs is higher than that reported for Osvath and Egorov 1999). As a consequence of this species elsewhere in the world (Tanabe et al. those events, the anthropogenic radionuclides 1997a). The concentrations of S DDTs in the (137cæsium, 90strontium, 239-240plutonium, etc.) blubber of two Black Sea common dolphins that were introduced to the sea mainly by atmospheric died from morbilliviral disease was about 50 to precipitations and rivers, particula rly, by the 100 times higher than the levels in toothed Dnieper and Danube. In the 1990s the Black Sea cetaceans from the North Sea, North Atlantic showed relatively high concentrations of ra- and (Birkun et al. 1999). dionuclides in comparison with other marine ba- sins except the Baltic and Irish Seas which were Trace elements. Contamination by trace ele- also strongly polluted. Mean concentrations of ments, including heavy metals, is not a basin- 137cæsium in the water, sediments and fish were wide problem in the Black Sea but in some one order of magnitude higher in the Black Sea coastal areas the surface sediments reveal in- than in the Mediterranean (Osvath and Egorov creased inputs of chromium, lead, copper, zinc, 1999). Nevertheless, it is considered that the ex- vanadium, cadmium, cobalt, nickel, arsenic, mer- isting levels of radioactive contamination do not cury, iron, and manganese (Readman et al. 1999, represent radiological problem for Black Sea bi- Windom et al. 1999). Existing values for cad- ota and human population (Zaitsev and Mamaev mium, cobalt, copper and nickel show that these 1997, Osvath and Egorov 1999). metals occur at higher concentrations in the

Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – 8.8 Güngör and Portakal (1996) have measured cherichia coli in the seawater near Odessa some- concentrations of 137cæsium in Black Sea harbour times rose up to 2,400,000 microbe cells per one porpoises stranded and by-caught in Turkey. litre (Zaitsev 1998). Wide diversity of enterobac- Among samples examined (Table 8.2), the higher teria (Escherichia , Proteus, Edwardsiella, Kleb- levels of the radionuclide (up to 11-12 Bq/kg) siella, Citrobacter, Enterobacter and Salmonella were detected in muscles and kidney, but other spp.) and pyogenic cocci (Staphylococcus spp.) tissues were also contaminated. have been observed in Georgian coastal waters (Zhgenti 1998). Surface waters in the Romanian Marine debris . The Black Sea and its coasts nearshore area contained high levels of patho- seem to be subject to very high levels of solid genic fungi (Apas 1995). wastes, although no formal studies of its exten- Coprostanol – one of principal sterols in hu- siveness, sources, patterns and effects have yet man and animal faeces and, therefore, pertinent been made. Marine dumping of municipal gar- indicator of faecal pollution – was detected in all bage is known in Turkey and Georgia (Mee and samples of superficial sediments collected from Topping 1999). The sites of explosive objects the Black Sea (Readman et al. 1999). The ele- disposal are mapped off the Crimea (Ukraine) vated concentrations of this marker have been re- and in the Gulf of Taganrog (Russia). Navigation corded near Sochi, Danube delta and Bosphorus. charts reflect also the distribution of sunken ves- Meantime, coprostanol levels in the Black Sea sels and other scrap metal over the shelf area. are comparable or perhaps even lower than those Floating litter including plastics and lost generally encountered in other seas including the fishing nets represent particular threats to Mediterranean. cetaceans (Zaitsev 1998) which sometimes ingest Pathogens associated with land-based dis- inedible things and may get themselves charges, coastal diffuse sources and liquid wastes entangled. A number of foreign bodies have incoming from ships represent a potential health been collected from stomachs of Black Sea risk not only to humans (Strategic Action Plan common dolphins: coal slag, pieces of wood and 1996) but also to cetaceans (Birkun 1994). The paper, bird feathers, cherry stones, and even a cetacean-related effects of microbial pollution bunch of roses (Kleinenberg 1956), whereas only are described in another chapter entitled “Natural pebbles and sand were found in wild bottlenose mortality” (see Report Section 16), although the dolphins and harbour porpoises (Kleinenberg term “natural” in this context is not quite appro- 1956, Krivokhizhin et al. 2000). However, many priate because of the mainly anthropogenic origin man-made and natural foreign objects have been of faecal contamination. recorded ingested by captive individuals of both latter species (Rodin et al. 1970, Belkovich and Introduction of alien species. The accidental Gurevich 1971, Vinogradov et al. 1971). introduction of alien species of animals and plants is a major but poorly manageable anthro- Microbe/faecal pollution. Almost all Black Sea pogenic threat affecting the Black Sea ecosystem cities and settlements currently discharge their (Zaitsev and Mamaev 1997). Marine organisms, effluents (treated, partially treated or untreated) causing this kind of biological pollution, usually into the marine environment directly or via riv- arrive in the sea from oceanic vessels either as ers. The estimated (probably underestimated) to- their external “foulings” or in their ballast waters, tal volume of sewage entering the sea comes to which often appear to be discharged without pre- over 571 million cubic metres per year (Bartram ventive treatment. At this time, several species et al. 1999). Some important sources of faecal of exotic crabs, barnacles, jellyfishes, molluscs, pollution were evaluated in the Black Sea Trans- one species of a polychaete and one species of boundary Diagnostic Analysis (1997) (Fig. 8.2). brown seaweed are known among the newcomers Between 5% (Bulgaria) and 44% (Ukraine) of that have invaded the Black Sea and which have seawater samples taken during warm season become widely distributed here during the 20th (May – September) near beaches in different century. Black Sea countries were significantly contami- The ctenophore (comb jellyfish) Mnemiopsis nated by intestinal bacteria (Bartram et al. 1999). leidyi, accidentally introduced in the early 1980s In particular, the number of faecal coliforms ex- from North American coastal waters, has ceeded 20,000-100,000 per litre and the number reportedly exerted negative impact on the stocks of faecal streptococci exceeded 4,000 per litre. of Black Sea pelagic fishes (mainly anchovy and In the late 1980s, the concentration of Es- scad) and, as a consequence, on Black Sea

Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – 8.9 cetaceans which feed on those fishes The fate of most accidentally released marine (Vinogradov 1996). Over only a few years, this mammals and their possible influence on raptorial invader has become a dominant species indigenous Black Sea cetaceans and monk seals in the Black Sea and also spread to the Azov and remain uncertain. Theoretically, spontaneously Marmara Seas. By the end of the 1980s, its total released exotic marine mammals can be a biomass in the basin was estimated at about potential source of various pathogens including 1,000 million tonnes (Vinogradov et al. 1989) infectious agents and parasites which earlier were with a gradual decrease in this value during the not known in the Black Sea. 1990s (Mutlu et al. 1994). The outbreak of M. leidyi in 1988-1990 has led to the depletion of forage sources for pelagic fishes and List of References to the large scale consumption of their eggs and larvae; both effects, combined with overfishing, Apas M. 1995. Evolution du processus de pollution mycolo- have resulted in a collapse of pelagic fish gique sur le littoral Roumain de la Mer Noire. Cercetari resources (Zaitsev and Mamaev 1997). There is Marine 27-28:109-134 (cited according to Bartram et al. therefore considerable reason to regard M. leidyi 1999). Barabasch I.I. 1935. Delphinus delphis ponticus subsp. n. as a form of biological pollution which is able to Bull. Moskovskogo Obshchestva Ispytateley Prirody affect Black Sea cetacean populatio ns through (Biol. Div.) 44(5):246-249. (in Russian). the depletion of their feedings stuff. Bartram J., Di Filippo P., Mihnea R. 1999. The impact of Another kind of biological intervention in the sewage discharges to the Black Sea on public health and environmental quality. Pp. 111-127 in: L.D. Mee and G. Black Sea relates to coastal dolphinaria and Topping (Eds.), Black Sea pollution assessment. UN oceanaria (Table 8.1) which keep exotic species Publ., New York, 380 p. of marine mammals in the nearshore open-air Bassari A., Portakal S., Güreli L., Seddigh E., Akyüz T. pens; sometimes those constructions do not 1996. Heavy metal concentrations in dolphins from the prevent escapes of captive animals into the open Black Sea. Pp. 28-30 in: B. Öztürk (Ed.), Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Marine Mam- sea. Such cases have been known since the early mals of the Black Sea (Istanbul, Turkey, 27-30 June 1980s in the former USSR and during the last 1994). ACAR Matbaacilik A.S., Istanbul, 120 p. decade in the Russian Federation and Ukraine Bayona J.M., Maldonado C., Stoyanov L. 1999. State of (Birkun and Krivokhizhin 1996, 2001). The list knowledge of petroleum hydrocarbons in the Black Sea region. Pp. 75-81 in: L.D. Mee and G. Topping (Eds.), of spontaneously released cetaceans and Black Sea pollution assessment. UN Publ., New York, include the white whale (= beluga, 380 p. Delphinapterus leucas), the northern fur seal Belkovich V.M., Gurevich V.S. 1971. Problems of a capture (Callorhinus ursinus), the Steller sea lion and long-term maintenance of dolphins in captivity. (Eumetopias jubatus), the harbour seal (Phoca Proc. AtlantNIRO 39:286-295. (in Russian). Bilyavsky G., Tarasova O., Denga Yu., Domashlinets V., vitulina), the Caspian seal (Phoca caspica) and, Mischenko V., Tkachov A., Topchiyev O. 1998. Black perhaps, one or two other pinniped species. The Sea Environmental Priorities Study: Ukraine. UN Publ., exact number of irrevocably escaped alien marine New York, 105 p. mammals is unknown, but it probably comes to ? Birkun A.A. 1994. Dolphins as a target of polymicrobe pol- lution of the Black Sea. Microbiol. J. (Kiev) 56(2):31. few tens including two belugas which were (in Russian). observed many times in the wild near the Birkun A.A., Jr., Krivokhizhin S.V. 1993. Is there any pro- Turkish, Romanian, Bulgarian and Ukrainian gress in the protection of Black Sea cetaceans? Pp. 288- coasts in the early 1990s. During the last 12-14 293 in: P.G.H. Evans (Ed.), European research on ceta- years, solitary individuals of otariids have been ceans – 7 (Proc. 7th Annual European Cetacean Soci- ety, Inverness, Scotland, 18-21 Feb 1993). ECS, Cam- recorded in the Black and Azov Seas including bridge, 306 p. Karkinitsky, Kazantipsky, Feodosia and Sevasto- Birkun A.A., Jr., Krivokhizhin S.V. 1996. Mammals of the pol bays, the coast of Kerch peninsula, Arabat Black Sea. Tavria, Simferopol, 96 p. (in Russian). Spit and beaches of Sochi and Batumi. In April Birkun A., Jr., Krivokhizhin S. 1997. Sudden ice formation – a cause of harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) 1988 and April 1989 two different fur seals were mass mortalities in the Sea of Azov. Pp. 275-277 in: recorded near Eregli, Turkey (Kiraç and Savas P.G.H. Evans, E.C.M. Parsons, and S.L. Clark (Eds.), 1996). According to the observations of local European research on cetaceans – 11 (Proc. 11th Annual inhabitants and fishermen, in 1995-1998 two or Conf. European Cetacean Society, Stralsund, Germany, three individuals of true seals (one of them 10-12 Mar 1997). ECS, Kiel, 314 p. Birkun A., Jr., Krivokhizhin S. 1998. Distribution of Small allegedly had a collar) were seen annually in Cetaceans in the North Part of the Black Sea: Cetacean winter and spring in the Kerch Strait at the coast Strandings on Black Sea Coast of the Crimea in 1989- of (Birkun and Krivokhizhin 2001). 1996 and Cetacean Sightings in the Kerch Strait in 1997

Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – 8.10 (Report for CIESM, Monaco). BREMA Laboratory, Frantzis A., Gordon J., Hassidis G., Komnenou A. 2001. Simferopol, 67 p. The enigma of harbor porpoise presence in the Mediter- Birkun A.A., Jr., Krivokhizhin S.V. 2000. Distribution of ranean Sea. Mar. Mammal Sci. 17(4): in press. cetaceans and trends in their abundance off the coasts of Geptner V.G., Chapsky K.K., Arsenyev V.A., Sokolov V.E. the Crimea. Pp. 23-27 in: Proc. Internat. Conf. «Marine 1976. Mammals of the Soviet Union. Volume 2, Part 3: Mammals of Holarctic», Arkhangelsk, Russia, 21-23 Pinnipeds and Toothed Whales. Vysshaya Shkola, Mos- Sep 2000. Pravda Severa, Arkhangelsk, 464 p. (in Rus- cow, 718 p. (in Russian). sian). Glazov, D.M, Zhulidov, A.V. 2001. Heavy metals, methyl- Birkun A.A., Jr., Krivokhizhin S.V. 2001. Contemporary mercury and selenium in organs and tissues of two sp e- state of marine mammal populations in the Black and cies of Black Sea dolphins (Tursiops truncatus, Pho- Azov Seas: National Report. Pp. 27-37 in: A.A. Birkun, coena phocoena). Pp. 83-84 in: Abstr. 14th Bienn. Conf. Jr., S.I. Gubar, V.I. Karamushka, S.V. Krivokhizhin, and Biol. Marine Mammals (Vancouver, Canada, 28 Nov.-3 Ya.I. Movchan (Eds.), Marine mammals in the waters of Dec. 2001). Soc. Marine Mammology, Vancouver, Ukraine (Proc. Workshop on the research and conserva- 262p. tion of Black Sea cetaceans and needs assessment for the Greze V.N. (Ed.) 1979. Backgrounds of the Black Sea Bio- accession of Ukraine to ACCOBAMS, Kiev, Ukraine, logical Productivity. Naukova Dumka, Kiev, 392 p. (in 30 Mar 2001). Andriivsky Publ. Center, Kiev, 44 p. (in Russian). Ukrainian). Güngör N., Portakal S. 1996. The biological availability of Birkun A., Jr., Krivokhizhin S., Pavlov V. 1997. New data cesium to marine mammals. Pp. 20-23 in: B. Öztürk on the existence of bottlenose dolphins in the Sea of (Ed.), Proceedings of the First International Symposium Azov. Pp. 200-203 in: P.G.H. Evans (Ed.), European re- on the Marine Mammals of the Black Sea (Istanbul, search on cetaceans - 10 (Proc. 10th Annual Conf. Euro- Turkey, 27-30 June 1994). ACAR Matbaacilik A.S., pean Cetacean Society, Lisbon, Portugal, 11-13 Mar Istanbul, 120 p. 1996). ECS, Kiel, 334 p. Holsbeek L., Joiris C.R., Pinket S., Elskens M., Birkun A., Birkun A.A., Jr., Krivokhizhin S.V., Shvatsky A.B., Milos- Siebert U. 1997. Trace elements in Black Sea dolphins erdova N.A., Radygin G.Yu., Pavlov V.V., Nikitina and possible role of glutathione as a detoxification V.N., Goldin E.B., Artov A.M., Suremkina A.Yu., mechanism. Pp.260-262 in: P.G.H. Evans, E.C.M. Par- Zhivkova E.P., Plebansky V.S. 1992. Present status and sons and S.L. Clark (Eds.), European research on ceta- future of Black Sea dolphins. Pp. 47-53 in: P.G.H. Ev- ceans – 11 (Proc. 11th Annual Conf. European Cetacean ans (Ed.), European research on cetaceans – 6 (Proc. 6th Society, Stralsund, Germany, 10-12 Mar 1997). ECS, Annual Conf. European Cetacean Society, San Remo, Kiel, 314 p. Italy, 20-22 Feb 1992). ECS, Cambridge, 254 p. Jefferson T.A., Leatherwood S., Webber M.A. 1993. Marine Birkun A., Jr., Kuiken T., Krivokhizhin S., Haines D.M., Mammals of the World: FAO Species Identification Osterhaus A.D.M.E., van de Bildt M.W., Joiris C.R., Guide. UNEP and FAO, Rome, 320 p. Siebert U. 1999. Epizootic of morbilliviral disease in Joiris C.R., Holsbeek L., Bolba D., Gascard C., Stanev T., common dolphins (Delphinus delphis ponticus) from the Komakhidze A., Baumgärtner W., Birkun A. 2001. To- Black sea. Vet. Rec. 144(4):85-92. tal and organic mercury in the Black Sea harbour por- Birkun A., Jr., Nikitina V., Krivokhizhin S., Demchenko V., poise Phocoena phocoena relicta. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 42: Davidyuk, E. 1993. Organochlorine pesticides in the 905-911. blubber of Black Sea cetaceans. Veterinaria (Moscow) Kavtsevich N.N. 2000. Haematological indices in harbour N6:50-52. (in Russian). porpoises during their poisoning by petroleum products. Black Sea Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis. 1997. UN Pp. 146-149 in: Proc. Internat. Conf. «Marine Mammals Publ., New York, 142 p. of Holarctic», Arkhangelsk, Russia, 21-23 Sep 2000. BLASDOL. 1999. Estimation of human impact on small Pravda Severa, Arkhangelsk, 464 p. (in Russian). cetaceans of the Black Sea and elaboration of appropri- Kerestecioglu M., Borotav Z., Ercan H. 1998. Black Sea ate conservation measures: Final report for EC Inco- Environmental Priorities Study: Turkey. UN Publ., New Copernicus (contract No. ERBIC15CT960104). C.R. York, 177 p. Joiris (Coord.), Free University of Brussels, Belgium; Kiraç C., Savas Ya. 1996. Status of the monk seal BREMA Laboratory, Ukraine; Justus Liebig University (Monachus monachus) in the neighbourhood of Eregli, of Giessen, Germany; Institute of Fisheries, Bulgaria; Black Sea coast of Turkey. Zool. Middle East 12:5-12. and Institute of Marine Ecology and Fisheries, Georgia. Kleinenberg S.E. 1956. Mammals of the Black and Azov Brussels, 113 p. Seas: Research Experience for Biology and Hunting. Cociasu A., Petranu A., Mihnea P.E. 1999. Ecological indi- USSR Acad. Science Publ. House, Moscow, 288 p. (in cators of the Romanian coastal waters in the Black Sea. Russian). Pp. 131-170 in: L.D. Mee and G. Topping (Eds.), Black Klinowska M. (Comp.) 1991. Dolphins, Porpoises and Sea pollution assessment. UN Publ., New York, 380 p. Whales of the World. The IUCN Red Data Book. IUCN, Das K., Jauniaux T., Bruijninckx J., Birkun A., Joiris C.R., Gland and Cambridge, viii + 429 p. Bouquegneau J.M. 2001. Trace metal concentrations of Komakhidze A., Mazmanidi N. (Comps.) 1998. Black Sea harbour porpoises from the North and Black Sea: Rela- biological diversity: Georgia. UN Publ., New York, 167 tion with their nutritional status. P.4 in: Abstr. 15th An- p. nual Conf. European Cetacean Society, Rome, Italy, 6- Konsulov A. (Comp.) 1998. Black Sea biological diversity: 10 May 2001. Rome, 87 p. Bulgaria. UN Publ., New York, 131 p. Dulitsky A.I. 2001. Biodiversity of the Crimea: Mammals Krivokhizhin S.V., Birkun A.A., Jr., Nessonova J.V. 2000. (History, Status, Conservation, Outlook). SONAT, Sim- Prey species of Black Sea cetaceans. P. 229 in: P.G.H. feropol, 208 p. (in Russian). Evans, R. Pitt-Aiken and E. Rogan (Eds.), European re- Frantzis A. 1997. Harbour porpoises in the eastern Mediter- search on cetaceans – 14 (Proc. 14th Annual Conf. ranean. European Cetacean Society Newsletter. 31:11.

Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – 8.11 European Cetacean Society, Cork, Ireland, 2-5 Apr Petranu A. (Comp.) 1997. Black Sea Biological Diversity: 2000). ECS, Rome, 400 p. Romania. UN Publ., New York, 314 p. Kulebakina L.G. 1992. Radio-ecological studies in the oxi- Polikarpov G.G., Lazorenko G.E. 1992. Role of bottom dative zone of the Black Sea (1986-1989). Pp.129-135 sediments of the Black Sea reductive and oxidative in: G.G. Polikarpov (Ed.), Molysmology of the Black zones in the extraction of radionuclides from water envi- Sea. Naukova dumka, Kiev, 304 p. (in Russian). ronment. Pp. 135-143 in: G.G. Polikarpov (Ed.), Mo- Leonov A. 1960. Regional Oceanography. Part 1. Hydrome- lysmology of the Black Sea. Naukova dumka, Kiev, 304 teoizdat, Leningrad, 766 p. (in Russian). p. (in Russian). Lukina L., Matisheva S., Shapunov V. 1996. Ecological Rass T.S. 1987. Present state of Black Sea ichthyofauna monitoring of the captivity sites as a means of studying composition and its variations. Voprosy Ikhtiologii the influence of contaminated environment on cetaceans. 27(2):179-187. (in Russian). Pp. 52-54 in: B. Öztürk (Ed.), Proceedings of the First Readman J.W., Fillmann G., Tolosa I., Bartocci J., Ville- International Symposium on the Marine Mammals of the neuve J.P., Catinni C., Coquery M., Azemard S., Horvat Black Sea (Istanbul, Turkey, 27-30 June 1994). ACAR M., Wade T., Daurova Y., Topping G., Mee L.D. 1999. Matbaacilik A.S., Istanbul, 120 p. The Black Sea: A comprehensive survey of contamina- Madhusree B., Tanabe S., Öztürk A.A., Tatsukawa R., tion. Pp. 171-252 in: L.D. Mee and G. Topping (Eds.), Miyazaki N., Özdamar E., Aral O., Samsun O., Öztürk Black Sea pollution assessment. UN Publ., New York, B. 1997. Contamination by butyltin compounds in har- 380 p. bour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) from the Black Sea. Rodin N.I., Lebedev V.G., Nifontov S.N., Protasov V.A., Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 359:244-248. Shkredova L.A. 1970. On the diseases of dolphins. Ve- Mazmanidi N. 1998. Physical-geographical and socio- terinaria (Moscow) N3: 65-67. (in Russian). economic profile of the Georgian Black Sea. Pp. 1-5 in: Saving the Black Sea: Programme for the Environmental A. Komakhidze and N. Mazmanidi (Comps.), Black Sea Management and Protection of the Black Sea. 1993. biological diversity: Georgia. UN Publ., New York, 167 UNEP, UNDP and World Bank, New York et al., 28 p. p. Selyunina Z.V. 2001. Cetaceans in the waters of the Chor- Mee L.D. 1992. The Black Sea in crisis: A need for con- nomorsky Biosphere Reserve. Pp. 14-15 in: A.A. certed international action. Ambio 21(4):278-286. Birkun, Jr., S.I. Gubar, V.I. Karamushka, S.V. Mee L.D. 1998. The Black Sea today. Pp. 1-16 in: S. Krivokhizhin and Ya.I. Movchan (Eds.), Marine mam- Hobson, L.D. Mee and S. Morgan (Eds.), The Black Sea mals in the waters of Ukraine (Proc. Workshop on the in crisis (Proc. 2nd Internat. Symp. “Religion, Science research and conservation of Black Sea cetaceans and and Environment”, Trabzon – Thessaloniki, 20-28 Sep needs assessment for the accession of Ukraine to AC- 1997). World Scientific, Singapore, 262 p. COBAMS, Kiev, Ukraine, 30 Mar 2001). Andriivsky Mee L.D., Topping G. (Eds.) 1999. Black Sea Pollution As- Publ. Center, Kiev, 44 p. (in Ukrainian). sessment. UN Publ., New York, 380 p. Silantyev A.A. 1903. Black Sea Coast of the Caucasus in Mikhailov V. 1999. Assessment of the state of impact zones Agricultural and Commercial Respects. Issue 1. Dol- and shelf areas of Ukraine. Pp. 263-275 in: L.D. Mee phins Fishery off the Caucasian Coasts. Department of and G. Topping (Eds.), Black Sea pollution assessment. Agriculture, S.