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University of Oklahoma Graduate College UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA GRADUATE COLLEGE RACE, ENVIRONMENT, AND MASCULINITY IN RICHMOND’S WWII SHIPYARDS A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE FACULTY In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS By ALISTAIR WILLIAM FORTSON Norman, Oklahoma 2018 RACE, ENVIRONMENT, AND MASCULINITY IN RICHMOND’S WWII SHIPYARDS A THESIS APPROVED FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY BY _______________________________ Dr. David Wrobel _______________________________ Dr. Kathleen Brosnan _______________________________ Dr. Robert Griswold © Copyright by ALISTAIR WILLIAM FORTSON 2018 All Rights Reserved. TO MY FRIENDS, FAMILY, AND COLLEAGUES IN THE STATES AND ABROAD TO THE FOUR FORTSONS – AND THE FIFTH IN MEMORY OF MS. LIZ COLE WITH GRATITUDE TO THE MERRICK FAMILY ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My first order of business is to express my heartfelt thanks to my thesis committee. Dr. David Wrobel, an excellent advisor, impeccably detailed scholar, and the constant provider of helpful feedback, even when his attention was drawn to a hundred pressing issues, was essential at every point of the thesis’s construction since my arrival in Oklahoma. He also became a personal friend, and more than just the academic thesis would have never made it through a graduate program without his genuine concern and help along the way. My heartfelt thanks go to Dr. Kathleen Brosnan, for her help and encouragement in the creation and direction of the first chapter and for encouraging me to pursue its publication. Many thanks to Dr. Robert Griswold for his willingness to be a member of the thesis committee, and for his helpful scholarship on the WWII homefront. Dr. Elyssa Faison also deserves a mention for both her seminar help and her understanding. Dr. Anne Hyde, who arrived at the university the same semester I did, offered much feedback on the second chapter, was an excellent resource on multiple occasions, and is a remarkable person. Thank you to Dr. Lydia Gerber and Dr. Lawrence Hatter for advising me through my undergraduate studies at Washington State and for leading the seminar classes where this research first took shape. I am indebted to the archival staff at the Bancroft Library Archives at UC Berkeley for their assistance and prompt responses to my questions. Thanks also to the archival staff at Holland and Terrell, as well as MASC director Dr. Bond. Thank you to Lipi and Doug for your help and for giving me the opportunity to work on the Kimble Collection digitization project. Thank you to the Writing Center professional staff, especially Lisa and Brooklyn, and to all my fellow tutors and teachers for three amazing iv years of hard work and growth. Thank you to Dr. Josh Sides and the editorial staff at California History for all your help, editing suggestions, and general willingness to assist me in polishing the prose and developing the argument of the article that has become Chapter 1. Melinda McCrary at the Richmond Museum offered helpful archival assistance and greatly enhanced my own grasp of the wartime period and the effect of the Kaiser Shipyards on the region and the lasting impacts of the 1940s – and although I have not yet taken up the offer to dress up as a “Brosie” to take part in the world record attempt, I appreciate all the assistance provided. Thank you to the crew of the USS Red Oak Victory, a floating museum moored at the edge of a former shipyard, and a fixture of my time in the Bay Area – keep up the good work, and hopefully I will be able to be on board when she sails again. I owe much gratitude to the memory of my late great grandfather Howard Anthony Fortson and to my granduncle Dale Bors, who continues to serve in other ways, for their willingness to serve this country in time of need. Deepest thanks to the Merrick Family Foundation for your generous financial assistance in my academic career, and for sponsoring me personally through the program. I am also grateful to Leroy Meyers for being a great friend during my time here, and for commentary and editing suggestions above and beyond the call of duty. Everyone’s help has made this thesis stronger; any errors in the document are mine. v TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv LIST OF FIGURES vii ABSTRACT viii INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER 1 13 INJUSTICE ON THE HOME FRONT: ENVIRONMENT, RACE, AND WORLD WAR II SHIPYARD PRODUCTION CHAPTER 2 63 VETERANS OF INDUSTRY: MEN AND MASCULINITY IN “ROSIE THE RIVETER’S” WORLD CODA 103 THE 1946 GENERAL STRIKE CONCLUSION 128 BIBLIOGRAPHY 138 vi LIST OF FIGURES Fig. 1 13 J. A. McVittie. Front cover of “An Avalanche Hits Richmond: A Report by the City Manager, City of Richmond, California August 15, 1944.” delivered to Col. Alexander R. Heron, State Reconstruction and Reemployment Commission, Sacramento, CA. Richmond History Museum Research Room, “Shipyards,” shelf 3. Fig. 2 63 “Ships for Victory.” End piece to an advertising flyer for the Richmond Shipyards titled “Serve Your Country and Yourself: Help Build War Winning Ships at Richmond California.” Box 288, Folder 3, Henry J. Kaiser Papers BANC MSS 83/42 c. The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley. Fig. 3 74 Bob Lawrence, “Well—Mr. Smarty”, hand-drawn cartoon in the manual given to shipyard employees, page 81. Kaiser Co. Inc. Richmond Shipyard Number Three. Box 288, Folder 22. Henry J. Kaiser Papers BANC MSS 83/42 c. The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley. Fig. 4 74 Bob Lawrence, Unnamed cartoon of a worker’s wife reading the Fore’n’Aft magazine provided to each worker bi-weekly with their paychecks. Kaiser Co. Inc. Richmond Shipyard Number Three, Box 288, Folder 22. Henry J. Kaiser Papers BANC MSS 83/42 c. The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley. Fig. 5 103 Text Caption from exhibit: “A gender and racial mix of striking employees and their supporters from other unions form a picket line in front of Kahn's Department Store, November 1946.” Marcia Eymann, Charles Wollenberg, and Fred Glass. We Called it a Work Holiday: the 1946 Oakland General Strike. A special exhibit of the Oakland Museum of California, Strikes and Lockouts. Oakland, California. Accessed through the University of California Library. Berkeley: University of California Library Archives, 1996. Electronically published June 2011. Local UID 1996.001.16. vii ABSTRACT The Kaiser company shipyards in Richmond, California, the largest shipyards in the world for the duration of World War II, employed workers from across America and from around the world. New technological advances and hiring practices meant women, alongside African Americans and Indigenous persons, entered heavy industry work in large numbers and earned wages far higher than those available before. These circumstances have been portrayed in the popular history of the United States as a part of the ‘Good War’ ideal, where all worked together for common goals, and Kaiser’s company advertised using these slogans. However, the ‘Good War’ framework elides the environmental damage, toxicity to land, water, and human bodies, and lasting racial segregation resulting from industrial production in Richmond. Unions in the region continued to segregate their local chapters, limited minorities from theoretically unsegregated federal housing projects, and prevented minority workers from voting in union matters. White men in the shipyards, who saw themselves as patriots and soldiers of production in the war against fascism and racism abroad, nonetheless felt threatened by female and minority ‘usurpers’ to their traditional role as industrial workers. Executives encouraged these men to confirm their masculinity outside of the military, through the use of patriotic symbolism, patriarchal leadership, and sports. This thesis thus demonstrates the paradoxical impact of social forces, including the mythical conceptions of the West and a desire, on the part of women and racial minorities, to defeat Nazism abroad and racism and sexism at home. The yards closed in 1945, and despite the cooperation of diverse former workers, the failed General Strike of 1946 illustrates racial animus that continues to affect residents of Richmond today. viii Keywords: Race, Environment, Environmental Justice, WWII, Kaiser, Shipyard, Good War, Masculinity, Soldier of Production, Fatherhood, Marriage, Sports, Redlining, Segregation, African Americans, Indigenous People, Emigration, Labor Relations. ix INTRODUCTION Richmond, California, a small industrial city north of Oakland and east of San Francisco, expanded from a pre-WWII population of 23,000 to more than one hundred thousand residents by 1942. Migrants to the area from all over the United States, and particularly from the South-Central West – most notably Oklahoma, Texas, Kansas, Arkansas, Missouri, Mississippi, and Louisiana – arrived by the thousands. In fact, in- migration of African American people to the West Coast of California outpaced minority migration to the region in any previous period. Urban areas such as the San Francisco Bay, San Diego, and the urban areas of Seattle and Portland in the Pacific Northwest grew by the largest margins. Wartime development in these areas, and Richmond in particular, stemmed from the growth of federal defense industries in the West. The Kaiser Richmond Shipyards, the largest shipyard complex in the world for the duration of World War II, catalyzed this growth in the East Bay. The city of Richmond deserves further study during this period because of its status as a fairly minor municipality on the outskirts of an urban area that would soon encompass both some of the richest and also some of the most polluted industrial landscapes in America. The production in WWII was not the first significant metal- hulled shipbuilding in the Bay of note in the modern era; that had centered in San Francisco. The U.S. Navy, alongside private firms, had settled their shipyards in the deep natural harbor of San Francisco Bay, an area of water covering 1600 square miles (a third larger again than Rhode Island).
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