-Peterbourg, 61 p. (in Russian). UN Publ., New York, 380 p. Sorokin Yu.I. 1982. The Black Sea: Nature and resources. Mordukhay -Boltovskoy F.D. 1972. General characteristics Nauka, Moscow, 217 p. (in Russian). of the fauna of the Black and Azov Seas. Pp. 316-324 in: Strategic Action Plan for the Rehabilitation and Protection V.A. Vodyanitsky (Ed.), Identification manual on the of the Black Sea. 1996. PCU GEF BSEP, Istanbul, 29 p. fauna of the Black and Azov Seas, Vol. 3. Naukova Svetasheva S.K., Egorov V.N., Gulin M.B., Zherko N.V. Dumka, Kiev, 340 p. (in Russian). 1992. Transformation of mercury physicochemical vari- Morozova N.N. 1981. Contemporary state of Black Sea dol- ants and their distribution in aerobic and anaerobic zones phins populations. Rybnoye Khozyaystvo N4:45-46. (in of the Black Sea. Pp. 108-122 in: G.G. Polikarpov (Ed.), Russian). Molysmology of the Black Sea. Naukova dumka, Kiev, Mutlu E., Bingel F., Gücü A.C., Melnikov V.V., Niermann 304 p. (in Russian). U., Ostr N.A., Zaika V.E. 1994. Distribution of the new Tanabe S., Madhusree B., Öztürk A.A., Tatsukawa R., Mi- invader Mnemiopsis sp. and the resident Aurelia aurita yazaki N., Özdamar E., Aral O., Samsun O., Öztürk B. and Pleurobrachia pileus populations in the Black Sea 1997 a. Persistent organochlorine residues in harbour in the years 1991-1993. ICES J. Mar. Sci., 51:407-421. porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) from the Black Sea. Osvath I., Egorov V. 1999. Radionuclides in the Black Sea. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 34(5):338-347. Pp. 103-109 in: L.D. Mee and G. Topping (Eds.), Black Tanabe S., Madhusree B., Öztürk A.A., Tatsukawa R., Mi- Sea pollution assessment. UN Publ., New York, 380 p. yazaki N., Özdamar E., Aral O., Samsun O., Öztürk B. Öztürk B. (Ed.) 1996. Proceedings of the First International 1997 b. Isomer-specific analysis of polychlorinated bi- Symposium on the Marine Mammals of the Black Sea phenyls in harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) from (Istanbul, Turkey, 27-30 Jun 1994). ACAR Matbaacilik the Black Sea. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 34(9):712-720. A.S., Istanbul, 120 p. Topping G., Mee L.D., Sarikaya H. 1999. Land-based Öztürk B. (Comp.) 1999. Black Sea Biological Diversity: sources of contamination to the Black Sea. Pp. 33-54 in: Turkey. UN Publ., New York, 144 p. L.D. Mee and G. Topping (Eds.), Black Sea pollution Öztürk B., Öztürk A.A. 1997. Preliminary study on dolphin assessment. UN Publ., New York, 380 p. occurrence in Turkish straits system. Pp. 79-82 in: Trotsyuk V.Ya., Berlin Yu.M., Bolshakov A.M. 1988. Oxy- P.G.H. Evans, E.C.M. Parsons and S.L. Clark (Eds.), gen in the nearbottom waters of the Black Sea. Okeano- European research on cetaceans – 11 (Proc. 11th Annual logia 302(4):961-964. (in Russian). Conf. European Cetacean Society, Stralsund, Germany, Tuncer G., Karakas T., Balkas T.I., Gökçay C.F., Aygun S., 10-12 Mar 1997). ECS, Kiel, 314 p. Yurteri C., Tuncel G. 1998. Land-based sources of pol- lution along the Black Sea coast of Turkey: Concentra-

Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – 8.12 tions and annual loads to the Black Sea. Mar. Pollut. contamination of the Black Sea. Pp. 83-102 in: L.D. Bull. 36(6):409-423 Mee and G. Topping (Eds.), Black Sea pollution as- Vakulovsky S., Nikitin A., Chumichev V., Katrich I., Voit- sessment. UN Publ., New York, 380 p. sekhovich O., Medinets V., Pisarev V., Bovkun L., Zaitsev Yu.P. 1992. Recent changes in the trophic structure Khersonsky E. 1994. Caesium-137 and strontium-90 of the Black Sea. Fish. Oceanogr. 1(2):180-189. contamination of water bodies in the areas affected by Zaitsev Yu.P. 1993. Impact of eutrophication on the Black releases from the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant acci- Sea fauna. FAO Studies and Reviews 64:63-86. dent: An overview. J. Environ. Radioactivity 23:103- Zaitsev Yu. 1998. The Most Blue in the World. UN Publ., 122. New York, 142 p. (in Russian). Van Beneden T.J. 1892. La Mer Noire et ses Cetaces vivants Zaitsev Yu.P. 1999. Eutrophication on the Black Sea and its et fossiles. In: Proc. Congr. Intern. Zool., Deuxieme major consequences. Pp. 57-67 in: L.D. Mee and G. sess., Moscou, Prem. part, 1892 (cited according to Topping (Eds.), Black Sea pollution assessment. UN Kleinenberg 1956). Publ., New York, 380 p. Van Waerebeek K., André M., Sequeira M., Martín V., Zaitsev Yu.P., Alexandrov B.G. (Comps.) 1998. Black Sea Robineau D., Collet A., Papastavrou V., Ndiaye E. Biological Diversity: Ukraine. UN Publ., New York, 1999. Spatial and temporal distribution of the minke 351 p. whale, Balaenoptera acutorostrata (Lacépède 1804), in Zaitsev Yu.P., Ansupova L.V., Vorob'eva L.V., Garkavaya the southern northeast and the Mediter- G.P., Kulakova I.I., Rusnak E.M. 1987. Nematodes in ranean Sea, with reference to stock identity. J. Cetacean the deep zone of the Black Sea. Doklady AN UkrSSR, Res. Manage. 1(3):223-237. Ser. B, N11:77-79. (in Ukrainian). Vinogradov M.E. 1996.Contemporary state of the ecosystem Zaitsev Yu., Mamaev V. 1997. Marine Biological Diversity of the Black Sea open and changes in the food in the Black Sea: A Study of Change and Decline. base of dolphins. Pp. 11-12 in: B. Öztürk (Ed.), Proceed- United Nations Publ., New-York, 208 p. ings of the First International Symposium on the Marine Zalkin V.I. 1940 a. The data on biology of Azov and Black Mammals of the Black Sea (Istanbul, Turkey, 27-30 Sea harbour porpoise (Phocaena phocaena relicta June 1994). ACAR Matbaacilik A.S., Istanbul, 120 p. Abel). Zoologichesky Zhurnal 19(1):160-171. (in Rus- Vinogradov M.E., Shushkina E.A., Musaeva E.I., Sorokin sian). Yu.P. 1989. Ctenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi (A. Agassiz) Zalkin V.I. 1940 b. Certain observations on biology of Azov (, Lobata) - new settler in the Black Sea. and Black Sea dolphins. Bull. Moskovskogo Ob- Oceanology 29(20):293-299. shchestva Ispytateley Prirody (Biol. Div.) 49(1):61-70. Vinogradov S.A., Shapunov V.M., Matisheva S.K. 1971. (in Russian). Acute gastric ulcers in Black Sea dolphins. Proc. Cri- Zenkevich L.A. 1963. Biology of the USSR Seas. USSR mean Medical Institute 46:147-149. (in Russian). Acad. Science Publ. House, Moscow, 739 p. (in Rus- Vylkanov A., Danov Kh., Marinov Kh., Vladev P. (Comp.) sian). 1983. The Black Sea. Hydrometeoizdat, Leningrad, 408 Zhgenti D. 1998. Microflora. Pp. 37-39 in: A. Komakhidze p. (in Russian). and N. Mazmanidi (Comps.), Black Sea biological di- Windom H.L., Tankéré S.P.C., Guieu C., Coquery M., versity: Georgia. UN Publ., New York, 167 p. Campbell M., Horvat M. 1999. Assessment of metal

Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – 8.13 Table 8.1. Kinds and sources of pollution in the Black Sea

Sources of pollution Kinds of pollution Stationary River Coastal Atmo s- Ships and Dolphinaria f land-based run-off b diffuse pheric fall- marine outfalls a sources c out d platforms e

Contamination with chemicals: nutrients and organic mat- + + + + + + ter oil and petroleum products + + + + + persistent organic pollu- + + + + + tants trace elements + + + + + Radioactive contami- + + nation Marine debris + + + + Biological pollution: microbe/faecal contamina- + + + + + tion introduction of exotic spe- + + cies

a – industrial liquid wastes and insufficiently treated or untreated sewage from coastal cities and settlements; b – inputs from the agriculture, industry, mining and municipal sewage from the whole Black Sea drainage area; c – inputs from the agriculture, animal husbandry and unmanaged tourism mainly through the run-off from land (coastal pluvial effluents and ground waters); d – inputs from various sources of air pollution (smokes, fumes, dust, exhaust gases) no matter where in the world; e – dumping of solid waste, explosives and dredged matter; discharge of untreated sewage and ballast waters; oil spills; lost fishing nets; introduction of alien marine organisms owing to the biofouling; f – escapes or intentional release of captive marine ma mmals; discharge of untreated pool waters.

Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – 8.14 Table 8.2. Studies on contaminants and microelements in wild Black Sea cetaceans (in chronological order)

Cetacean No. of animals Stranded / By- Period of Location of sam- Substances considered Tissues considered References species caught sampling pling Harbour 1 Unknown 1988-1990 Karkinitsky bay, Mercury Muscle, liver Svetasheva et al. (1992) porpoise Ukraine

Common 2 Stranded 1990 Crimean coast, S DDTs, S HCHs Blubber Birkun et al. (1992) dolphin Ukraine Bottlenose 2 dolphin Harbour 19 porpoise

Common 2 Stranded 1990 Crimean coast, 2,4'-DDE, 4,4'-DDE, 2,4'-DDD, Blubber Birkun et al. (1993) dolphin Ukraine 4,4'-DDD, 2,4'-DDT, 4,4'-DDT, Bottlenose 2 S DDTs, HCB, a-HCH, ß-HCH, dolphin ?-HCH, d-HCH, S HCHs Harbour 19 porpoise Harbour 36 Stranded 1990-1992 Crimean coast, Aluminum, arsenic, barium, tin, Teeth Birkun and Krivokhizhin porpoise Ukraine bismuth, boron, calcium, silver, (1993) chromium, copper, gallium, iron, lead, magnesium, sodium, man- ganese, nickel, phosphorus, silicium, strontium, titanium, vanadium, zinc, zirconium

Harbour 7 Stranded, 1993 Turkish coast Cadmium, chromium, copper, Muscle, liver, kidney, Bassari et al. (1996) porpoise by-caught zinc testis, ovary

Harbour 16 Stranded, 1993 Turkish coast 137Cæsium Muscle, liver, kidney, Güngör and Portakal porpoise by-caught genital organ (?) (1996)

Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – Page 8.15

Cetacean No. of animals Stranded / By- Period of Location of sam- Substances considered Tissues considered References species caught sampling pling Harbour 49 By-caught 1993 Eastern part of Turk- S PCBs, p,p'-DDE, p ,p'-DDD, Blubber Tanabe et al. (1997 a) porpoise ish waters p,p'-DDT, o,p'-DDT, S DDTs, a- HCH, ß-HCH, ?-HCH, S HCHs, oxychlordane, cis-chlordane, trans-chlordane, cis-nonachlor, trans-nonachlor, S CHLs, HCB

Harbour 11 By-caught 1993 Eastern part of Turk- PCB isomers and congeners, Blubber Tanabe et al. (1997 b) porpoise ish waters S PCBs

Harbour 27 By-caught 1993 Eastern part of Turk- Butyltin compounds (MBT, Liver Madhusree et al. (1997) porpoise ish waters DBT, TBT) and S BTs

Common 2 Stranded 1994 Crimean coast, Cadmium, chromium, copper, Liver, kidney, muscle Holsbeek et al. (1997) dolphin Ukraine iron, lead, mercury (total and organic), nickel, zinc, S PCBs, o,p'-DDE, p,p'-DDT, S DDTs

Common 2 Stranded 1994 Crimean coast, Cadmium, chromium, copper, Muscle, lung, liver, Birkun et al. (1999) dolphin Ukraine iron, lead, mercury (total and brain, heart, kidney, organic), nickel, selenium, zinc lymph node, testis, ovary

S PCBs, p,p'-DDE, p,p'-DDD, Blubber, muscle, o,p'-DDD, p,p'-DDT, S DDTs, a- liver, kidney HCH, lindane, heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide, aldrin, dieldrin, mirex

Common 3 By-caught 1997-1998 Ukraine (Crimea), Mercury (total and organic), Muscle, liver, blub- BLASDOL (1999) dolphin Bulgaria, Georgia PCB isomers and congeners, ber, kidney, brain Bottlenose 2 Stranded (Ajaria) S PCBs, p,p'-DDE, o,p'-DDE, dolphin p,p'-DDD, o,p'-DDD, p,p'-DDT, Harbour 84 By-caught, o,p'-DDT, S DDTs, HCB, porpoise stranded S HCHs, aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide, methoxychlor, mirex

Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – Page 8.16

Cetacean No. of animals Stranded / By- Period of Location of sam- Substances considered Tissues considered References species caught sampling pling Harbour 4 By-caught, 1993 Western part of Turk- Mercury (inorganic and organic) Muscle, skin, fat, Readman et al. (1999) porpoise stranded ish waters liver, kidney, testis, vibrissae Harbour 46 By-caught 1997-1998 Crimean coast, Cadmium, chromium, copper, Liver, kidney, muscle Das et al. (2001) porpoise Ukraine iron, lead, nickel, selenium, zinc Harbour 74 By-caught 1997-1998 Ukraine (Crimea), Mercury (total and organic) Liver, kidney, brain, Joiris et al. (2001) porpoise 5 Stranded Bulgaria, Georgia muscle, blubber

Bottlenose 17 By-caught, 1996-1999 Russia (Black Sea Cadmium, chromium, copper, Liver, kidney, mus- Glazov and Zhulidov dolphin stranded coast) lead, manganese, mercury (total cle, skin (epidermis) (2001) Harbour 13 Russia (Black Sea and organic), selenium, zinc porpoise and Azov Sea coast)

Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – Page 8.17

Fig. 8.1. (after Zaitsev and Mamaev 1997) and a list of twenty two Basin’s countries – potential contributors to Black Sea pollution via their river run-off.

Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – Page 8.18

Fig. 8.2. Main land-based sources and hot spots of pollution in the Black Sea subregion (after the Black Sea Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis 1997, Bilyavsky et al. 1998, Kerestecioglu et al. 1998, Mee and Topping 1999). The surficial sea currents are pictured after Vylkanov et al. (1983).

1 Tsarevo 17 2 Sozopol 18 Novorossiysk 3 Bourgas 19 Gelendzhik 4 Varna 20 Dzhoubga 5 Balchik 21 Sochi 6 Mangalia 22 Poti 7 Constantza and Mamaia 23 Batumi 8 Odessa and Ilyichevsk 24 Trabzon 9 Krasnoperekopsk 25 Giresun 10 Evpatoria 26 Ordu 11 Sevastopol 27 Samsun 12 Yalta 28 Bafra 13 Kerch 29 Gerze 14 30 Zonguldak 15 Taganrog 31 Eregli 16 Rostov-na-Donu 32 Istanbul

Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – Page 8.19

Top View